COLLEGE AND ADVANCED ALGEBRA

Prepared by: Mr. Vince William A. Cabotaje, LPT

Top 2, LEPT January 2022

Real Number System

Basic Operation

Addition: Addend + Addend = Sum

Subtraction: Minuend – Subtrahend = Difference
Multiplication: Multiplicand × Multiplier = Product
Division: Dividend ÷ Divisor = Quotient

Factors and Multiples

Factor- is the number than evenly divide the given number and do not leave a remainder.

Determine the factors of 12.

 Multiple- is the number get after multiplying the given number by an integer.

Determine the multiples of 4.

Take note!

GCF (Greatest Common Factor)

The highest number that divides exactly into two or more numbers. It is simply the largest of the common
factors.

LCM (Least Common Multiple)

Multiple in this context is used for integers. LCM refers to the smallest number that two or more numbers
will divide without remainder.

Prime and Composites

Prime – is a number whose only factors are 1 and itself.

• The largest prime number before 100 is 97.

• The largest prime number before 110 is 109.
• The largest prime number before 200 is 199.
• There are 25 prime numbers from 1 to 100.
• There are 168 prime numbers from 1 to 1000.
 Prime Factorization – process of expressing a number as a product of its prime factors.

Composite – is a number that has more than two factors.

REVIEW…
Algebraic Expressions
Algebraic expressions such as
2𝑥, 8𝑥𝑦, 3𝑥𝑦 2 , −4𝑎2 𝑏3 𝑐, and 𝑧
are called terms. A term is an indicated product that may have any number of factors. The variables involved in a term
are called literal factors, and the numerical factor is called the numerical coefficient.
Example: 8𝑥𝑦 𝑥 and 𝑦 are literal factors
8 is the numerical coefficient
Similar Terms
Terms that have the same literal factors are called similar terms or like terms.
Example: 3𝑥 and 14𝑥 7𝑥𝑦 and −9𝑥𝑦
Simplifying Algebraic Expressions
We simplify algebraic expressions by combining similar terms.
Example: 7𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 9𝑥 + 6𝑦 = 7𝑥 + 9𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 6𝑦
= 16𝑥 + 8𝑦

More examples:

Evaluating Algebraic Expression

To evaluate an algebraic expression means to find the value of the expression when the variable is replaced
by a given number. To evaluate an expression, we substitute the given number for the variable in the
expression and then simplify the expression using the order of operations.

Evaluate: 𝑓(𝑛) = 2𝑛3 − 1 for n = 2

𝑓(2) = 2(2)3 − 1 = 2(8) − 1 = 16 − 1
𝑓(2) = 15

More examples:
Rationalizing Radical Expression
Rationalizing the denominator means to perform some operations to remove the radicals from the
denominator.

2
Simplify:
3+√3

2 3 − √3
= ∙
3 + √3 3 − √3
2(3 − √3) 2(3 − √3)
= =
9 − √9 9−3

2(3 − √3)
=
6
3 − √3
=
3

More examples:
Linear Equation in One Variable
A linear equation in one variable (here 𝑥) is an equation that can be written in the form
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0
where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers and 𝑎 ≠ 0.
Example: 𝑥 + 1 = −2
A linear equation is a first-degree equation because the greatest power on the variable is 1.
Solution of the Equation
If the variable in an equation can be replaced by a real number that makes the statement true, then that
number is a solution of the equation.
Example: In the equation 𝑥 − 3 = 5, we can conclude that 8 is a solution since if we replace 𝑥 with 8,
the statement will be true.
Solving a Linear Equation in One Variable
Step Description Example
• Use the distributive property as
2(𝑥 − 5) + 3𝑥 = 𝑥 + 6
Simplify each side needed.
2𝑥 − 10 + 3𝑥 = 𝑥 + 6
separately • Clear any parenthesis.
5𝑥 − 10 = 𝑥 + 6
• Combine like terms.
• Use the addition property of
5𝑥 − 10 − 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 6 − 𝑥
equality so that all terms with
Isolate the variable 4𝑥 − 10 = 6
variables are on one side of the
terms on one side. 4𝑥 − 10 + 10 = 6 + 10
equation and all constants
4𝑥 = 16
(numbers) are on the other side.
Use the multiplication property of 4𝑥 16
equality to obtain an equation that has =
Isolate the variable. 4 4
just the variable with coefficient 1 on
𝑥=4
one side.

Fractional Equations
Ratio
A ratio is the comparison of two numbers by division. We often use the fractional form to express ratios.
𝑎
For example, we can write the ratio of 𝑎 to 𝑏 as 𝑏 .

