MODULE-2

RADAR EQUATION
 Prediction of Range Performance
 Detection of signal in Noise: Minimum Detectable Signal, Receiver Noise, SNR, Modified Radar Range
Equation,
 Envelope Detector — False Alarm Time and Probability, Probability of Detection
 Radar Cross Section of Targets: simple targets – sphere, cone-sphere
 Transmitter Power
 PRF and Range Ambiguities
 System Losses (qualitative treatment)
 Illustrative Problems.

2.1 Prediction of Range Performance

The simple form of Radar equation derived earlier expresses the maximum radar range Rmaxin
terms of radar and target parameters:

Rmax= [ (Pt .G. Ae. σ)/(4π)2.Smin]1/4

Where Pt = transmitted power, watts

G = antenna gain
Ae = antenna effective aperture, m2

σ = radar cross section, m2

Smin = minimum detectable signal, watts

All the parameters are to some extent under the control of the radar designer, except for the
target cross section σ. The radar equation states that if long ranges are desired,

The transmitted power must be large,

 The radiated energy must be concentrated into a narrow beam (high transmitting antenna
gain), The received echo energy must be collected with a large antenna aperture (also
synonymous with high gain) and

The receiver must be sensitive to weak signals.

In practice, however, the simple radar equation does not predict the range performance of actual
radar equipment to a satisfactory degree of accuracy. The predicted values of radar range are
usually optimistic. In some cases, the actual range might be only half of that is predicted.

Part of this discrepancy is due to

The failure of the above equationtoexplicitlyincludethevariouslossesthatcanoccur

throughout the systemor
Thelossinperformanceusuallyexperiencedwhenelectronicequipmentisoperatedin the
field rather than under laboratory-type conditions

Another important factor i.e the statistical or unpredictable nature of several of the
parameters in the radar equation.

The minimum detectable signal Smin and the target cross section σ are both statistical in nature
and must be expressed in statistical terms.
Other statistical factors which do not appear explicitly in the simple radar equation but
which have an effect on the radar performance are the meteorological conditions along
the propagation path and the performance of the radar operator, if one is employed.

The statistical nature of these several parameters does not allow the maximum radar range to be
described by a single number. Its specification must include a statement of the probability that
the radar will detect a certain type of target at a particular range.

Hence in order to cover these aspects, the simple radar equation will be modified to
include most of the important factors that influence radar range performance.

2.2 Detection Of Signal In Noise

2.2.1 Minimum detectable signal

The ability of a radar receiver to detect a weak echo signal is limited by the noise energy
that occupies the same portion of the frequency spectrum as does the signal energy and
accompanies the signal.
 The weakest signal the receiver can detect is called the minimum detectable signal. It is
difficult to define minimum detectable signal (MDS) because of its statistical nature and
because the criterion for deciding whether a target is present or not is not too well
defined.

Detection is normally based on establishing a threshold level at the output of the receiver
(as shown by the dotted line in the figure below.)Whenever Rx output signal which is a
mixture of echo and noise crosses this threshold, then it is detected as a target. This is
called threshold detection.

Consider the output of a typical radar receiver as a function of time as shown in the figure
below which typically represents one sweep of the video output displayed on an A-scope.

Fig 2.1: Typical envelope of the radar receiver output as a function of time. A, B, and
Care threetargetsrepresentingsignalplusnoise.AandBarevaliddetections,but Cisamissed
detection.

The envelope has a fluctuating appearance due to the random nature of noise and consists
of three targets A, B and C of different signal amplitudes.

The signal at A is large which has much larger amplitude than the noise. Hence target
detection is possible without any difficulty and ambiguity.
Next consider the two signals at B and C, representing target echoes of equal amplitude.
The noise voltage accompanying the signal at B is large enough so that the combination
of signal plus noise exceeds the threshold and target detection is still possible.

