MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

MAT212- LINEAR ALGEBRA I

LECTURE NOTE
BY

SAMUEL ABU SOMMA

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY,
MINNA, NIGERIA

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 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

1.0 MATRICES.

1.1 Definition

A rectangular array of numbers is called a Matrix. (The plural is matrices), and the numbers are
called the entries of a matrix.
Matrices are usually denoted by uppercase letters; A, B, C and so no. Hence

1 
1 2 - 1 1 0
A  B C  3 
0 5 6  1 2
2

are matrices.

Matrices come in various shapes depending on the number of rows and columns. For examples,
the matrix A shown has 2rows and 3 columns. In general, a matrix with m rows and n columns
is referred to as an mxn matrix or as having size mxn . Thus matrices A, B and C above have

sizes 2x3, 2x2 and 3x1, respectively.

A matrix of size 1xn is called a row matrix, whereas once of the nx1 is called a column matrix.

A special notation has been devised for the entries of a matrix. If A is an mxn matrix and if the
i, j  - entry of A is denoted as a ij , then A is displayed as follows:

a11 a12 a13 ...a1n 

 
a21 a22 a23 ...a2 n 
. . . . 
A 
. . . . 
. . . . 
 
am1 am2 am3...amn 

This is usually denoted simply as A  aij  . This a ij is the entry in row i and column j of A .

For example, a 3x4 matrix in this notation is written as

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 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

a11 a12 a13 a14 

 
A  a21 a22 a23 a24 
a31 a32 a33 a34 

An mxn matrices A . is called a square matrix. For a square matrix A  aij  , the entries

a11 , a22 , a33 ,..., ann are said to lie on the main diagonal of the matrix A . Hence the main

diagonal extends from the upper left corner of A to the lower right corner.
a11 a12 a13 
A  a21 a22 a23 

a31 a32 a33 

Two matrices A and B are called equal (written A  B ) if and only if;

(1.) They have the same size

(2.) Corresponding entries are equal

 
If the entries of A and B are written in the form A  aij  , B  bij , then the second condition

takes the following form:

a   b means a
ij ij ij  bij for all i and j .

2.2 Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

If A and B are matrices of the same size, their sum A  B is the matrix formed by adding or
 
subtracting corresponding entries. If A  aij  and B  bij , this takes the form A  B  aij  bij 

Examples

 2 1 3  1 1 -1 
1. If A    and B   
  1 2 0  2 0 6

Compute A  B .
Solution

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 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

 2 1 3   1 1 - 1
A B    
  1 2 0  2 0 6
 2  1 1  1 3   1
 
 1  2 2  0 0  6 
 3 2 2
 
 1 2 6

 3 4 - 1  - 4 2 - 1
2. If A  7 - 8 2  and B   3 - 1 8 
   
9 - 1 3   4 9 0 

determine A  B .
Solution

 3 4 - 1  - 4 2 - 1
A  B  7 - 8 2    3 - 1 8 
9 - 1 3   4 9 0 
 3 - - 4  4 - 2 - 1 - (-1)
 7  3 - 8 - (-1) 2 - 8
9  4 - 1 - 9 3 - 0 
7 2 0 
 4 - 7 - 6 
5 - 10 3

3. Find a, b and c if a b c  c a b  3 2 - 1
Solution
a b c  c a b  3 2 - 1
a  c b  a c  b  3 2 - 1
ac 3 (1)
ba 2 (2)
c  b  1 (3)
From (1) we have
a  3c (4)
Substituting (4) into (2) we have

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 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

b  c 1 (5)
Substituting (5) into (3) we have
c0
Substituting for c  0 into (4) and (5) we have
a  3 and b  1
a  3, b  1 and c  0

If A, B and C are any matrices of the same size, then

A B  B  A (commutative law)
A  B  C    A  B  C (associative law)

1.3 Scalar Multiplication

If A is any matrix and K is any number, the scalar multiple KA is the matrix obtained from A
by multiplying each entry of A by K . If A  aij  , this is KA  Kaij  .

Examples

3  1 4  1 2 - 1
1. A    and B  
 2 0 6 0 3 2

1
Compute (a) 5 A (b) B (c) 3A  2B
2
Solution
3  1 4  5x3 5x(1) 5x4 15  5 20
(a) 5A  5   
2 0 6 5x2 5x0 5x6  10 0 30
1 1 1  1 1
x1 x2 x(-1)  1 - 
1 1 1 2 - 1  2 2 2 2 2
(b) B     
2 0 3 2  1
x2  0 1
2 1 1 3
x0 x3
 2 2 2   2 
3  1 4  1 2 - 1 9  3 12 2 4 - 2  7  7 14 
(c) 3 A  2 B  3   2   
 2 0 6 0 3 2 6 0 18 0 6 4 6 - 6 14

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 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

If A is any matrix, note that KA is the same size as A for all scalars K . we also have 0 A  0
and K 0  0

1.4 Multiplication of Two Matrices.

If A is an mxn matrix and B is an nxk matrix, the product AB of A and B is the mxk matrix
whose i, j  entry is computed as follows:

Multiply each entry of row i of A by the corresponding entry of column j of B , and add the

results. This is called the dot product of row i of A and column j of B .

Examples
2 1 6 0 
3  1 2 
1. Given A    and B  0 2 3 4
0 1 4  - 1 0 5 8

Compute AB
Solution
2 1 6 0
3  1 2  
AB    0 2 3 4
0 1 4  - 1 0 5 8

3x2  -1x0  2x(-1) 3x1  -1x2  2x0 3x6  -1x3  2x5 3x0  -1x4  2x8

0x2  1x0  4x(-1) 0x1  1x2  4x0 0x6  1x3  4x5 0x0  1x4  4x8 

 4 1 25 12 
 
- 4 2 23 36

6 9 1 2
2. Let A    and B  
- 4 - 6 - 1 0 

Compute (a) A2 (b) AB (c) BA

Solution
(a)
6 9  6 9   6x6  9x - 4 6x9  9x - 6   36 - 36 54 - 54  0 0
A2     
- 4 - 6 - 4 - 6 - 4x6  -6x - 4 4x9  - 6x - 6 - 24  24 36 - 36 0 0

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 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

6 9  1 2  - 3 12 
(b) AB   
- 4 - 6 - 1 0  2 - 8

1 2  6 9  - 2 -3 
(c) BA   
- 1 0  - 4 - 6 - 6 - 9

Hence AB  BA, even though AB and BA are the same size.

Exercise

1). Find a, b, c and d if:

a b  c  3d -d  a  b b-c   1 1
(a) 
d  2a  d a  b 
(b)   =2 
1 
=
c c  d d - a  3

 a  b  1  a b  b c 
(c) 3   +2   =   (d)  = .
b   a   2  c d   d a 

2). Compute the following

3 2 1  3 0 - 2  3 6  1
(a)  (b) 3   - 5   7  
0 1 
-5
5 1 -1 2   1   2 - 1

 2 1  1 - 2  2 - 3
(c)  3
2 0 - 1 - 1 - 2
-4
 3

(d) 3 -1 2 - 29 3 4  3 11 - 6

3). Compute the following matrix products.

2 3 1
1 3  2 - 1 1 2 
9 7 
-1
(a) 
- 2 0 1
(b) 
4 
1
0 2 0
- 1 0 2

 3  3 0
5 0 - 7   
(C) =  1 (d)= 1 3 - 3  2 1 
1 5 9     0
  1 6

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 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

(4) Verify that - A - 6I = 0 if

3 - 1 2 2
(a) A   (B) A  
0 - 2  2 - 1

1.5 Matrix Transpose

If A is an mxn matrix, the transpose of A , written, AT is the nxm matrix whose rows are just
the columns of A in the same order.

In other words, the first row of AT is the first column of A the second row of AT is the second
column of A and so on.

Example

(1) Write down the transpose of each of the following matrices.