Proportion
𝑎 𝑐
A statement of equality between two ratios is called a proportion. Thus, if and are two equal ratios, we
𝑏 𝑑
𝑎 𝑐
can form the proportion 𝑏 = 𝑑 (𝑏 ≠ 0 and 𝑑 ≠ 0).
 Cross-Multiplication Property of Proportions
𝑎 𝑐
If 𝑏 = 𝑑 (𝑏 ≠ 0 and 𝑑 ≠ 0), then 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐.

5 7
Example: Solve =
𝑥+6 𝑥−5

Solution:
5 7
=
𝑥+6 𝑥−5
5(𝑥 − 5) = 7(𝑥 + 6)
5𝑥 − 25 = 7𝑥 + 42
−67 = 2𝑥
67
− =𝑥
2
Linear Inequalities in One Variable
A linear inequality in one variable (here 𝑥) is an inequality that can be written in the form
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 < 0, 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 ≤ 0, 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 > 0, or 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 ≥ 0
where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers and 𝑎 ≠ 0.
Examples: 𝑥 + 5 < 0, 𝑥−3≥5
Solving a Linear Inequality in One Variable
Step Description Example
• Use the distributive property as
−3(𝑥 + 4) + 2 ≥ 7 − 𝑥
Simplify each side needed.
−3𝑥 − 12 + 2 ≥ 7 − 𝑥
separately • Clear any parenthesis.
−3𝑥 − 10 ≥ 7 − 𝑥
• Combine like terms.
• Use the addition property of
−3𝑥 − 10 + 𝑥 ≥ 7 − 𝑥 + 𝑥
inequality so that all terms with
Isolate the variable −2𝑥 − 10 ≥ 7
variables are on one side of the
terms on one side. −2𝑥 − 10 + 10 ≥ 7 + 10
equation and all constants
−2𝑥 ≥ 17
(numbers) are on the other side.
Use the multiplication property of
inequality in one of the following
forms, where 𝑘 is a constant (number). −2𝑥 17
variable < 𝑘, variable ≤ 𝑘, ≤
−2 −2
Isolate the variable. variable > 𝑘, or variable ≥ 𝑘
*Remember: Reverse the direction of 17
𝑥≤−
the inequality symbol only when 2
multiplying or dividing each side of an
inequality by a negative number.
Introduction to Relations and Functions
Relation
A relation is any set of ordered pairs.
Example: {(0, 0), (1, 1), (4, 6), (3, 5)}
Function
A function is a relation in which, for each distinct value of the first component of the ordered pairs, there
is exactly one value of the second component.
Example: {(1, 2), (−2, 4), (3, −6)}
Domain and Range
For every relation defined by a set of ordered pairs(𝑥, 𝑦), there are two important sets of elements.

• The set of all values of the independent variable (𝑥) is the domain.
• The set of all values of the dependent variable (𝑦) is the range.

Linear Function
A function 𝑓 that can be written in the form
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers, is a linear function. The value of 𝑎 is the slope 𝑚 of the graph of the
function. The domain of a linear function is (−∞, ∞), unless specified otherwise.
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 4
Linear Equation in Two Variables
A linear equation in two variables (here 𝑥 and 𝑦) is an equation that can be written in the form
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 = 𝐶,
where 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 are real numbers and 𝐴 and 𝐵 are not both 0. This form is called the standard
form.
Example: 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 9

Systems of Linear Equation in Two Variables

The solution set of a linear system of equations contains all ordered pairs that satisfy all the
equations of the system at the same time.
A system of linear equations in two variables may or may not have a solution. If it has a solution, the
system is consistent, it is inconsistent if it does not have a solution. If a system is consistent, it can be
further classified as independent or dependent. An independent system has exactly one solution
while a dependent system has an infinite number of solutions.
Three Cases for Solutions of Linear Systems in Two Variables

The coordinates of this point give

Case 1: the only solution of the system.
The two graphs Because the system has a solution,
intersect in a it is consistent. The equations are
single point. not equivalent, so they are
independent.

There is no solution common to

Case 2: both equations, so the solution set
The graphs are is ∅ and the system is inconsistent.
parallel lines. Because the equations are not
equivalent, they are independent.

Because any solution of one

equation of the system is a
Case 3: solution of the other, the solution
The graphs are set is an infinite set of ordered
the same line— pairs representing the points on
that is, they the line. This type of system is
coincide. consistent because there is a
solution. The equations are
equivalent, so they are dependent.
Polynomials
Monomials
Terms that contain variables with only whole numbers as exponents are called monomials.
Degree
The degree of a monomial is the sum of the exponents of the literal factors.
Example: 7𝑥𝑦 is of degree 2
Polynomial
A polynomial is a monomial or a finite sum (or difference) of monomials.