But for the target C, the noise is not as large and the resultant signal plus noise does not
cross the threshold and hence target is not detected.
Threshold Level setting: Weak signals such as C would not be lost if the threshold level
were lower. But too low a threshold increases the likelihood that noise alone will rise
above the threshold and is taken as target. Such an occurrence is called a false alarm.
Therefore, if the threshold is set too low, false target indications are obtained, but if it is
 set too high, targets might be missed. The selection of the proper threshold level is a
compromise that depends upon how important it is if a mistake is made either by

1. Failing to recognize a signal that is present (probability of a miss) orby

2. Falsely indicating the presence of a signal when it does not exist(probability
of a falsealarm)
The signal-to noise ratio necessary to provide adequate detection is one of the
important parameters that must be determined in order to compute the minimum
detectable signal.

Although the detection decision is usually based on measurements at the video output, it
is easier to consider maximizing the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the IF amplifier
rather than in the video. The receiver may be considered linear up to the output of the IF.
It is shown that maximizing the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the IF is equivalent
to maximizing the video output. The advantage of considering the signal-to-noise ratio at
the IF is that the assumption of linearity may be made. It is also assumed that the IF filter
characteristic approximates the matched filter, so that the output signal-to-noise ratio
ismaximized.

2.2.2 Receiver noise

Noiseisunwantedelectromagneticenergywhichinterfereswiththeabilityofthe
receiver to detect the wanted signal thus limiting the receiversensitivity.

 It may originate within the receiver itself, or it may enter via the receiving antenna along
with the desired signal.
 If the radar were to operate in a perfectly noise-free environment so that no external
sources of noise accompanied the desired signal, and if the receiver itself were so perfect
that it did not generate any excess noise, there would still exist an unavoidable
component of noise generated by the thermal motion of the conduction electrons in the
ohmic portions of the receiver input stages.
 This is called thermal noise, or Johnson’s noise, and is directly proportional to the
temperature of the ohmic portions of the circuit and thereceiver band width. The
available noise power generated by a receiver of bandwidth Bn(in hertz) at a temperature
T (degrees Kelvin) is given by:
Available thermal-noise power = kTBn

where k = Boltzmann's constant =1.38 x 10-23J/deg. If the temperature T is taken to be290 K,

which corresponds approximately to room temperature (620F), the factor kTis 4 x 10--21W/Hz of
bandwidth. If the receiver circuitry were at some other temperature, the thermal-noise power
would be correspondinglydifferent.
 A receiver with a reactance input such as a parametric amplifier need not have any
significant ohmic loss. The limitation in this case is the thermal noise seen by the antenna
and the ohmic losses in the transmission line.

For radar receivers of the super heterodyne type (the type of receiver used for most radar
applications), the receiver bandwidth is approximately that of the intermediate-
frequency stages. It should be cautioned that the bandwidth Bn mentioned above is not

the 3-dB, or half-power, bandwidth commonly employed by electronic engineers. It is an

integrated bandwidth and is given by:

where H (f) = frequency-response characteristic of IF amplifier (filter) and fo = frequency of

maximum response (usually occurs at mid band).

The bandwidth Bn is called the noise bandwidth and is the bandwidth of an equivalent
rectangular filter whose noise-power output is same as the filter with characteristic
H(f).It is not theoretically same as the 3-dB bandwidth. The 3-dB bandwidth is widely
used since it is easy to measure. The measurement of noise bandwidth however involves
a complete knowledge of the response characteristic H(f). The frequency- response
characteristics of many practical radar receivers are such that the 3 dB and the noise
bandwidths do not differ appreciably. Therefore the 3-dB bandwidth may be used in
many cases as an approximation to the noisebandwidth.

2.2.3 SNR

The noise power in practical receivers is often greater than can be accounted for by
thermal noise alone and is due to mechanisms other than the thermal agitation of the
conduction electrons.