1  1 2  3 1 -1 
A  3  B  5 2 6 C  3 4 D   1
 3 2
2 5 6  1 2 1 

Solution

5   3 1 -1 
1 5
A  1 2 =  2  =  1 2  .
T 3
3 = 
6
3
2 4
6   1 2 1

1.5.1 Properties of the Transpose

T
If A is an mxn matrix, then A is an nxm matrix.
1. A  T T
A

2. KAT  KAT
3.  A  BT  AT  BT
4.  ABT  BT AT
Examples
1. Show that  A  BT  AT  BT if

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 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

 1 0 2  2 - 1 3 
A  and B   
 2 1  1 3 1  1
Solution
 1 2
 1 0 2   
A  A   0 1
T

 2 1  1 2  1

2 3 
2 - 1 3 
B   B   1 1 
T

3 1  1 3  1

1 5 
1 - 1 5   
A B    and  A  B    1 2 
T

5 2  2  5  2

1 5 
AT  B T   1 2 

5  2

Therefore,  A  BT  AT  BT
Exercise
1. Show that  AB T  BT AT if

0 1
1 2 3 
A  and B  1 2
 2 - 1 2 2  1

1.6 Special Types of Matrices

1. Square Matrix: is a matrix of order mxm

1 2 3 
e.g 2 - 1 2 is a 3x3 matrix
7 7 4 

2. Diagonal Matrix: is a square matrix with all elements zero except those on the leading
diagonal, thus
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 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

1 0 0 
0 - 1 0 
 
0 0 4 

3. Unit Matrix: is a diagonal matrix in which the elements on the leading diagonal are all
unity, i.e.
1 0 0
0 1 0 
 
0 0 1 

The unit matrix is denoted by I.

4. Symmetric Matrix: a square matrix a ij is symmetric if aij  a ji i.e. A  AT

A square matrix a ij is skew-symmetric if aij   a ji i.e. A   AT

5. Upper triangular matrix. A square matrix in which all the elements below the diagonal
are zero i.e. a matrix of type:
a11 a12 a13 ... a1n 
0 a a 23 ... a 2 n 
 22

0 0 a 33 ... a 3n 
 
 ... ... ... ... ... 
 0 0 0 0 a nn 

6. Lower triangular matrix. A square matrix in which all the elements above the diagonal
are zero i.e. a matrix of type
 a11 0 0 ... 0 
a 
 21 a 22 0 ... 0 
 a31 a32 a33 ... 0 
 
 ... ... ... ... ... 
a n1 a 2 n a3n ... a nn 

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 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

1.7 Determinant of a Square Matrix

The determinant of a square matrix A is the integer obtained through a range of methods
using the elements of the matrix.

 a11 a12 a13 

A  a 21 a 22 a 23 
 a31 a32 a33 
Let

a11 a12 a13

 A  A  a 21 a 22 a 23
a31 a32 a33
Det
Minor of a Matrix
The determinant obtained through the elimination of some rows and columns in a square
matrix is called a Minor of the matrix. For example,

 a11 a12 a13 

A  a 21 a 22 a 23 
 a31 a32 a33 

The minors of the matrix A are given as

a 22 a 23 a 21 a 23 a 21 a 22
M 11  , M 12  , M 13 
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
a12 a13 a11 a13 a11 a12
M 21  , M 22  , M 23 
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32

a12 a13 a11 a13 a11 a12

M 31  , M 32  , M 33 
a 22 a 23 a 21 a 23 a 21 a 22

M 11 , M 12 and M 13 are obtained by elimination of row 1 and columns 1, 2 and 3

respectively.
M 21 , M 22 and M 23 are obtained by elimination of row 2 and columns 1, 2 and 3
respectively.
M 31 , M 32 and M 33 are obtained by elimination of row 3 and columns 1, 2 and 3
respectively

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 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

 a11 a12 . . . a1n 

a a 22 . . . a 2 n 
 21
A   a31 a32 . . . a3n 
 
 . . . . . . 
a n1
an2 . . . a nn 
Let
We can associate the minor  i, j (obtained through the elimination of row i and column
j ) to any element ai , j of the matrix A

The cofactor of an Element of a Matrix

 a11 a12 . . . a1n 

a a 22 . . . a 2 n 
 21
Let A   a31 a32 . . . a3n 
 
 . . . . . . 
a n1 an2 . . . a nn 

The cofactor  1
i j
  i , j corresponds to any element ai , j in matrix A . For example, the
cofactor

 125   2,5   17   2,5   2,5

Corresponds to element a 2 ,5

Calculating the Determinant of a Matrix

The determinant of a matrix is equal to the sum of the products of the elements of any one row or
column and their cofactors.

a11 a12 . . . a1n

a 21 a 22 . . . a2n
A  a 31 a 32 . . . a 3n
. . . . . .
a n1 an2 . . . a nn

We can calculate the determinant using, for example row i :

A  ai ,1   1   i ,1  ai , 2   1   i , 2  ...  ai ,n   1
i 1 i2 in
  i ,n

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 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

Alternatively, we can calculate the determinate using column j :

A  a1, j   1   1, j  a 2, j   1   2, j  ...  a n , j   1
1 j 2 j n j
  n, j

Calculating a 2  2 Determinant

a11 a12
 a11   1  1,1  a12   1
11 1 2
A   1, 2
a 21 a 22
 a11   1   1,1  a12   1   1, 2
2 3

 a11   1,1  a12  1, 2

Now, 1,1  a22 , 1, 2  a21

 A  a11  a 22  a12  a 21

Examples

2 5
1. Evaluate  2  8  3  5  16  15  1
3 8
4 7
2. Evaluate  4  9   2   7  36  14  22
2 9

Calculating a 3 3 Determinant

We use row 1 to calculate the determinant

a11 a12 a13

a 23  a11   1   1,1  a12   1   1, 2   a13   1
11 1 2 1 3
A  a 21 a 22   1,3
a31 a32 a33
 a11   1   1,1  a12   1   1, 2  a13   1   1,3
2 3 4

 a11   1,1  a12   1, 2  a13   1,3

Now,

a 22 a 23 a 21 a 23
1,1   a 22 a33  a 23 a33 , 1, 2   a 21a33  a 23 a31 and
a32 a33 a31 a33
a 21 a 22
1,3   a 21a32  a 22 a31
a31 a32

13
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

 A  a11 a22 a33  a23 a33   a12 a21a33  a23 a31   a13 a21a32  a22 a31 

A  a11a22 a33  a12 a23 a31  a13 a21a32  a11a23 a33  a12 a21a33  a13 a22 a31 

A matrix whose determinant is zero is called a Singular Matrix.

The determinant of a matrix is denoted by det A  A

1.7.1 Properties of Determinant

If A and B are square matrix, then

(i) det AB   det AdetB

(ii) det kA  k n det  A

(iii) If a multiple of one row of a matrix A is added to another row to obtain matrix B ,
then detB  det A
(iv) If two rows of a matrix A are interchanged to obtain a matrix B , then
detB    det A
(v) If a row of matrix A is multiplied by k to obtain a matrix B , then detB  k det A
(vi) The determinant of the upper or lower triangular matrix is product of the diagonal
elements

a b c
A   d e f 
 g h i 

det A  a ei  fh   bdi  fg   cdh  eg 

det A  aei  bfg  cdh   afh  bdi  ceg 
Using upper triangular matrix
d g
R2 : R 2  R1 ; R3 : R3  R1
a a

14
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

 
a b c 
 ae  bd af  cd 
A  0 
 a a 
0 ah  bg ai  cg 
 a a 
ah  bg
R3 : R3  R2
ae  bd
 
a b c 
 ae  bd af  cd 
A  0 
 a a 
 ai  cg ae  bd   ah  bg af  cd 
0 0
a ae  bd  
 
Multiplying the principal diagonal gives

det  A  a
ae  bd   ai  cg ae  bd   ah  bg af  cd 
 a ae  bd  
a  
det  A 
ai  cg ae  bd   ah  bg af  cd 
a
det  A  aei  cdh  bfg   afh  bdi  ceg 

1.8 Adjoint of a Square Matrix

2 3 5
If A  4 1 6  , its determinant
1 4 0 

2 3 5
det A  A  4 1 6
1 4 0
 2(0  24)  3(0  6)  5(16  1)
 2(24)  3(6)  5(15)
 48  18  75
 45
We can form a new matrix C of the cofactors.

