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to COS151!

• Title: Introduction to Computer Science

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• https://cs.up.ac.za/admin/courses/COS151
• Find the study guide there
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• Brief overview of the Study Guide…

1.1
 CHAPTER 1
Introduction

1.2
 Objectives
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:
 Define the Turing model of a computer.

 Define the von Neumann model of a computer.

 Describe the three components of a computer: hardware,

data, and software.

 List topics related to computer hardware.

 List topics related to data.

 List topics related to software.

 Give a short history of computers.

1.3
 Understanding Computer Systems
 Computer system
 Combination of all the components required
to process and store data using a computer
 Hardware
 Equipment associated with a computer
 Software
 Computer instructions
 Tell the hardware what to do
 Programs
 Instructions written by programmers
1.4
 Understanding Computer Systems 
(continued)
 Programming
 Writing software instructions
 Computer hardware and software accomplish three
major operations
 Input
 Data items such as text, numbers, images, and sound

 Processing
 Calculations and comparisons performed by the central

processing unit (CPU)

 Output
 Resulting data that is sent to a printer, monitor, or

storage devices after processing

1.5
 1‐1   TURING MODEL

• The idea of a universal computational device was

first described by Alan Turing in 1937.
• He proposed that all computation could be
performed by a special kind of a machine, now
called a Turing machine.
• He based the model on the actions that people
perform when involved in computation.
• He abstracted these actions into a model for a
computational machine that has really changed the
world.

1.6
 1‐1   TURING MODEL

Alan Turing
1.7 (1912 – 1954)
1.1.1  Data processors
• Before discussing the Turing model, let us define a
computer as a data processor.
• A computer acts as a black box
• that accepts input data,
• processes the data, and
• creates output data (Figure 1.1).
• Although this model can define the functionality of a
computer today, it is too general.

Figure 1.1 A single purpose computing machine

1.8
1.1.2  Programmable data processors
• The Turing model is a better model for a general-
purpose computer.
• This model adds an extra element to the specific
computing machine: the program.
• A program is a set of instructions that tells the computer
what to do with data. Figure 1.2 shows the Turing model.
Figure 1.2 A computer based on the Turing model

1.9
 Figure 1.3 The same program, different data

1.10
 Figure 1.4 The same data, different programs

1.11
 1.1.3  The universal Turing machine
• First description of a modern computer:
• A machine that can do any computation if the
appropriate program is provided
• Can be proved that a very powerful computer and a
Turing machine can compute the same thing given
appropriate data and an appropriate program
• A universal Turing machine can compute anything
that is computable!

1.12
 1‐2   VON NEUMANN MODEL
• A universal Turing machine stores data in memory
• Early programming using switches & wiring
• Around 1944 – 1945, John von Neumann proposed
the following:
• Programs and data are logically the same
• Programs and data should be stored in memory
• Programs and data are stored in the same format
(binary patterns of 0s and 1s in memory)
• Sequential instruction execution (fetch-decode-
execute cycle)

1.13
1.2.1  Four subsystems
• Computers built on the von Neumann model divide the
computer hardware into four subsystems: memory,
arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and input/output
(Figure 1.5).

Figure 1.5 The von Neumann model

1.14
1.2.2  The stored program concept
• The von Neumann model states that the program must be
stored in memory.
• This is totally different from the architecture of early
computers in which only the data was stored in memory:
the programs for their task were implemented by
manipulating set of switches/changing the wiring system.
• The memory of modern computers hosts both a program
and its corresponding data.
• This implies that both the data and programs should have
the same format, because they are stored in memory.
• In fact, they are stored as binary patterns in memory—a
sequence of 0s and 1s.

1.15
1.2.3  Sequential execution of instructions
• A program in the von Neumann model is made of a finite
number of instructions.
• In this model, the control unit fetches one instruction
from memory, decodes it, then executes it.
• Instructions are executed one after another.
• Of course, one instruction may request the control unit to
jump to some previous or following instruction, but this
does not mean that the instructions are not executed
sequentially.
• Sequential execution of a program was the initial
requirement of a computer based on von Neumann model
• Today’s computers execute programs in the order that is
the most efficient.
1.16
1‐3   COMPUTER COMPONENTS
• We can think of a computer as being made up of three
components:
• computer hardware,
• data, and
• computer software.

