The Papua New Guinea University of Technology

Department of Surveying and Land Studies

CM126 Construction Surveying

TOPIC ONE (1): LEVELLING SURVEYS

Lecture 1

Background

What is surveying?

 Surveying is the art of determining horizontal distances, differences in

elevation, directions, angles, locations, areas and volumes on or near the
surface of the earth.
 Surveying comprises of field work – measuring and collecting data and office
work – computing (i.e. data analysis) and drawing

 Surveys are done for the purposes of;

1. Establishing the boundaries of land; only professional registered surveyors
can establish land boundaries
2. Providing information necessary to the construction of engineering works.
Surveying supports all construction activities and infrastructure engineering
in both urban and rural environments.
3. Portraying land and water forms for purposes of navigation, mining
construction and general use. It is used in mapping and monitoring of the
natural environment
• Therefore, we can say the services of professional surveyors include; defining land
boundaries, engineering and mining surveying, offshore surveys, digital mapping,
precise positioning and property development

The different Discipline of Surveying

There are different disciplines of surveying;

1. Cadastral / Land surveying - involves measuring and determining property

boundaries. These are surveys undertaken to define and record the boundary of
properties, legislative area and even countries.

2. Engineering Surveying - These are surveys undertaken to provide special

information for construction of civil engineering and building projects. This
includes general engagement in the building and civil construction industries
undertaking measurements and place marks to ensure construction works such as
buildings, roads, bridges, tunnels and various other forms of infrastructure are built
in accordance with the approved design plans.

3. Mining Surveying – These are surveys involved in the planning, construction and
operation of various types of mines.
 4. Hydrographic (Bathymetric) surveying – These surveys involves undertaking
measurements in the marine environment such as mapping out the coast lines and
sea bed, harbours, rivers and on the adjacent shorelines. Using sonar scanners
surveyors are able to provide a picture of the sea bed - enabling the discovery of
shipwrecks and other objects lost at sea. From these measurements taken from the
sonar scanner, they are able to prepare charts or navigational charts of waterways
and the sea for use by ships and boats to ensure a safe passage and for the design of
infrastructure such as docks and jetties in ports and harbours. It is also used for off
shore oil exploration and production, design, construction and maintenance of
harbours, inland water routes, river and sea defence, pollution control and ocean
studies.
5. Geodetic Surveying – involves very precise measurements to determine the shape
and size of the curvature of the earth and tracks the movement of continents hence it
involves advanced mathematical theory and therefore precise measurements are
required to be made. These measurements are used in the monitoring of sea level
rise, earthquakes, and the tracking of satellites. Geodetic surveyors are involved in
the development of coordinate systems and datums which are used in the
production of maps and plans. Geodetic survey stations can be used to map out
entire continent, measure the size and shape of the earth or in carrying out scientific
studies such as determination of the Earth’s magnetic field and direction of
continental drifts.

6. Photogrammetry or Remote Sensing - Photogrammetry and remote sensing is

used to map large areas and determine changes in the world over time. It involves
taking measurements of the world via photography or other wavelength bands such
as infrared or ultraviolet. Measurements may come from sources such as terrestrial
or aerial photography, unmanned aerial vehicle (drone) or satellite imagery. Special
softwares such as ArcGIS, Erdas Imagine etc. are used to analyze these large data

7. Topographic Surveying (Tachometry/Detailed surveying) - These are surveys

where the physical features on the earth are measured and maps/plans are prepared
to show their relative positions both horizontally and vertically. The relative
positions and shape of natural and man –made features over an area are established
usually for the purpose of producing a map of the area of for establishing
geographical information system.

So why is surveying important in Construction?

 A land survey helps in construction as it signifies the area of land which is meant for the
construction of a building over a land.

 It records all vital features and measurements which, is processed during the survey. That
recorded information is further helpful for the construction project.
 It ensures the sustainability of the building because, after a land survey, you can clearly
start a construction project on the right lot of land without legal implications on land title

 A land survey before a construction saves the wastage of time and money because it
clarifies a significant lot of land on which the construction can be started.

 It is helpful before the construction project to mark the area for drainage, sewerage, road
level, curb level, water line, and much more.

 It is beneficial prior to any construction process because vertical references for columns
and walls can be easily set up.

 It clarifies the land for the construction that is free from obstructions like elevated land,
slopes, and uneven level of the ground.

1.0 Introduction to Levelling

Levelling is the process of determining the difference in elevation between two or

more points on the earth's surface. It is of particular importance to engineering
works, both in the design stages and during construction operations.