15
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

c11 c12 c13 

C   1
i j c c c 
 21 22 23 
c31 c 32 c 33 

Where cij is the cofactor of a ij

i.e. c11 is the cofactor of a11

1 6 4 6 4 1
c11    (0  24)  24 ; c12    (0  6)  6 ; c13     (16  1)  15
4 0 1 0 1 4

3 5 2 5 2 3
c21    (0  20)  20 ; c22    (0  5)  5 ; c23    (8  3)  5
4 0 1 0 1 4

3 5 2 5 2 3
c31    (18  5)  13 ; c32    (12  20)  8 ; c33    (2  12)  10
1 6 4 6 4 1
The matrix of cofactors is
 24 6 15 
C   20 - 5 - 5
 13 8 - 10 

 24 20 13 
And the transpose of C , i.e. C   6 - 5 8 
T

 15 - 5 - 10

This is called the Adjointof the original matrix A and is written adjA .

1.9 Inverse of a Square Matrix

Let A be a square matrix. Then the square matrix B is called the inverse of A if AB  I and B
Is denoted by A 1 . If A has an inverse, then A is called a nonsingular or invertible matrix. If A
does not have an inverse, A is called singular.
Definition: Let A be an n  n matrix and let I be the n  n identity matrix. If there exists a

matrix AA 1  I  A 1 A

Then A 1 is called the inverse of A

1.10 Determinant Method

16
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

The adjoint of a square matrix is important, since it enables us to form the inverse of the matrix.
If each element of the adjoint A is divided by the value of the determinant of A , i.e. A ,

(provided A  0 ), the resulting matrix is called the inverse of A and is denoted by A 1 .

adjA 1
A 1   adjA
det A det A

1.10.1 The Inverse of a 2  2 Matrix

If A is a 2  2 matrix given by

a b 
A 
c d 

The A is invertible if and only if ad  bc  0 , the inverse is given by

1  d  b
A 1 
ad  bc  c a 

Where ad  bc  A the determinant of the matrix A .

Hints: to find the inverse of a 2  2 matrix A we effectively interchange the diagonal elements
a and d , change the sign of the other two elements and then divide by the determinant of A .

Note: If the determinant of a Matrix is zero then that matrix has no inverse. If the determinant is
non-zero then the matrix has a unique inverse.

Examples

(1) Find the inverse of

1 4  3  1  3  1
(a) A    (b) B    (c) C   
 1  3  2 2   6 2 

Solution

17
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

1 4
(a) A   
 1  3
A  3  4  1

 3  4
A 1  
1 1 

 3  1
(b) B   
 2 2 
B  62  4

2 1  1 1
1 2 1  4 4  2 4
B 1   
4 2 3  2 3 1 3
  
4 4 2 4
 3  1
(c) C   
 6 2 
C  66  0

This means that C is not invertible.

1.10.2 The Inverse of a 3  3 Matrix (Determinant Method)

Examples
2 3 5
1. Given A  4 1 6  Find the inverse of A .
1 4 0 

Solution
1
A 1  adjA
det A
 24 20 13 
det A  45 , adjA   6 - 5 8 
 15 - 5 - 10

18
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

 24 20 13 
1 
1
A   6 - 5 8 
45
 15 - 5 - 10

1 2 3
 
2. Find the inverse of A  4 1 5
6 0 2 

Solution
A  1(2  0)  2(8  30)  3(0  6)  2  44  18  28

We now solve for adjA  C , C is the cofactors.

T

1 5 4 5 4 1
A11    (2  0)  2 , A12    (8  30)  22 , A13    (0  6)  6
0 2 6 2 6 0

2 3 1 3
A21    (4  0)  4 , A22    (2  18)  16 ,
0 2 6 2

1 2
A23    (0  12)  12
6 0

2 3 1 3 1 2
A31     (10  3)  7, A32    (5  12)  7 , A33    (1  8)  7
1 5 4 5 4 1

2 22 - 6  2 -4 7
  
C  - 4 - 16 12  C  22 - 16
T
7
 7 7 - 7   - 6 12 - 7 

2 -4 7

 adjA   22 - 16 7 
 - 6 12 - 7 

19
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

 2 4 7  1 1 1
 - -
7   28 28 28   14 7 4
2 -4   
1 
7  = 
1 22 16 7   11 4 1
1
A  adjA  22 - 16 -  -
det A 28   28 28 28   14 7 4
 - 6 12 - 7     
- 6 12
-
7  3
-
3
-
1
 28 28 28   14 7 4 

 1 1 1
 14 -
7 4
 
A  
1 11 4 1
-
 14 7 4
 
- 3 3 1
- 
 14 7 4 

1.11 The Inverse of a 3  3 Matrix (Gauss Elimination Method)

The Gauss elimination method involves operating on the rows of a matrix in order to reduce it to
a unit matrix.

In Gauss row operations we shall use:

(i) Interchange two rows

(ii) Multiply a row by a constant factor
(iii) Adding a multiple of one row to another.

Note that in (ii) and (iii) the multiple could be negative or fractional, or both.

Hint: we use upper triangular

Example

(1) Find the inverse of

1 3 3 
A  1 4 3
2 7 7 

solution
We form the augmented matrix A I 

20
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

1 3 3 1 0 0
 
1 4 3 0 1 0
2 7 7 0 0 1

1 3 3 1 0 0
R2 : R2  R1  
 0 1 0  1 1 0
R3 : R3  2 R1
0 1 1  2 0 1

1 3 3 1 0 0
 
R3 : R3  R2  0 1 0  1 1 0
0 0 1  1  1 1

We now reduce the element above the leading diagonal to zero.