 The exact origin of the extra noise components is not important except to know that it
exists. Whether the noise is generated by a thermal mechanism or by some other
mechanism the total noise at the output of the receiver may be considered to be equal to
the thermal-noise power obtained from an “ideal“ receiver multiplied by a factor called the
noisefigure.
The noise figure Fn of a receiver is defined by the equation:

Fn = No/ kTo BnGa

= (Noise output of practical receiver) / (Noise output of ideal receiver at std. temp To)

Where,
No = noise output from receiver

Ga = available gain.

The standard temperature Tois taken to be 290 K, according to the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers definition.

 The noise No is measured over the linear portion of the receiver input-output
characteristic, usually at the output of the IF amplifier before the nonlinear second
detector. The receiver bandwidth Bn is that of the IF amplifier in mostreceivers.
 The available gain Ga is the ratio of the signal out Soto the signal in Siand
kTo Bn is the input noise Niin an ideal receiver.

The above equation may be rewritten as

Therefore, the noise figure may be interpreted, as a measure of the degradation of signal-to
noise-ratio as the signal passes through the receiver.

Rearranging the above two equations for Fn ,the input signal may be expressed as

If the minimum detectable signal Smin is that value of Sicorresponding to the minimum ratio of
output (IF) signal-to-noise ratio (So/No )minnecessary for detection, then

Substituting this expression for Smin into the earlier basic Radar equation results in the following
form of the modified radar equation

………(4)

2.3 Envelope Detector- False Alarm Time And Probability, Probability Of

Detection
The results of statistical noise theory will be applied to obtain
The signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the IF amplifier necessary to achieve a specified
probability of detection without exceeding a specified probability of false alarm.
Theoutputsignal-to-noiseratiothusobtainedissubstitutedintothefinalmodifiedradarequation, we have
obtainedearlier.
The details of system that is considered:

IF amplifier with bandwidth BIFfollowed by a second detector and a video amplifier with
bandwidth BV as shown in the figurebelow.
The second detector and video amplifier are assumed to form an envelope detector, that is, one
which rejects the carrier frequency but passes the modulation envelope.
To extract the modulation envelope, the video bandwidth must be wide enough to pass the low-
frequency components generated by the second detector, but not so wide as to pass the high-
frequency components at or near the intermediate frequency.
The video bandwidth BV must be greater than BIF/2 in order to pass all the video modulation.

Figure 2.2: Envelope detector

Step 1: To determine the Probability of false alarm when noise alone is assumed to be present
as input to the receiver:

The noise entering the IF filter (the terms filter and amplifier are used interchangeably) is assumed to be
Gaussian, with probability-density function given by

Where:
p(v) dv is the probability of finding the noise voltage v between the values of vandv + dv
ψ0 is the variance, or mean-square value of the noise voltage, and the mean value of v is taken
to be zero.
------(5)

(Compare this with the Standard Probability density function of Gaussian noise

With σ2replaced by ψ0and (x—x0) replaced by v with mean value of zero)

 If Gaussian noise were passed through a narrowband IF filter whose Bandwidth is small
compared with its mid band frequency-the probability density of the envelope of the noise voltage
output is shown by Rice to be of the form of Rayleigh probability-density function

………..(6)

where R is the amplitude of the envelope of the filter output. The probability that the envelope of the
noise voltage will lie between the values of V1andV2is

The probability that the noise voltage envelope will exceed the voltage threshold VT is

…………(7)

Whenever the voltage envelope exceeds the threshold VT, a target is considered to have been detected.
Since the probability of a false alarm is the probability that noise will cross the threshold, the above
equation gives the probability of a false alarm, denoted by Pfa.

The probability of false alarm as given above by itself does not indicate that Radar is troubled by the false
indications of Target. The time between the false alarms TFA is a better measure of the effect of Noise on
the Radar performance. (Explained with reference to the figurebelow)

The average time interval between crossings of the threshold by noise alone is defined as the false- alarm
time TFA
Where TK is the time between crossings of the threshold VT by the noise envelope, when the slope of the
crossing ispositive.
The false-alarm probability may also be defined as the ratio of the duration of time the envelope is
actually above the threshold to the total time it could have been above the threshold, i.e.