The process of determining this difference in elevation is known as LEVELLING.

Therefore levelling is a process used in determining variations in altitude/ heights of

specific points relative to a datum.

For many reasons the difference in elevation between known points is required. This may
simply be for mapping the landform, for design of drainage system or for setting out
building foundation, etc.

Various methods that can be used to determine this difference in elevation are;

i. Barometric levelling - Barometric Heighting is the determination of

differences in height based on the premise that atmospheric pressure
decreases as altitude increases. The difference in atmospheric pressure is
obtained by using an aneroid barometer. This method is suitable for
exploratory surveys where portability, compactness and time are important
considerations, and a high degree of accuracy is not required, although
careful observation can obtain results of the order of ±0.1m.

ii. Trigonometric heighting - Trigonometrical heighting is the determination

of difference in height by measuring vertical angles and distances. The
term often relates to long sights where allowance must be made for the
curvature of the earth. To obtain an accurate difference in height between
the two points, it is essential that both the distance and the vertical angle is
 measured from both the observation station to the target station and from
the target station to the observation station.

iii. Tacheometry – a method of angular surveying in which a tachometer/

Theodolite is used to determine the horizontal and vertical distance
between two points. It is a system of rapid surveying, by which the
horizontal and vertical positions of the points on the earth’s surface
relative to one another are determined without using a chain or tape, or a
separate levelling instrument. The principle of tacheometer is based on the
property of isosceles triangles, where the ratio of distance of the base from
apex and length of the base is always constant. Thus, after computing the
vertical distance value, the reduced level of the instrument station (R.L.),
the height of the instrument (H.I.), central wire reading (R), and the R.L.
of any point under observation can be calculated.

iv. Photogrammetry – to determine the heights using Photogrammetry the

following in needs to be determine;

 The size of the camera's sensor, also known as the film format.
 The focal length of the lens used to take the image.
 The distance between the camera and the object.
 The angle at which the camera was pointed at the object.
 The height of the object above a known reference point, such as the
ground.

Once you have these variables, you can use specialized software to
process the image and determine the height of the object. Keep in mind
that the accuracy of the measurement will depend on the quality of the
image and the precision of the variables used. Additionally, the height of
the object will be determined in the scale of the image, the image will
need to be georeferenced.

v. Satellite geodesy (GPS) - Height can be measured in two ways. The GPS
uses height (h) above the reference ellipsoid that approximates the earth's
surface. The traditional, orthometric height (H) is the height above an
imaginary surface called the geoid, which is determined by the earth's
gravity and approximated by Mean Sea Level. The signed difference
between the two heights—the difference between the ellipsoid and
geoid—is the geoid height (N).

vi. Spirit levelling - Spirit levelling is any means of levelling that uses a spirit
level (bubble), similar to the bubble in a carpenter’s level, as part of the
procedure. It is the term usually applied to the traditional use of level and
staff in obtaining differences in height. The term Differential Levelling is
also used to describe the same process. The telescope of a level provides a
horizontal line (line of collimation or a line of sight). The heights of points
 are determined by measuring downwards from this line, by sighting on to
a graduated staff held on each point in turn.

If R is the reading on the staff, the difference in level between points A and B is:

h = RA - RB

The level provides a horizontal line, not a level line, but the difference between the
two is insignificant for sights of less than 150m. The difference is cancelled if sights
are of equal length.

1.1 Definitions

Before proceeding to description of principles, equipment, etc, involved in levelling the

following terms and definitions should be fully understood.

Level Datum or the Ordnance Datum;- is the datum to which all the heights shown on
maps are referred. This datum line is the Mean Sea Level (MSL).

Bench Mark (BM);- is a stable reference point the reduced level of which has been
determined by precise levelling. Such a point will have been installed and leveled by
Lands department or National Mapping Bureau (NMB).

Temporary Bench Mark (TBM):- is a semi-permanent mark set up by a surveyor for

his/her own use on a project. The reduced level of the mark is determined by levelling
from known bench mark (BM).

Permanent Survey Mark (PSM):- is a particular type of bench mark usually a brass
domed in shape plug set in concrete and registered with the Lands department. The PSM
can also be deep driven iron pi in concrete.

Level Surface: - is a surface that is everywhere at right angle to the direction of the earth
gravity.

Assumed Datum: - Such a datum is used where it is inconvenient or impossible to relate

the work in to the ordinance datum (M.S.L.).
 The terms used in Levelling operations;

Reduced Level (RL): - is the height of a point or object stated with reference to the
adopted datum for the work in hand e.g. the height of mountain is 1,200m relative to
mean sea level (MSL). The 1,200m is the reduced level (RL) of the mountaintop.