1 3 0 4 3  3
 
R1 : R1  3R3  0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1  1  1 1 

1 0 0 7 0  3
 
R1 : R1  3R2  0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1  1  1 1 

7 0  3
1
A   1 1 0 
 1  1 1 

(2) Find the inverse of

1 2 3
B  2 4 5
3 5 6

Solution

21
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

1 2 3 1 0 0 
 
 2 4 5 0 1 0
3 5 6 0 0 1

1 2 3 1 0 0
R2 : R2  2 R1  
 0 0  1  2 1 0 
R3 : R3  3R1
0  1  3  3 0 1

Interchange R2 and R3

1 2 3 1 0 0
 
0  1  3  3 0 1 
0 0  1  2 1 0

1 2 3 1 0
0
 1R2  
 0 1 3 3 0  1
 1R3 
0 0 1 2  1 0 

1 2 0  5 3 0 
R1 : R1  3R3  
 0 1 0  3 3  1
R2 : R2  3R3
0 0 1 2  1 0 

1 0 0 1  3 2 
 
R1 : R1  2 R2  0 1 0  3 3  1
0 0 1 2  1 0 

Therefore,
 1 3 2 
B 1
  3 3  1
 2  1 0 

22
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

1 2 3
3. Find the inverse of C  4 1 5
6 0 2 

Solution

1 2 3 1 0 0 
 
 4 1 5 0 1 0
6 0 2 0 0 1

1 2 3 1 0 0
R2 : R2  4 R1  
 0  7  7  4 1 0 
R3 : R3  6 R1
0  12  16  6 0 1

1 2 3 1 0 0
 1  4 1 
   R 2  0 1 1  0
 7 0  12  16 7 7 
  6 0 1

 
1 2 3 1 0 0
 4 1 
R3 : R3  12R2  0 1 1  0
 7 7 
0 0  4 6

12 
1
 7 7 

 
1 2 3 1 0 0 
 1  4 1 
   R3  0 1 1  0 
 4  7 7 
 0 0 1 3 3 1
 
 14 7 4 

23
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

 23 9 3 
 
1 2 0 14 7 4 
R1 : R1  3R3 11 4 1
 0 1 0  
R2 : R2  R3  14 7 4 
0 0 1 3 3 1
   
 14 7 4

 1 1 1 
 
1 0 0 14 7 4 
11 4 1
R1 : R1  2 R2  0 1 0  
 14 7 4 
0 0 1 3 3 1
   
 14 7 4
Therefore,

 1 1 1 
 14  7 4 
 11 4 1 
C 1   
 14 7 4 
 3 3
 
1
 14 7 4

 2 3 5
 
(4) Given A  4 1 6  Find the inverse of A .
1 4 0 

solution

 2 3 5 1 0 0
 
 4 1 6 0 1 0
1 4 0 0 0 1

 3 5 1 
1 2 2 2
0 0
1 
  R1  4 1 6 0 1 0
2 
1 4 0 0 0 1
 

24
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

 3 5 1 
1 2 0 0
R2 : R2  4 R1  2 2
 0  5  4  2 1 0
R3 : R3  R1  5 5 1 
0   0 1
 2 2 2 

 3 5 1 
1 2 2 2
0 0
 
 1 0
4 2 1
   2
R  1  0
 5  5 5 5 
 5 5 1 
0   0 1
 2 2 2 

 3 5 1 
1 2 2 2
0 0
5  4 2 1 
R 3 : R3  R 2   0 1  0
2  5 5 5 
 9 3 1 
0 0   1
 2 2 2 

 3 5 1 
1 2 2 2
0 0 
 
 2 4 2 1
   R3   0 1  0 
 9  5 5 5 
0 0 1 1 1 2
   
 3 9 9

 1 5 5 
1 
9 
5 3
R1 : R1  R3 0 3 18
 2 2 1 8
2
 0 1 0  
4  15 9 45 
R 2 : R 2  R3 0 0 1 1 1 2
5
   
 3 9 9

25
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

 8 4 13 
 
1 0 0 215 91 45 
3 8
R1 : R1  R2  0 1 0  
2  15 9 45 
0 0 1 1 1 2
   
 3 9 9

Therefore,

 8 4 13 
 15 9 45 
 2 1 8 
A 1    
 15 9 45 
 1 
1
 
2
 3 9 9

EXERCISE

1  2 
1. Given that I is a 2  2 unit matrix and A   
4  5

(a) Determine the constants  and  such that A 2  A  I .

(b) If BA  I where B is a 2  2 matrix, deduce that B may be expressed in the form
kA mI stating the values of k and m .
1 0  2 3  u 4  u
2. Let I    , P  and Q   be 2  2 matrices such that PQ  I ,
0 1  4 5  2v v 

find u, v 

26
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

3. Using triangular matrix to calculate the determinant of the following matrix:

2 1 0 1 3
1 2 1 0 2
0 3 1 2 5
3 1 1 
(a) A   (b) B  4 7 2 3 7
 1 0 3 1  
  1 0 1 1 3
3 1 2 0
2 1 0 2 0

27
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

2.0 SOLUTION OF A SET OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Linear systems
A linear equation in variables x1 , x2 , ..., xn is an equation of the form

a1 x1  a2 x2  ...  an xn  b (2.1)
Where a1 , a2 , ..., an and b are constant real or complex numbers. The constant ai is called the

coefficient of xi and b is called the constant term of the equation.

A system of linear equations (or linear system) is a finite collection of linear equations in same
variables. For instance, a linear system of m equations in n variables x1 , x2 , ..., xn can be
written as
a11 x1  a12 x2  a13 x3    a1n xn  b1
a21 x1  a22 x2  a23 x3    a2 n xn  b2
    
am1 x1  am 2 x2  am3 x3    amn xn  bm (2.2)

A solution of a linear system (2.2) is a tuple s1 , s2 , ..., sn  of numbers that makes each equation

a truestatement when the values s1 , s2 , ..., sn are substituted for x1 , x2 , ..., xn , respectively. The set
of all solutions of a linear system is called the solution set of the system.

Theorem 2.1.Any system of linear equations has one of the following exclusive conclusions.
(a) No solution.
(b) Unique solution.
(c) Infinitely many solutions.
A linear system is said to be consistent if it has at least one solution; and is said to be inconsistent
ifit has no solution.
Homogeneous system
A linear system is called homogeneous if it is in the form Ax  0 , where A is an m  n matrix

and 0 is the zero vector in R . Note that x  0 is always a solution for a homogeneous system,
m

called the zero solution (or trivial solution); solutions other than the zero solution 0 are called
nontrivial solutions.

28
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

2.1 Crammer’s Rule

Consider the system of linear equations
a11 x1  a12 x 2  a13 x3  b1
a 21 x1  a 22 x 2  a 23 x3  b2
a 31 x1  a 32 x 2  a 33 x3  b3

a11 a12 a13

  a 21 a 22 a 23  a11 a 22 a33  a 23 a32   a12 a 21 a33  a 23 a31   a13 a 21a32  a 22 a31 
a31 a32 a33

b1 a12 a13
x1  b2 a 22 a 23  b1 a 22 a33  a 23 a32   a12 b2 a33  b2 a31   a13 b2 a32  a 22 b3 
b3 a32 a33

a11 b1 a13
x 2  a 21 b2 a 23  a11 b2 a33  b3 a 23   b1 a 21 a33  a 23 a31   a13 a 21b2  a31b2 
a31 b3 a33

a11 a12 b1
x3  a 21 a 22 b2  a11 a 22 b3  a32 b2   a12 a 21b3  a31b2   b1 a 21 a32  a 22 a31 
a31 a32 b3

Example
1. Solve the equation
x1  2 x2  x3  4
3 x1  4 x2  2 x3  2
5 x1  3 x2  5 x3  1

Solution
1 2 1   x1  4 
3
 -4 - 2  x 2   2 
 5 3 5   x3   1

1 2 1
 3 -4 - 2  1 20  6  215  10  19  20  14  50  29  35
5 3 5

29
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

4 2 1
x1  2 -4 - 2  4 20  6   210  2   16  4   56  16  2  70
-1 3 5

1 4 1
x 2  3 2 - 2  110  2  415  10  1 3  10  8  100  13  105
5 -1 5

1 2 4
x3  3 -4 2  14  6   2 3  10  49  20  2  26  116  140
5 3 -1

x1  70 x2  105 x 140

x1    2, x2    3, x3  3   4
  35   35   35

2.2 Inverse Method

From our knowledge of matrix multiplication, (2.2) can be written in matrix form:

a11 a12 a13  a1n   x1  b1 

a    
 21 a 22 a 23  a 2 n   x 2   b2  i.e. A  x  b
        
    
a m1 a m 2 a m 3  a mn   x n  bm 

a11 a12 a13  a1n   x1  b1 

a a 22 a 23  a 2 n   
x2  b 
Where A   21
;x  ; and b   2 
        
     
a m1 a m 2 a m 3  a mn   xn  bm 
If we multiply both side of the matrix equation by the inverse of A , we have:
A 1  A  x  A -1  b
But A1  A  I
 I  x  A -1  b
i.e. x  A -1  b
Therefore, if we form the inverse of the matrix of coefficients and pre-multiply matrix b
by it, we shall determine the matrix of the solution of x.