…………. (8)

Fig 2.3: Envelope of receiver output illustrating false alarms due to noise.

Where tK and TK are shown in the Figure above. The average duration of a noise pulse is
approximately the reciprocal of the bandwidth B, which in the case of the envelope detector is BIF.
Equating eqs. 7 and 8 weget

……….(9)

A plot of the above equation is shown in the figure below with (VT 2/2 ψ0 )as the abscissa. As can be seen,
average time between false alarms T fa is directly proportional to the Threshold to noise ratio and inversely
proportional to the Bandwidth.
 Fig.2.4: Average time between false alarms as a function of the threshold level VT and the receiver
Bandwidth B. ψ0 is the mean square noise voltage

Step 2 :

To determine Probability of detection when a sine wave signal is present along with noise:

Thus far, a receiver with only a noise input was discussed. Next, consider a sine-wave signal of amplitude
A to be present along with noise at the input to the IF filters. The frequency of the signal is the same as
the IF mid band frequency fIF. The output of the envelope detector has a probability-density function
given by

………….(10)

where Io ( Z ) is the modified Bessel function of zero order and argument Z.

When the signal is absent, A = 0 and the above equation for PDF for signal plus noise reduces to the
probability-density function for noise alone. This Equation is sometimes called the Rice probability-
density function.

The probability that the signal will be detected (which is the probability of detection) is the same as the
probability that the envelope R will exceed the predetermined threshold VT. The probability of detection
Pd is therefore:

……….(11)

(After the expression of PDF for Ps(R)[Eq. 10] is substituted into the first part of the above equation we
get the probability of detection as in [eqn.11]). But this equation cannot be evaluated by simple means,
and numerical & empirical techniques or a series approximation must be used.

The expression for Pd given by equation (11) after series expansion is a function of the signal amplitude A,
threshold voltage VT ,and mean noise power Ψ0 . In Radar systems analysis, it is more convenient to use
Signal to Noise power ratio (S/N) rather than signal to noise voltage ratio A/Ψ 0½.These are related by:

The probability of detection Pd can then be expressed in terms of S/N , and Threshold- Noise ratio
VT 2/2Ψ 0.The probability of false alarm is also a function of VT 2/2Ψ 0as given by : P FA
= Exp( -V 2T/2ψ). 0

The two expressions for P d and PFA can now be combined by eliminating the Threshold- Noise ratio
VT 2/2Ψ0 that is common in both expressions so as to get a single expression relating the probability of
detection Pd ,Probability of false alarm PFA and signal to Noise ratio S/N.The result is plotted in the figure
below.

A much easier empirical formula developed by Albersheim for the relationship between S/N,PFAand Pd is
also given below :

S/N = A + 0.12AB + 1.7 B

Where A = ln [ 0.62/ PFA] and B = ln [ Pd /(1- Pd) ]

 Fig. 2.5: Probability of detection for a sine wave in noise as a function of the signal-to-noise
(power) ratio and the probability of false alarm

System design sequence:

Both the false-alarm timeTFA and the detection probabilityPdare specified by the system
requirements.
The radar designer computes the probability of the false alarm using the above Tfa& the relation
Pfa = 1/ Tfa .B

Then from the figure above or using the Albersheim’s empirical equation given above the
required signal-to-noise ratio to achieve the above Pfa &Pd is determined.

For example, suppose that the desired false-alarm time was 15 min and the IF bandwidth was 1 MHz.
This gives a false-alarm probability of 1.11 x 10-9. Figure above indicates that a signal-to-noise ratio of
13.1 dB is required to yield a 0.50 probability of detection, 14.7 dB for 0.90, and 16.5 dB for 0.999.