1.17
 1.3.1 Computer hardware
• Computer hardware today has four components under the
von Neumann model, although we can have different
types of memory, different types of input/output
subsystems, and so on.
• We discuss computer hardware in more detail in Chapter
5.
1.3.2  Data
• The von Neumann model clearly defines a computer as a
data processing machine that accepts the input data,
processes it, and outputs the result.

1.18
1.3.3  Computer software
• The main feature of the Turing or von Neumann models
is the concept of the program.
• Although early computers did not store the program in
the computer’s memory, they did use the concept of
programs.
• Programming those early computers meant changing the
wiring systems or turning a set of switches on or off.
• Programming was therefore a task done by an operator or
engineer before the actual data processing began.

1.19
 Figure 1.6 Program and data in memory

1.20
 Figure 1.7 A program made of instructions

1.21
 1‐4   HISTORY
• In this section we briefly review the history of
computing and computers.
• We divide this history into three periods:
• Mechanical machines (before 1930)
• Electronic computers (1930–1950)
• (Modern) Computer generations (1950–present)

1.22
 1‐4   HISTORY
 Mechanical machines (before 1930)
 Several computing machines were invented that
bear little resemblance to modern computers
 17th century, Blaise Pascal, a French
mathematician and philosopher, invented the
Pascaline
 Late 17th century, Gottfried Leibniz, a German
mathematician, invented Leibniz’ Wheel
 The first machine that used the idea of storage
and programming was the Jacquard loom,
invented by Joseph-Marie Jacquard at the
beginning of the 19th century
1.23
1‐4   HISTORY

A Pascaline (1652)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uOcNkhooEoc
1‐4   HISTORY

Replica of a Liebniz’ Wheel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=klLB5k3LkwU
1‐4   HISTORY

Jacquard Loom
(Deutsches Technikmuseum, Berlin)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OlJns3fPItE
1‐4   HISTORY
 Mechanical machines (before 1930)
 In 1823, Charles Babbage invented the
Difference Engine. Later, he invented the
Analytical Engine that parallels the idea of
modern computers.
 In 1890, Herman Hollerith, working at the
US Census Bureau, designed & built a
programmable machine that could
automatically read, tally, and sort data
stored on punched cards
 1‐4   HISTORY

Difference Engine (London Science Museum)

1‐4   HISTORY
 The birth of electronic computers (1930–
1950)
 Early electronic computers
 Did not store the program in memory (all were
programmed externally)
 Five computers were prominent during these
years:
 ABC
 Z1
 Mark I
 Colossus
 ENIAC
1‐4   HISTORY

ABC (Atanasoff-Berry Computer)

Replica of the Z1
1‐4   HISTORY

Colossus Mark 2
1‐4   HISTORY

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)

1‐4   HISTORY
 The birth of electronic computers (1930–
1950)
 The first computer based on von
Neumann’s ideas was made in 1950 at the
University of Pennsylvania, and was called
EDVAC
 At the same time, a similar computer called
EDSAC was built by Maurice Wilkes at
Cambridge University
1‐4   HISTORY

EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)

1‐4   HISTORY
 Computer generations
 First generation (roughly 1950–1959)
 The emergence of commercial computers
 Second generation (roughly 1959–1965)
 Used transistors instead of vacuum tubes
 Two high-level programming languages, FORTRAN
and COBOL invented and made programming
easier
 Third generation (roughly 1965–1975)
 Integrated circuit reduced computer cost and size
 Minicomputers appeared on the market
 Canned programs (software packages), available
1‐4   HISTORY
 Computer generations
 Fourth generation (roughly 1975–1985)
 Appearance of microcomputers
 First desktop calculator, the Altair 8800, in 1975
 The emergence of computer networks
 Fifth generation (1985–present)
 Appearance of laptop and palmtop computers
 Improvements in secondary storage media (in
other words, CD-ROM, DVD, flash storage, and
so on)
 Use of multimedia
 Phenomenon of virtual reality
 1‐5   COMPUTER SCIENCE AS A DISCIPLINE
• With the invention of computers, a new discipline has
evolved: computer science.
• Like any other discipline, computer science has now
divided into several areas. We can divide these areas
into two broad categories:
• systems areas and
• applications areas.
• This book is a breadth-first approach to all these areas
(it covers width, not depth).
• After reading the book, the reader should have enough
information to select the desired area of specialty.

1.38
 1‐6   OUTLINE OF THE COURSE

• We will not follow the book’s exact order of the

chapters.
• See the Study Guide for details.

1.39