30
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

Examples
2. Solve the equation
x1  2 x2  x3  4
3 x1  4 x2  2 x3  2
5 x1  3 x2  5 x3  1

Solution
1 2 1   x1  4 
3
 -4 - 2  x2   2 
 5 3 5   x3   1

Ax  b
i.e.
 x  A -1b
1
A 1  adjA
det A
det A  A  1(20  6)  2(15  10)  1(9  20)  14  50  29  35

adjA  C T

4 2 3 2
A11     (20  6)  14; A12    (15  10)  25;
3 5 5 5
3 4
A13     (9  20)  29
5 3

2 1 1 1 1 2
A21    (10  3)  7; A22    (5  5)  0; A23    (3  10)  7
3 5 5 5 5 3

2 1 1 1
A31     (4  4)  0; A32    (2  3)  5;
-4 -2 3 -2
1 2
A33     (4  6)  10
3 -4

 - 14 - 25 29   - 14 -7 0 
C   - 7 0 7   C   - 25
 T
0 5 
 0 5 - 10  29 7 - 10

31
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

 - 14 -7 0 
 adjA  C   - 25
T
0 5 
 29 7 - 10

2 1 
 0 
 - 14 -7 0  5 5

1 
5   
1 1 5 1
A  adjA    - 25 0 0 -
det A 35 7 7
 29 7 - 10  
- 29 -
1 2
 35 5 7 

2 1 
5 0 
5
 
A 
1 5 1
0 -
7 7
 
- 29 -
1 2
 35 5 7 

x  A 1 .b

2 1   10 
5 0   5 
5
  4     2
1     21   
x
5
0 - 2    3
7 7  7   
   1     4
- 29 1 2     140  
- 
 35 5 7   35 

 x1   2 
But x   x2    3 
 x3   4

 x1  2, x2  3, x3  4

3. Solve the system

2 x1  5 x2  4 x3  4
x1  4 x2  3 x3  1
x1  3 x2  2 x3  5

32
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

Solution

2 5 4  x1  4
1
 4 3   x2   1 
 1 -3 - 2   x3  5 

Ax  b
i.e.
 x  A -1b
1
A 1  adjA
det A
det A  A  2(8  9)  5(2  3)  4(3  4)  2  25  28  1

adjA  C T

A11  (8  9)  1; A12  (2  3)  5; A13  (3  4)  7

A21  (10  12)  2; A22  (4  4)  8; A23  (6  5)  11

A31  (15  16)  1; A32  (6  4)  2; A33  (8  5)  3

 1 5 -7  1 -2 -1 
C   - 2 -8 11  C   5
 T
-8 - 2
 - 1 -2 3   - 7 11 3 

1 -2 -1 
 adjA  C   5T
-8 - 2
 - 7 11 3 

1 -2 -1   -1 21
1
A 
1 
adjA  1 5 -8 - 2   - 5 8 2 
det A
 - 7 11 3   7 - 11 - 3

Ax  b
 x  A -1b

33
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

 -1 2 1   4  3 
x   - 5 8 2  1    2
 7 - 11 - 3 5   2 

 x1   3 
x   x2    2 ;  x1  3, x2  2, x3  2
 x3   2 

2.2 The Reduced Row Echelon Form

Theorem 1.4.5 tells us that the methods of Gaussian or Gauss-Jordan elimination do not alter the
solution set we are interested in finding. Our next objective is to describe the end result of these
methods in a precise way. That is, we want to give a careful definition of the form of the matrix
that these methods lead us to, starting with the augmented matrix of the original system. Recall
that the leading entry of a row is the first nonzero entry of that row. (So a row of zeros has no
leading entry.)
DEFINITION 2.1. A matrix R is said to be in reduced row form if:
(1) The nonzero rows of R precede the zero rows.
(2) The column numbers of the leading entries of the nonzero rows, say rows
1; 2; ...; r , form an increasing sequence of numbers C1  C2  ...  Cr :
The matrix R said to be in reduced row echelon form if, in addition to the above:
(3) Each leading entry is a 1:
(4) Each leading entry has only zeros above it.

3.2.1 Gauss Elimination Method

1. Solve the equation

x1  2 x 2  x3  4
3 x1  4 x 2  2 x3  2
5 x1  3 x 2  5 x3  1

Solution

34
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

1 2 1   x1  4 
3
 -4 - 2  x2   2 
 5 3 5   x3   1

1 2 1 4 
3 - 4 - 2 2 
 
5 3 5 - 1

1 2 1 4 
R2 : R2  3R1
 0 - 10 - 5 - 10

R3 : R3  5 R1
0 - 7 0 - 21

 
1 2 1 4 
7
R3 : R3  R2  0 - 10 - 5 - 10
10  7 
0 0 - 14
 2 

x1  2 x2  x3  4
 10x2  5 x3  10
7
x3  14
2

x1  2, x2  3, x3  4

2. Solve the system

2 x1  5 x2  4 x3  4
x1  4 x2  3 x3  1
x1  3 x2  2 x3  5

Solution

2 5 4  x1  4
1
 4 3   x2   1 
 1 -3 - 2   x3  5 

35
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

 2 5 4 4
1 4 3 1 
 
1 - 3 - 2 5

 
1 2 5 
R2 : R2  R1 
4 4

2 3
 0 1 - 1
1
R3 : R3  R1  2 
2  0 -
11
-4 3
 2 

 
2 5 4 4
11  3 
R3 : R3  R2  0 1 -1 
2  2 
0 0 -
1
-
2
 3 3 

2 x1  5 x2  4 x3  4
3
x2  x3  1
2
1 2
- x3  -
3 3

x1  3, x2  2, x3  2

2.2.2 Gauss- Jordan Elimination Method

1. Write the augmented matrix corresponding to the linear system.

2. Interchange rows (operation 1), if necessary, to obtain an augmented matrix in which the first
entry in the first row is nonzero. Then pivot the matrix about this entry.
3. Interchange the second row with any row below it, if necessary, to obtain anaugmented matrix
in which the second entry in the second row is nonzero.Pivot the matrix about this entry.
4. Continue until the final matrix is in row-reduced form.

Examples

1. Solve the equation

36
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

x1  2 x2  x3  4
3 x1  4 x2  2 x3  2
5 x1  3 x2  5 x3  1

Solution

1 2 1   x1  4 
3
 -4 - 2  x2   2 
 5 3 5   x3   1

1 2 1 4 
3 - 4 - 2 2 
 
5 3 5 - 1

1 2 1 4 
R2 : R2  3R1 0 - 10 - 5 - 10
 
R3 : R3  5 R1
0 - 7 0 - 21

1 2 1 4 
1  1 
R 2 : R2  0 1 1 
10 2
0 - 7 - 21
 0

 
1 2 1 4 
 1 
R 3 : R 3  7 R2  0 1 1 
 2 
0 0 7
- 14
 2 

1 2 1 4
2  1 
R 3 : R 3  0 1 1
7 2
0 0 - 4
 1

1 0 0 2
 1 
R 1 : R 1  2 R 2  0 1 1
2
0 0 1 - 4


37
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

1 0 0 2 
R 2 : R 2  R 3  0 1 0 3 
1
2
0 0 1 - 4

x1  2, x2  3, x3  4

2. Solve the system

2 x1  5 x2  4 x3  4
x1  4 x2  3 x3  1
x1  3 x2  2 x3  5

Solution

2 5 4  x1  4
1
 4 3   x2   1 
 1 -3 - 2   x3  5 

 2 5 4 4
1 4 3 1 
 
1 - 3 - 2 5

 5 
1 2 2 2
R 1 : R1  1 4 3 1 
1
2  
1 - 3 - 2 5
 

 5 
1 2 2 2
R 2 : R2  R1  3 
 0 1 - 1
R 3 : R3  R1  2 
0 - 11 - 4 3 
 2 

38
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

 5 
1 2 2 2
2  2 2
R 1 : R1  0 1 - 
3  3 3
0 - 11 - 4 3 
 2 

 5 
1 2
2 2
11  2 2
R 3 : R 3  R 2  0 1 - 
2  3 3
0 0 -
1
- 
2
 3 3 

 5 
1 2
2 2
 2 2
R 3 : 3R 3  0 1 - 
 3 3
0 0 1 2
 

 1 11 
1 0 3 3
5  2 2
R 1 : R 1  R 2  0 1 - 
2  3 3
0 0 1 2
 

1 1 0 0 3 
R1 : R1  R 3
3  0 1 0 - 2
2
R2 : R2  R3 0 0 1 2 
3

x1  3, x2  2, x3  2

39
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

3.0 VECTOR SPACE

3.1 Definition

A vector space consists of a nonempty set V of objects called vectors that can be added,
multiplied by a real number called a scalar, and for which certain axioms hold.
If v and w are two vectors in V , their sum is expressed as v  w, and the scalar product of v
by areal number a is denoted by av . These operations are called vector addition and scalar
multiplication; respectively, and the following axioms are assumed to hold.
Axioms for vector addition:
A1. If u and v are in V , then u  v is in V . (closure law)
A2. u  v  v  u ,  u , v  V (commutative law)