This is the signal-to-noise ratio that is to be used in the final modified Radar Equation we have obtained
earlier.
2.4 Radar Cross Section of Targets: SIMPLE TARGETS
The radar cross section of a target is the (fictional) area intercepting that amount of power which when
scattered equally in all directions, produces an echo at the radar equal to that from the target. Or in other
terms

Where R= distance between radar and target

Er= strength of reflected field atradar
Ei= strength of incident field attarget
For most common types of radar targets such as aircraft, ships, and terrain, the radar cross section does
not necessarily bear a simple relationship to the physical area, except that the larger the target size, the
larger will be the cross section.

Scattering and diffractionare variations of the same physical process. When an object scatters an
electromagnetic wave, the scattered field is defined as the difference between the total field in the
presence of the object and the field that would exist if the object were absent (but with the sources
unchanged). On the other hand, the diffracted field is the total field in the presence of the object. With
radar backscatter, the two fields are the same, and one may talk about scattering and diffraction
interchangeably.

2.4.1 Radar cross section of a simple sphere is shown in the figure below as a function of its
circumference measured in wavelengths (2πa/λ where a is the radius of the sphere and λ is the
wavelength). The plot consists of three regions.

1. Rayleigh Region

The region where the size of the sphere is small compared with the wavelength (2πa/λ 1) is
called the Rayleigh region.
The Rayleigh scattering region is of interest to the radar engineer because the cross sections of
raindrops and other meteorological particles fall within this region at the usual radar frequencies.

2. Optical region
It is at the other extreme from the Rayleigh region where the dimensions of the sphere are large
compared with the wavelength (2πa/λ 1). For large 2πa/λ, the radar cross section approaches
the optical cross sectionπa2.

3. Mie or Resonance region

 Between the optical and the Rayleigh region is the Mie, or resonance, region. The cross section is
oscillatory with frequency within this region. The maximum value is 5.6 dB greater than the
optical value, while the value of the first null is 5.5 dB below the optical value. (The theoretical
values of the maxima and minima may vary according to the method of calculation employed.

Figure 2.6: Radar cross section of the sphere. a = radius; λ= wavelength.

Since the sphere is a sphere no matter from what aspect it is viewed, its cross section will not be aspect-
sensitive. The cross section of other objects, however, will depend upon the direction as viewed by the
radar. (Aspect angle)

2.4.2 Radar cross section of a cone-sphere

An interesting radar scattering object is the cone-sphere, a cone whose base is capped with a
sphere such that the first derivatives of the contours of the cone and sphere are equal at the joint.
Figure below is a plot of the nose-on radar cross section. The cross section of the cone- sphere
from the vicinity of the nose-on direction is quite low.
Scattering from any object occurs from discontinuities. The discontinuities, and hence the
backscattering, of the cone-sphere are from the tip and from the join between the cone and the
sphere.
The nose-on radar cross section is small and decreases as the square of the wavelength. The cross
section is small over a relatively large angular region. A large specular(having qualities of a
mirror)return is obtained when the cone-sphere is viewed at near perpendicular incidence to the
cone surface, i.e., when θ= 90 - α, where α= cone half angle. From the rear half of the cone-
sphere, the radar cross section is approximately that of thesphere.
 The nose-on cross section of the cone-sphere varies, but its maximum value is approximately
0.4λ2and its minimum is 0.01λ2for a wide range of half-angles for frequencies above the Rayleigh
region. The null spacing is also relatively insensitive to the cone half-angle.

Figure 2.7: Radar cross section of a cone sphere with 150 half angle as a function of the diameter
in Wave lengths.

In order to realize in practice the very low theoretical values of the radar cross section for a cone
sphere, the tip of the cone must be sharp and not rounded, the surface must be smooth (roughness
small compared to a wavelength), the join between the cone and the sphere must have a
continuous first derivative, and there must be no holes, windows, or protuberances on the surface.

Shaping of the target, as with the cone-sphere, is a good method for reducing the radar cross
section. Materials such as carbon-fiber composites, which are sometimes used in aerospace
applications, can further reduce the radar cross section of targets as compared with that produced
by highly reflecting metallic materials.