Examples: 4𝑥 2 , 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 4, 6𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2 − 1, 3𝑥 2𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 2 , and 14

In addition to calling a polynomial with one term a monomial, we also classify polynomials with two
terms as binomials, and those with three terms as trinomials.
Degree of a Polynomial
The degree of a polynomial is the degree of the term with the highest degree in the polynomial.

Example: 4𝑥 3 𝑦 4 is a monomial in two variables of degree 7

9𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 1 is a trinomial in one variables of degree 2

Polynomial Function
A polynomial function of degree n is defined by
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

for real numbers 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , … , 𝑎1 , and 𝑎0 , where 𝑎0 ≠ 0 and 𝑛 is a whole number.

Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3
Adding and Subtracting Functions
If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) define functions, then
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)

and (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)

In each case, the domain of the new function is the intersection of the domains of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥).
Example: Find each of the following for the polynomial functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 as defined.

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 7 and 𝑔(𝑥) = −3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 7

(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
= (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 7) + (−3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 7)
= −2𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 14
Composition of Functions
The composite function, or composition, of functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 is defined by
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))

for all 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑔 such that 𝑔(𝑥) is in the domain of 𝑓.

 Example: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5. Find (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥).

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))

= 4(𝑔(𝑥)) − 1

= 4(𝑥 2 + 5) − 1

= 4𝑥 2 + 20 − 1

= 4𝑥 2 + 19

Products and Quotients of Monomials

Laws of Exponents

Property Rule Example

If 𝑏 is any real number, and 𝑛 and 𝑚 are

Product Rule positive integers, then 23 ∙ 26 = 23+6 = 29
𝑏 𝑛 ∙ 𝑏 𝑚 = 𝑏 𝑛+𝑚

If 𝑏 is any real number, and 𝑛 and 𝑚 are

Power Rule positive integers, then (𝑥 3 )5 = 𝑥 (3)(5) = 𝑥 15
(𝑏 𝑛 )𝑚 = 𝑏 𝑛𝑚

If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers, and n is a

Power of a Product positive integer, then (3𝑎5 )3 = (3)3 (𝑎5 )3 = 27𝑎15
(𝑎𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛

If 𝑏 is any nonzero real number, and 𝑚

and 𝑛 are positive integers, then 𝑦8
Quotient Rule = 𝑦 8−2 = 𝑦 6
𝑏𝑛 𝑦2
= 𝑏 𝑛−𝑚
𝑏𝑚

Multiplying Polynomials
FOIL Method
The mnemonic device FOIL is often used to remember the pattern for multiplying binomials. The
letters in FOIL represent, First, Outside, Inside, and Last.
Example: (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 8)
First: 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 = 𝑥 2
Outside: 𝑥 ∙ 8 = 8𝑥
Inside: 3 ∙ 𝑥 = 3𝑥
Last: 3 ∙ 8 = 24

Thus, (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 8) = 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 24 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟏𝒙 + 𝟐𝟒

 Special Products
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
(𝑎 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2

(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏) = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2

(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 𝑏 3

(𝑎 − 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 − 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 − 𝑏 3

Factoring Polynomials
Difference of Two Squares
𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏)
Sum and Difference of Two Cubes
𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )

𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )

Quadratic Equation
A quadratic equation (in 𝑥 here) is an equation that can be written in the form
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0,
where 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐 are real numbers, and 𝑎 ≠ 0. The given form is called standard form.

Example: 3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 2 = 0, 𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 = 0
Quadratic Formula
The solutions of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 (where 𝑎 ≠ 0) are given by

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
Rational Expressions
𝑎
Any number that can be written in the form 𝑏 , where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are integers and 𝑏 ≠ 0, is called a
rational number.
1 3 12
Example: , ,−
2 4 5

Properties of Rational Expressions

−𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
= =− , where 𝑏 ≠ 0
𝑏 −𝑏 𝑏
−𝑎 𝑎
= , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑏 ≠ 0
−𝑏 𝑏
 Fundamental Principle of Fractions
If 𝑏 and 𝑘 are nonzero integers and 𝑎 is any integer, then
𝑎∙𝑘 𝑎
=
𝑏∙𝑘 𝑏
Multiplication of Fractions
If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, and 𝑑 are integers, and 𝑏 and 𝑑 are not equal to zero, then
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐 𝑎𝑐
∙ = =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏 ∙ 𝑑 𝑏𝑑
Multiplication of rational expressions follows the same basic pattern as multiplication of rational
numbers in common fraction form. That is to say, we multiply numerators and multiply
denominators and express the final product in simplified or reduced form.
Division of Fractions
If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, and 𝑑 are integers, and 𝑏 and 𝑑 are not equal to zero, then
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎𝑑
÷ = ∙ =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏𝑐
We define division of algebraic rational expressions in the same way that we define division of
rational numbers. That is, the quotient of two rational expressions is the product we obtain when
we multiply the first expression by the reciprocal of the second.