A3. u  v  w  u  v   w,  u, v, w V (associative law)

A4. v  0  0  v  v,  v V (additive identity law)

A5. v   v   0 (additive inverse law)

Axioms for scalar multiplication:
M1. If v is in V , then av is in V , 

M2. av  w  av  aw;  v, w V

M3. a  bv  av  bv;  v V

M4. abv  abv;  v V
M5. 1v  v;

3.1.2 Examples
1. Let u  1, 2, 1, 0, 4 and v  2, 7, 5, 3, - 2. compute: (a) u  v (b) 3u  2v

(c)  2u  v (d)  32u  3v 

Solution
u  1, 2, 1, 0, 4 and v  2, 7, 5, 3, - 2
(a) u  v  1, 2, 1, 0, 4  2, 7, 5, 3, - 2
 1  2, 2  7, - 1  5, 0  3, 4  (-2)
 3, 9, 4, 3, 2 

40
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

(b) 3u  2v  31, 2, 1, 0, 4  22, 7, 5, 3,  2

 3, 6,  3, 0, 12  4, 14, 10, 6, - 4 
  1, - 8,  13, - 6, 16

(c)  2u  v  0, 3, 7, 3, -10

(d)  32u  3v  12, 51, 51, 27, - 42

2. In each case, determine scalars, a, b, and c if they exist such that the condition is satisfied:

(a) a1, 2, -1,1  b2, 0,1,1  c1, 0, 2,1  1, 4, - 4,1

(b) a1, 3, 0,1  b2, -1,1, 0  c3,1, -1,1  1, 4, - 5, 2

Solution

(a) a1, 2, -1,1  b2, 0,1,1  c1, 0, 2,1  1, 4, - 4,1

a, 2a, - a, a   2b, 0, b, b  c, 0, 2c, c  1, 4, - 4,1

a  2b  c  1 (1)
2a  0  0  4 (2)
 a  b  2c  4 (3)
a  b  c 1 (4)
From (2)
a2
Substituting a  2 into (1), (3) and (4) they become
2b  c  1 (5)
b  2c  2 (6)
b  c  1 (7)
Subtract (7) from (6) we have
c  1
Substitute c  1 into (7) we have

41
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

b0
a  2, b  0 and c  1
The scalar a, b and c exist.

(b) There are no such numbers a, b and c (verify).

3. If u , v and w are vectors in a vector space V , simplify

2u  3w  32w  v  322u  v  4w  4u  2w

Solution

2u  3w  32w  v  322u  v  4w  4u  2w

 2u  6w  6w  3v  34u  2v  8w  4u  8w

 2u  3v  6v

 2u  3v

4. Let u and v be vectors in a vector space V . Find vectors x and y in V such that:
x  4y  u
2x  3y  v

Solution
x  4y  u (1)
2x  3y  v (2)

Multiply equation (1) by 2 and then subtract it from (2) gives

1 2
y v u (3)
11 11
Substituting (3) into (1) gives
3 4
x u v (4)
11 11

42
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

x
1
3u  4v  and y  1  2u  v 
11 11

3.1.3 Exercises

(1) Find x and y in terms of u and v such that

(a) 2 x  y  u (b) 3 x  2 y  u
5x  3 y  v 4x  5 y  v

(2) Simplify each of the following

(a) 32u  2v  w  3w  v   7u  3v  w

(b) 43u  v  w  23u  2v  3v  w  6w  u  v

3.2 SUBSPACE

` 3.2.1 Definition

If V is a vector spaces, a subset U of V is called a subspace of V if U is itself a vector space

where U uses the vector addition and scalar multiplication of V .

3.2.2Theorem: Subspace Test

Let U be a subset of a vector space V . Then U is a subspace of V if and only if it satisfies

the following three conditions:
1. 0 lies in U where 0 is the zero vector of V
2. If u1 and u2 lie in U , then u1  u2 lie in U

3. If u lies U , then au lies in U , 

Proof

If (1), (2) and (3) hold, then axiom A4 follows from (1) and axiom A5 follows from (3) because
 u   1u lies in U , u U .

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 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

Hence U is a subspace.

3.2.3 Examples
1. Show that * U  x, x | x + is a subspace of .
Solution
0  0,0 is in U and the equations.
x, x   y, y   x  y ,x  y 
ax, x   ax  ax
Show that U is closed under addition and scalar multiplication. Hence the subspace test
applies.

2. If V is any vector space, show that 0 and U are subspace of V .

Solution
U  V , Satisfies the conditions of the test.

U  0, it satisfies the conditions because

0  0  0 and

ao  0,  a 
The vector space 0 is called the zero subspace of V . Because all zero subspaces look like,
we speak of the zero vector space and denote it by 0. It is the unique vector space containing
just one vector.

3.3 LINEAR COMBINATIONS AND SPANNING SETS

3.3.1 Definition

A vector v is called a linear combination of the vectors v1 , v2 ,..., vn if it can be expressed in the
form
v  a1v1  a2 v2  ...  an vn

Where a1 , a 2 ,..., an are scalars and are called the coefficients of v1 , v2 ,..., vn .

44
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

3.3.2 Examples

1. Determine whether 1, 1, 4 or 1, 5, 4 is a linear combination of the vectors v1  1, 2, -1 and

v2  3, 5, 2 in

Solution

Recall that 1, 1, 4 is linear combination of the vector v1 and v2 if it can be expressed in the form.

1, 1, 4  a1v1  a2 v2

1, 1, 4  a1 1, 2, -1  a2 3, 5, 2

1, 1, 4  a1 , 2a1 , - a1   3a2 , 5a2 , 2a2 

a1  3a2  1 (1)

2a1  5a2  1 (2)

 a1  2a2  4 (3)

From (1)

a1  1  3a2 (4)

Substituting (4) into (2) and (3) we have

21  3a2   5a2  1 (5)

a2  1

 1  3a2  2a2  4 (6)

a1  2 and a2  1

1, 1, 4is a linear combination of v1 and v2

The linear combination 1, 5, 1

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 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

1, 5, 1  a1v1  a2 v2

1, 5, 1  a1 1, 2, - 1  a2 3, 5, 2

1, 5, 1  a1 , 2a1 , - a1   3a2 , 5a2 , 2a2 

a1  3a2  1 (1)

2a1  5a2  5 (2)

 a1  2a2  1 (3)

These equations have no solution, so 1, 5, 1 is not a linear combination of v1 and v2 . (Verify).

2. Write 2, 1, 5 in as a linear combination of 1, 2, 1, 1, 0, 2 and 1, 1, 0.
Solution
2, 1, 5  a1 1, 2, 1  a2 1, 0, 2  a3 1, 1, 0
a1  a2  a3  2 (1)

2a1  a3  1 (2)

a1  2a2 5 (3)
From (2)
1  a3
a1  (4)
2
Substituting (4) into (1) and (3) give
2a2  a3  3 (5)
And
4 a 2  a3  9 (6)
Adding (5) and (6) we have
a2  2
Putting a2  2 into (5) we have
a3  1

Putting a3  1 into (4) we have

46
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

a1  1
Therefore
a1  1 , a2  2 and a3  1

2, 1, 5  1, 2, 1  21, 0, 2  1, 1, 0

3.4 SPAN

3.4.1 Definition

If v1 , v2 ,..., vn is any set of vectors in a vector space V , the set of all linear combinations of
these vectors is called their span, and is denoted by
span v1 , v2 ,..., vn .

If it happens that V  spanv1 , v2 ,..., vn , then these vectors are called a spanning set of V .

* + * sv  tw | s and t +

of all sums of scalar multiples of the vectors.

In the case of a single vector v in a vector space V , the Span is

* + * |  +

3.4.2 Theorem

Let U  spanv1 , v2 ,..., vn  in a vector space V . Then

1. U is a subspace of V containing each of v1 , v2 ,..., vn .

2. U is the “smallest” subspace containing these vectors in the sense that any subspace of V
that contains each of v1 , v2 ,..., vn must contain U .