2.5 Transmitter Power

The peak power: The power Pt in the radar equation is called the peak power. This is not the
instantaneous peak power of a sine wave. It is the power averaged over that carrier-frequency cycle which
occurs at the maximum power of the pulse.
The average radar power Pav: It is defined as the average transmitter power over the pulse-repetition
period. If the transmitted waveform is a train of rectangular pulses of width τ and pulse-repetition period
Tp = 1/ f p ,then the average power is related to the peak powerby
Duty cycle: The ratio Pav/Pt, τ/TP, or τ.fPis called the duty cycle of the radar. A pulse radar for detection
of aircraft might have typically a duty cycle of 0.001, while a CW radar which transmits continuously has
a duty cycle of unity.

Writing the radar equation in terms of the average power rather than the peak power, we get

The bandwidth and the pulse width are grouped together since the product of the two is usually of the
order of unity in most pulse-radar applications.

2.6 Pulse Repetition Frequencies and Range Ambiguities:

The pulse repetition frequency (PRF) is determined primarily by the maximum range at which
targets are expected. If the PRF is made too high, the likelihood of obtaining target echoes from
the wrong pulse transmission is increased. Echo signals received after an interval exceeding the
pulse-repetition period are called multiple time around echoes.
Consider the three targets labeled A, B, and C in the figure(a) below. Target A is located within
the maximum unambiguous range Runamb[= C.TP /2] of the radar, target B is at a distance greater
than Runambbut less than 2Runamband the target C is greater than 2Runambbut less than
3RunambThe appearance of the three targets on an A-scope is shown in the figure (b)below. The
multiple-time-around echoes on the A-scope cannot be distinguished from proper target echoes
actually within the maximum unambiguous range. Only the range measured for target A is
correct; those for B and C are not.
One method of distinguishing multiple-time-around echoes from unambiguous echoes is to
operate with a varying pulse repetition frequency. The echo signal from an unambiguous range
target will appear at the same place on the A-scope on each sweep no matter whether the PRF is
modulated or not. However, echoes from multiple-time-around targets will be spread over a finite
range as shown in the figure (c) below. The number of separate pulse repetition frequencies will
depend upon the degree of the multiple time around targets. Second-time targets need only two
separate repetition frequencies in order to be resolved.
 Fig. 2.8: Multiple-time-around echoes that give rise to ambiguities in range.

(a) Three targets A, B and C, where A is within Runamb, and B and Care multiple-time-around targets

(b) The appearance of the three targets on the A-scope

(c) Appearance of the three targets on the A-scope with a changing PRF.

2.7 System Losses

The losses in a radar system reduce the signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver output. They are two
kinds, predictable with certain precision beforehand and unpredictable. The antenna beam- shape
loss, collapsing loss, and losses in the microwave plumbing are examples of losses which are
predictable if the system configuration is known. These losses are real and cannot be ignored.
Losses not readily subject to calculation and which are less predictable include those due to field
degradation and to operator fatigue or lack of operator motivation. They are subject to
considerable variation and uncertainty.

Plumbing loss: This is loss in the transmission lines which connects the transmitter output to the antenna.
(Cables and waveguides). At the lower radar frequencies the transmission line introduces little loss, unless
its length is exceptionally long. At higher radar frequencies, loss/attenuation will not be small and has to
be taken intoaccount.

Connector loss: In addition to the losses in the transmission line itself, additional losses occurs at each
connection or bend in the line and at the antenna rotary joint if used. Connector losses are usually small,
but if the connection is poorly made, it can contribute significant attenuation. If the same transmission
line is used for both receiving and transmission, the loss to be inserted in the radar equation is twice the
one-wayloss.