Back sights (BS):- is the first sight or reading taken after the instrument (level) has been
set up. The sight is taken to a point whose RL is known, has been assumed or can be
calculated.

Fore sights (FS):- is the last sight or reading taken during levelling operations before
the instrument is moved at the end of operations.

Intermediate sights (IS):- is any sight or reading taken between BS and FS.

Change Point (CP):- is an arbitrary point which enables the levelling to continue from a
new instrument position. It is often termed a turning point (TP).

1.2 Principle of Spirit Levelling

The principle of levelling can be illustrated by taking the simplest possible case. This is
where the difference in elevation is required between two points A & B
which are visible from some intermediate point.

A level is set up half way between the points to define a horizontal line (refer to fig. 1).

The difference in elevation of the two points is then simply the difference between the
vertical distances of A & B from this horizontal line.

This difference is determined by taking the difference of readings taken to a staff held
vertically on A and then on B.
The procedure is then as follows:

i. Set up the level half way between A & B to define the horizontal reference line.
ii. Take a staff reading on A, then on B.
iii. The difference in elevation is the difference in readings.

Example: Staff reading at A = 5.391

Staff reading at B = 1.748

Difference in elevation = Staff reading A – Staff reading B

= 5.391 – 1.748 = 3.643

Point B is 3.643m above point A.

Note that these observations have determined only the difference in elevation of A and B.
A reduced level value for point B could only be determined if a reduced level exist in
point A.

The above case can be repeated almost indefinitely to determine the elevation difference
of points any distance apart.

The procedure to find the difference in elevation between points A and B is as follows;

i. Setup the level at 1 a suitable distance from A and read the staff at A.

This sighting is known as Back Sight (BS) since the observer is sighting back to
the starting point. Similarly for sighting 2- CP1 and 3 - CP2.

In most case the distance A – 1 should not be greater than 100m, preferably about
80m. In the hilly area this distance will be determined by the slope of the terrain
or ground (if A is sighted from too far up the slope, the line of sight will be above
the staff).
ii. The staff man then moves forward such that distance A – 1 equals 1 – CP2. Here
he/she select a definite stable point to which a staff reading is taken. This reading
is known as Fore Sight (FS).
iii. The procedure is then repeated until point B is reached. The points CP1 and CP2
are known as Change Points (CP).

In the event that the staff man cannot find a stable mark to act as change point, he
may drive in a peg or use a change plate. It is only a temporary mark and is
removed as soon as the surveyor has taken a back sight to it.

iv. To compute the difference in elevation between A and B from the observations
made, use the algebraic sum of the elevation differences A – CP1, CP1 – CP2 and
CP2 – B.

An increase in elevation is referred to as Rise and is positive quantity, while a

decrease in elevation is referred to as Fall and is a negative quantity.

Fig. 3 is a plan of a level traverse between two benchmarks BM1 and BM2, while 1, 2
and 3 are instrument stations.
CP1 and CP2 are change points.
C, D, E and F are extra points of detail for which reduced levels are required.

The recording of the observations would be as follows;

1 – BM1, 2 - CP1 and 3 – CP2 are back sights (BS).

1 – CP1, 2 – CP2 and 3 – CP2 are fore sights (FS).
2 – C, 2 – D, 2 – E and 3 – F are intermediate sights (IS).

v. Inverted Staff Reading (Observations)

It will be necessary to record a negative staff reading when the point to levelled is above
the horizontal line of sight. This may occur if the reduced level of the roof of a mine or
railway tunnel or underside of a over head bridge is to be found.
 Example: Refer to fig.4

Rise CD = staff C – staff D = 3.141 – (- 2.956) = 6.097

Another case example:

The reduced level (RL) of the 10th floor of a High Rise is required and you cannot use
automatic level to climb the building.

Set up your level on the ground relative to a BM and drop a line down from the window
of the 10th Floor which has to be vertical.

Read and note BS to BM then sight to the dropped line and mark the centre hair intercept
on the vertical line clearly with a flag tape.

Lay out the line carefully on a flat surface and use a 30m tape and measure the length of
the line to the flag tape.
If the length sums up to 53.5m take it as an inverted staff reading and apply above
formula to find the level up there. Make sure you need to minus the height of the window
to be correct.
This is just another way of inverted staff reading in getting RLs.

In leveling your accuracy will depend a lot on you the surveyor in your understand leveling
principles and the care and approach you apply in your field work.