Proof
1. 0  0v1  ...  0vn belongs to U . If v  a1v1  a2 v2  ...  an vn and w  b1v1  ...  bn vn are two

members of U and a is in , then

47
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

v  w  a1  b1 v1  ...  an  bn vn

av  aa1 v1  ...  aan vn

So both v  w and av lie in U .

Hence U is a subspace of V . It contains each of v1 , v2 ,..., vn . For example,

v2  0v1  1v2  0v3  ...  ovn . This proves (1)

2. Let W be a subspace of V that contains each of v1 , v2 ,..., vn . Because W is closed under

scalar multiplication, each of a1v1 , a 2 v2 ,..., an vn lies in W for any choice of a1 , a 2 ,..., an in
. But then
a1v1  a 2 v2  ...  an vn lies in W because W is closed under addition.

This means that W contains every member of U which prove (2).

3.4.3 Examples
1. Show that *( )( )( )+.

Solution

We must show that any vector x, y, z  can be written as a linear combination of the three

given vectors. That is, we must show that there are numbers a1 , a2 , a3 so that

x, y, z   a1 1, 1, 1  a2 1, 1, 0  a3 0, 1, 1

Regardless of what real values x, y, and z take. Equivalently, we have

a1  a2  x (1)

a1  a2  a3  y (2)

a1  a3  z (3)

From (1)

a1  x  a2 (4)

48
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

Substituting (4) into (3) we have

a3  z  x  a2 (5)

Substituting (4) and (5) into (2) we have

a2  y  z (6)

a1  x  y  z , a2  y  z and a3  y  x

Thus *( )( )( )+


2. Show that P3  span x 2  x3 , x, 2x 2  1, 3 
Solution

P3  ax3  bx2  cx  d

We must show that any vector ax3  bx2  cx  d can be written as a linear combination of the
given vectors. That is, we must show that there are numbers a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 so that

   
ax3  bx2  cx  d  a1 x 2  x3  a2 x  a3 2x 2  1  3a4

 a1 x 2  a1 x3  a2 x  2 x 2 a3  a3  3a4

a1  a (1)

a1  2a3  b (2)

a2  c (3)

a3  3a4  d (4)

Substituting (1) into (2) we have

49
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

ba
a3  (5)
2

Substituting (5) into (4) we have

a4 
1
2d  b  a  (6)
6

ba
, a4  2d  b  a 
1
a1  a , a2  c , a3 
2 6


Thus P3  span x 2  x3 , x, 2x 2  1, 3 

3. Let u and v be two vectors in a vector space V . Show that

spanu, v  spanu  v, u  v
Solution
We have spanu  v, u  v spanu, v because both u  v and u  v lie in spanu, v. On the
other hand

u
1
u  v   1 u  v 
2 2
v  u  v   u  v 
1 1
2 2
So spanu, v  spanu  v, u  v by theorem 2.

3.4.4 Exercise

1. Write each of the following as linear combination of x  1, x 2  x and x 2  2 .

(a) x 2  3x  2 (b) 2 x 2  3 x  1 (c) x 2  1 (d) x

2. Write each of the following as a linear combination of 1,  1, 1 , 1, 0, 1 and 1, 1, 0 .

1 1
(a) 2, 1, - 1 (b) 1,  7, 5 (c)  , 2,  (d) 0, 0, 0 .
2 3

3. Determine whether V lies in span spanu, w in each case

50
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

(a) v  1, - 1, 2; u  1, 1, 1, w  0, 1, 3

(b) v  3, 1, - 3; u  1, 1, 1, w  0, 1, 3

(c) v  3x 2  2 x  1; u  x 2  1, w  x  2

(d) v  x; u  x 2  1, w  x  2

3.5 LINEAR INDEPENDENT AND DIMENSION

3.5.1 Definition

A set of vectors v1 , v2 ,..., vn  is called linearly independent if it satisfies the following
condition.

If s1v1  s 2 v2  ...  sn vn  0, then s1  s2  ...  sn  0

A set of vectors that is not linearly independent is said to be linearly dependent.

3.5.2 Examples

1. show that 1, 0, -1, 2, 1, 2, 3, - 2, 0 linearly independent in .

Solution

Suppose that a linearly combination of these vectors gives zero

s1 1, 0, - 1  s 2 2, 1, 2  s3 3, - 2, 0  0, 0, 0

s1  2s2  3s3  0

s2  3s3  0

 s1  2s2 0

s1  s2  s3  0

51
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

2. Show that 1  x, 3x  x 2 , 2  x  x 2  is linearly independent in P2

Solution

Suppose a linear combination of these polynomials vanishes.

   
s1 1  x  s2 3x  x 2  s3 2  x  x 2  0

Equating the coefficients of 1, x and x 2 gives a set of linear equations

s1  2 s3  0
s1  3s2  s3  0
s 2  s3  0

s1  s2  s3  0

3.5.3 Theorem

A set v1 , v 2 ,..., vn  of vectors in a vector space V is linearly dependent if and only if some vi is
linear combination of the others.

Proof

Assume that v1 , v 2 ,..., vn  is linearly dependent. Then some nontrivial linear combination

vanishes say, a1v1  a 2 v 2  ...  an vn  0 where some coefficient is not zero. Suppose a1  0 .

 a   a 
Then v1    2 v2  ...    n vn gives v1 as a linear combination of the others. In general, if
 a1   a1 
a1  0 then a similar argument expresses vi as a linear combination of the others.

Conversely, suppose one of the vectors is linear combination of the others-say,

v1  a 2 v 2  ...  an vn . Then the nontrivial linear combination 1v1 - a 2 v 2  ...  an vn equal zero, so

the set v1 , v 2 ,..., vn  is not linearly independent; that is it is linearly dependent. A similar

argument work if any vi is a linear combination of the others.

3.5.4 Theorem

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 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

Let v1 , v 2 ,..., vn  be a linearly independent set of vectors in a vector space V . If a vector v has
two representations.

v  s1v1  s2 v 2  ...sn vn
v  t1v1  t 2 v 2  ...t n vn

As linear combination of these vectors them s1  t1 , s2  t 2 ,..., sn  t n .

Proof

We have

s1v1  s2 v 2  ...sn vn  t1v1  t 2 v 2  ...t n vn

s1  t1 v1  s2  t 2 v2  ...  sn  t n vn  0

All the coefficients are zero by the independence of the vi . So s1  t1 , s2  t 2 ,..., sn  t n , as

required.

3.6 BASIS

3.6.1 Definition

A set e1 , e 2 ,..., en  of vectors in a vector space V is called a Basis of V if it satisfies the
following two conditions:

1. e1 , e 2 ,..., en  is linearly independent

2. V  spane1 , e 2 ,..., en 

Thus if a set of vectors e1 , e 2 ,..., en  is a basis, then every vector in V can be written as a linear
combination of these vectors in a unique way.

3.6.2 Examples

2. Show that the set S  t  1, t - 1, 2t  2 is a basis for the vector space P2 .

2

Solution

53
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

To show this we must show that S span P2 and S is linearly independent.

To show that S span P2 we take any vector in P2 , that is a polynomial

at 2  b t  c , and wish to find a1 , a2 and a3 so that

 
at 2  b t  c  a1 t 2  1  a2  t - 1  a3 2t  2
 a1t 2  a1  a2 t - a2  2a3 t  2a3
 a1t 2  a2  2a3 t  a1  a2  2a3 

a1  a (1)
a2  2a3  b (2)

a1  a2  2a3  c (3)
From (2)
a2  b  2a3 (4)
Substituting (1) and (4) into (3) we have
cab
a3  (5)
4

Substituting (5) into (4) we have

abc
a2 
2
abc cab
a1  a , a2  , a3 
2 4

Hence S span P2 .

To show that S is linearly independent, we form

 
a1 t 2  1  a2  t - 1  a3 2t  2  0
a1t 2  a2  2a3 t  a1  a2  2a3   0

a1  0
a2  2a3  0

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 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

a1  a2  2a3  0

a1  a2  a3  0 , which implies that S is linearly independent.