Duplexer loss: The signal suffers attenuation as it passes through the duplexer. Generally, the greater the
isolation required from the duplexer on transmission, the larger will be the insertion loss. Insertion loss
means the loss introduced when the component is inserted into the transmission line. For a typical
duplexer it might be of the order of 1dB.
In S-band (3000 MHz) radar, for example, the typical plumbing losses will be as follows:

100 ft of RG-113/U A1 waveguide transmissionline(two-way): 1.0

dB Loss due to poorconnections(estimate): 0.5dB

Rotary-jointloss: 0.4dB

Duplexerloss: 1.5dB

Totalplumbingloss: 3.4dB

Beam-shape loss: The antenna gain that appears in the radar equation was assumed to be a constant equal
to the maximum value. But in reality the train of pulses returned from a target with scanning radar is
modulated in amplitude by the shape of the antenna beam. To properly take into account the pulse- train
modulation caused by the beam shape, the computations of the probability of detection (as explained
earlier) would have to be performed assuming a modulated train of pulses rather than constant-amplitude
pulses. But since this computation is difficult, a beam-shape loss is added to the radar equation and a
maximum gain is employed in the radar equation rather than a gain that changes pulse to pulse.

Scanning loss: When the antenna scans rapidly enough , the gain on transmit is not the same as the gain
on receive. An additional loss has to be computed, called the scanning loss. The technique for computing
scanning loss is similar in principle to that for computing beam-shape loss. Scanning loss is important for
rapid-scan antennas or for very long range radars such as those designed to view extraterrestrialobjects.

Collapsing loss: If the radar were to integrate additional noise samples along with the wanted Signal-to-
noise pulses, the added noise results in degradation called the collapsing loss.

Non ideal equipment: The transmitter power in the radar equation was assumed to be the specified
output power (either peak or average). However, all transmitting tubes are not uniform in quality, and
even any individual tube performance will not be same throughout its useful life. Also, the power is not
uniform over the operating band of frequencies. Thus, for one reason or another, the transmitted power
may be other than the design value. To allow for this variation, a loss factor of about 2 dB is introduced.

Receiver noise figure also varies over the operating frequency band. Thus, if the best noise figure over
the band is used in the radar equation, a loss factor has to be introduced to account for its poorer value
elsewhere in the frequency band.
If the receiver is not the exact matched filter for the transmitted waveform, a loss in Signal-to-noise ratio
willoccur.
A typical value of loss for a non-matched receiver might be about 1 db. Because of the exponential
relation between the false-alarm time and the threshold level a slight change in the threshold can cause a
significant change in the false alarm time. In practice, therefore, it may be necessary to set the threshold
level slightly higher than calculated so as to insure a tolerable false alarm time in the event of circuit
instabilities. This increase in the threshold is equivalent to a loss.

Operator loss: An alert, motivated, and well-trained operator performs as described by theory. However,
when distracted, tired, overloaded, or not properly trained, operator performance will decrease. The
resulting loss in system performance is called operatorloss.

Field degradation: When a radar system is operated under laboratory conditions by engineering
personnel and experienced technicians, the above mentioned losses give a realistic description of the
performance of the radar. However, when a radar is operated under field conditions the performance
usually deteriorates even more than that can be accounted for by the above losses. To minimize field
degradation Radars should be designed with built-in automatic performance-monitoring equipment.
Careful observation of performance-monitoring instruments and timely preventative maintenance will
minimize field degradation.

There are many causes of loss and inefficiency in a Radar. Although each of them may be small, the
sum total can result in a significant reduction in radar performance. It is important to understand the
origins of these losses, not only for better predictions of radar range, but also for the purpose of
keeping them to a minimum by careful radar design.
 Illustrative Problems

Example1: A certain Radar has PRF of 1250 pulses per second. What is the maximum
unambiguous range? Max. Unambiguous Range is given by

R unambig. = C /2fp

R unambig. = 3x108/2x1250 mtrs = 120X103mts = 120Kms

Example 2: A ship board radar has 0.9 micro sec transmitted pulse width. Two small boats in
the same direction are separated in range by 150 mts. Will the radar detect the two boats as
twotargets?