Rational Function
A rational function is defined by a quotient of polynomials and has the form
𝑃(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) = , where 𝑄(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑄(𝑥)
The domain of a rational function includes all real numbers except those that make 𝑄(𝑥) – that is, the
denominator – equal to 0.

Inverse Function
Let a function 𝑓 be a one-to-one function. Then, the inverse function 𝑓 −1 is the set of ordered pairs
obtained from 𝑓 by interchanging the first and second elements of each ordered pair.
To find the inverse of a one-to-one function,
1. Write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
2. Solve this equation for 𝑥 in terms of 𝑦.
3. Interchange 𝑥 and 𝑦. The resulting function is 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).
Variation
Direct Variation
𝑦 varies directly as 𝑥 if there exists a real number 𝑘 such that
𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥
Stated another way, 𝑦 is directly proportional to 𝑥. The number 𝑘 is the constant of variation.
Direct Variation as a Power
𝑦 varies directly as the 𝑛th power of 𝑥 if there exists a real number 𝑘 such that
𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑛
Inverse Variation
𝑦 varies inversely as 𝑥 if there exists a real number 𝑘 such that
𝑘
𝑦=
𝑥
𝑦 varies inversely as the 𝑛th power of 𝑥 if there exists a real number 𝑘 such that
𝑘
𝑦=
𝑥𝑛
Joint Variation
𝑦 varies jointly as 𝑥 and 𝑧 if there exists a real number 𝑘 such that
𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥𝑧

Exponential Function
For 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, and all real numbers 𝑥,
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥
defines the exponential function with base 𝑎.
Characteristics of the Graph of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙
1. The graph contains the point (0, 1), which is its 𝑦-intercept.
2. The function is one-to-one.
• When 𝑎 > 1, the graph rises from left to right.
• When 0 < 𝑎 < 1, the graph falls from left to right.
In both cases, the graph goes from the second quadrant to the first.
3. The graph approaches the 𝑥-axis but never touches it—that is, the 𝑥-axis is an asymptote.
4. The domain is (−∞, ∞), and the range is (0, ∞).
Logarithmic Function
For all positive numbers 𝑎, where 𝑎 ≠ 1, and all positive real numbers 𝑥,
𝑦 = log a 𝑥 is equivalent to 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦

Characteristics of the Graph of 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂 𝒙

1. The graph contains the point (1, 0), which is its 𝑥-intercept.
2. The function is one-to-one.
• When 𝑎 > 1, the graph rises from left to right, from the fourth quadrant to the first.
• When 0 < 𝑎 < 1, the graph falls from left to right, from the first quadrant to the fourth.
3. The graph approaches the 𝑦-axis but never touches it—that is, the 𝑦-axis is an asymptote.
4. The domain is (0, ∞), and the range is (−∞, ∞).
Properties of Logarithms

Property Rule Example

If 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑏 are positive real numbers,

where 𝑏 ≠ 1, then the following holds
true.
Product Rule log 3 28 = log 3 4 + log 3 7
log 𝑏 𝑥𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥 + log 𝑏 𝑦
That is, the logarithm of a product is the
sum of the logarithms of the factors.

If 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑏 are positive real numbers,

where 𝑏 ≠ 1, then the following holds
true.
𝑥
log 𝑏 = log 𝑏 𝑥 − log 𝑏 𝑦 2
Quotient Rule 𝑦 log 5 = log 5 2 − log 5 3
That is, the logarithm of a quotient is the 3
difference of the logarithm of the
numerator and the logarithm of the
denominator

If 𝑥 and 𝑏 are positive real numbers,

where 𝑏 ≠ 1, and if 𝑟 is any real
number, then the following holds true.
Power Rule log 𝑏 𝑥 𝑟 = 𝑟 log 𝑏 𝑥 log 𝑏 𝑚5 = 5 log 𝑏 𝑚
That is, the logarithm of a number to a
power equals the exponent times the
logarithm of the number.
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