Radar Range Resolution: The range resolution of a Radar is its ability to distinguish two
closely spaced targets along the same line of sight (LOS). The Range resolution is a function
of the pulse length, where the pulse length LP= c x τ/2(Two way range corresponding to the
pulsewidth)

Radar Range resolution = 3x108x0.9x10-6/2 = 135 mtrs.

Since the boats are at 150 Mts. apart, which is greater than the range Resolution of 135mtrs., the
radar can detect the 2 boats as 2 separate targets.

Example 3: A Pulse Radar transmits a peak power of 1 Mega Watt. It has a PRT equal to 1000
micro sec and the transmitted pulse width is 1 micro sec. Calculate (i)Maximum unambiguous
range (ii) Average Power (iii)Duty Cycle (iv) Energy transmitted & (v)Bandwidth
(i)
Maximum unambiguous range = c.TP /2 = 3x108x1000x10-6/2 = 150x103mtrs = 150Kms
(ii)
Average Power = PPx τ / TP= 1x106 1x10-6 /1000x10-6= 1000 watts =

1kw (iii)Duty Cycle = τ/ TP= 1x10-6 /1000x10-6= 0.001

(iii)
Energy transmitted = PPx τ (Peak power x Time)= 1x106 x1x10-6= 1

Joule (v)Bandwidth = 1/τ= 1/10-6= 1Mhz

Example4: The Bandwidth of I.F. Amplifier in a Radar Receiver is 1 MHZ. If the Threshold
tonoise ratio is 12.8 dB determine the False Alarm Time.

Tfa = False Alarm Time Tfa= [1/BIF ]ExpVT2/2ψ0 where BIF = 1X 106HZ
Threshold to Noise Ratio = 12.8 dB

i.e. 10 Log10[VT 2/2ψ0 ] = 12.8db

VT2/2ψ0= Antilog10[12.8/10]= 19.05

Tfa= 1/(1X 106) Exp19.05= 187633284/106= 187.6Seconds

Example5: The probability density of the envelope of the noise voltage output is given by the
Rayleigh probability-density function

where R is the amplitude of the envelope of the filter output for R 0. If Pfaneeded is 10-
5. Determine the ThresholdLevel.

The probability of false alarm PFA in terms of the threshold voltage level is given by :

PFA= Exp(-VT 2/2ψ0 ) = 10-5

Taking logarithms on both the sides we get

- 5 Log e10 =T (-V

2/2ψ0 )5 x 2.3026
T = (V
0

2
/2ψT ) V 2 = 11.5 x 02ψ

VT = 23x ψ0= x ψ0

Example 6: The bandwidth of an IF amplifier is 1 MHz and the average false-alarm time that could be
tolerated is 15 min. Find the probability of a false alarm.
The relationship between average false-alarm time T FA, probability of a false alarm PFA and the IF
bandwidth B is given by :
Pfa = 1/ Tfa .B

Substituting B = 1 MHz ie 106 and Tfa=15 mnts. i.e. 900 secs. we get PFA=1.11 X 10—9

Example 7: What is the ratio of threshold voltage to the rms value of the noise voltage necessary to
achieve this false-alarm time?
This is found out using the relationship PFA = Exp (-VT2/2ψ0 )

from which the ratio of Threshold voltage to rms value of the noise voltage is given by
VT/ ψ0 = 2 ln (1/Pfa ) = 2 ln 9X108 = 6.45 =16.2dB
Example 8: Typical parameters for a ground-based search radar are : 1. Pulse repetition
frequency :300 Hz, 2. Beam width : 1.5 0, and 3. Antenna scan rate: 5 rpm (30 0/s). Find out the
number of pulses returned from a point target on eachscan.
Solution : The number of pulses retuned from a point target on each scannBis given by:
nB = θB . fP / θ’S = θB . fP / 6 ωm

Substituting the above values we get :nB = 1.5 x 300 / 30 = 15