1 0  0 1  0 0 0 0 
3. Show that the set S   , 0 0, 1 0 , 0 1   is a basis for the vector space .
  0 0       
Solution
To verify that S is linearly independent, we form

1 0  0 1  0 0  0 0   0 0 
a1    a2    a3    a4   
0 0  0 0  1 0  0 1   0 0 

This gives
a1 a 2  0 0 
a 
 3 a4  0 0

Which implies that a1  a2  a3  a4  0. Hence, S is linearly independent.

To verify that S spans , we take any vector

a b 
c d  in and we must find scalars a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 such that
 
a b  1 0  0 1  0 0  0 0 
c d   a1 0 0  a 2 0 0  a3 1 0   a 4 0 1 
         

We find that
a1  a, a2  b, a3  c, and a4  d , so that S spans

55
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

3.7 DIMENSION

3.7.1 Definition

If e1 , e 2 ,..., en  is a basis of the non zero vector space V , the number n of vectors in the basis is

called Dimensionof V , and we write

dimV  n

The zero vector space V  0 is defined to have dimension 0;

dim 0  0

A vector space V is called finite dimension if V  0 or V has a finite basis.

We have assume that a basis is nonempty and hence that the dimension of the space is at least 1.
On the other hand, the zero space 0, consisting of the zero vector alone, has no basis, so our
insistence that dim 0  0 amounts to saying that the empty set of vectors is a basis of the zero
space.

3.8 Rank of a Matrix

The rank of a matrix is defined to be the dimension of therow or column space.

Row Space: the row space of an m  n matrix A is the subspace of spanned by rows of A .
Column Space: the column space of an m  n matrix A is the subspace of spanned by
columns of A .
The dimension of the row space is called the rank of the matrix A .
The rank is commonly denoted rank  A or rk  A
Note:
1. If a matrix A is in row echelon form, then the nonzero rows of A are linearly
independent.
2. The rank of a matrix is equal to the number of nonzero rows in its row echelon form.
3. For any matrix, the row space and the column space have the same dimension.
4. The column space of a matrix A coincides with the row space of the transpose matrix
AT .
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 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

Examples
1. Find the rank of the matrix

 1 0  1 2 
A   2 0 2 0 
 1 0 1  1

solution
  1 0  1 2
R2 : R2  2 R1  
  0 0 0 4
R3 : R3  R1
 0 0 0 1 

  1 0  1 2
R2 : R2  4 R3   0 0 0 0
 
 0 0 0 1 

  1 0  1 2
  0 0 0 1 
 0 0 0 0

Rk  A  2

2. Find the rank of the matrix

1 2 1  1
A  9 5 2 2 
7 1 0 4 

solution
1 2 1  1
R2 : R2  9 R1
 0  13  7 11

R3 : R3  7 R1
0  13  7 11

57
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

1 2 1  1
R3 : R3  R2  0  13  7 11

 
0 0 0 0 

Hence,
Rk ( A)  2

3. Find the rank of the matrix

 1 0 1 2 
B   2 1 2 3 
 1 0 1  2

Solution
1 0  1 2 
R2 : R2  2 R1
 0 1 4  1
R3 : R3  R1
0 0 0 0 

Therefore,
Rk ( B)  2

58
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

4.0 LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS

If V and W are two real vector spaces over the field k , a function T : V  W is called a
linear transformation if it satisfies the following axioms:

T1. T x  y   T x   T  y ; x, y V

T2. T kx  kT x; x V and k 

A linear transformation T : V  V is called a linear operator on V .

Examples

1. Define a function T : by
x  y 
x   x 
T     x  2 y   
 y  3 x   
y

Show that T is a linear transformation
Solution
x   x1 
We verify the axioms   and   
 y  y1 

x  x1    y  y1    x  y   x1  y1 
  x   x1    x  x1      x  2 y    x  2 y   T  x   T  x1 
T        T  
   x  x   2 y  y     1 1  y y 
 y  y1  3x  x 
1 1
  y   y1           1
 1   3 x   13 x 

This proves the axioms T1

kx  ky  x  y 
  x  kx  x 
T k     T    kx  2ky  k  x  2 y   kT  

  y ky 3kx  3 x   y

Hence T is a linear transformation.

2. Define by

59
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

  x1  
  2 x  x3 
T   x 2     1 
  x     4 x2 
 3 
Show that T is Linear Transformation
Proof:

  x1   y1  
 
T  x  y   T   x 2    y 2  
 x   y  
 3   3 

  x1  y1  
 
 T   x 2  y 2  
 x  y  
 3 3 

2 x  y1    x3  y 3 
 1 
  4 x 2  y 2  

2 x  x3   2 y1  y 3 
 1 
  4 x 2   4  y 2 

2 x  x3  2 y1  y 3 
 1  
  4 x2    4 y 2 

  x1     y1  
   
 T   x 2    T   y 2  
 x   y 
 3   3 

 T x   T  y 
And

60
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

  x1     kx1  
    
T kx  T  k  x 2    T  kx2  
 x     kx  
  3   3 

2kx1   kx3 
 
  4kx2  

k 2 x1  x3 
 
 k  4 x 2  

2 x  x3 
k  1 
  4 x 2  

  x1  
 
 kT   x 2  
 x  
 3 

 kT ( x)
T is a linear transformation

3. Define T : P3  M 22 by

a  b a  2c 

T a  bx  cx 2  dx 3    b  d 
 d
Show that T is LT.
Proof

61
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

  
T  x  y   T a1  b1 x  c1 x 2  d1 x 3  a 2  b2 x  c 2 x 2  d 2 x 3 

 T a1  a 2   b1  b2 x  c1  c 2 x 2  d1  d 2 x 3 
a  a 2   b1  b2  a1  a 2   2c1  c2 
 1
 d1  d 2  b1  b2   d1  d 2  

a  b   a 2  b2  a1  2c1   a 2  2c2 

 1 1
 d1  d 2 b1  d1   b2  d 2  

a  b a1  2c1   a 2  b2 a 2  2c 2 
 1 1 
 d1 b1  d1  d1  d 2 b2  d 2 

 T a1  b1 x  c1 x 2  d1 x 3   T a 2  b2 x  c 2 x 2  d 2 x 3 

 T x   T  y 
And

62
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I


T kx  T k a  bx  cx 2  dx 3 

 T ka  kbx  kcx 2  kd x 3 
ka  kb ka  k 2c 

 kd kb  kd 

k a  b  k a  2c 

 kd k b  d  

 a  b a  2c 
 k
 d b  d 


 kT a  bx  cx 2  dx 3 
 kT  x 

4. Let T : V  W be a linear transformation. If T x  3 y   a and T 2x  y   b, find

T x  and T  y  in terms of a and b .
Solution
T x  3 y   a  T x   3T  y   a (1)

T 2 x  y   b  2T x  T  y   b (2)
Multiply (1) by 2 and subtract it from (2) gives
b  2a
T y  (3)
5
Substituting (3) into (1) gives
3b  a
T x   (4)
5

T x  
1
3b  a  and T  y   1 b  2a 
5 5
5. Find the linear transformation with the given properties and compute T v 

63
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Solution
Express ( x, y ) as a linear combination (2,  1) and (1, 1)

( x, y)  a1 (2,1)  a2 (1,1)

2a1  a2  x (1)

 a1  a2  y (2)

From (2) we have

a2  y  a1 (3)

Substituting (3) into (1) we have

1
a1  ( x  y ),
3
1
a2  ( x  2 y)
3

1 1
( x, y )  ( x  y )(2,1)  ( x  2 y )(1,1)
3 3
1 1
T ( x, y )  ( x  y )T (2,1)  ( x  2 y )T (1,1)
3 3
1 1
T ( x, y )  ( x  y )(1,1,1)  ( x  2 y )(0,1,0)
3 3
T ( x, y )  ( x  y ), ( x  y ), ( x  y )  0, ( x  2 y ), 0
1
3
T ( x, y )   x  y , 3 y , x  y 
1
3
T (v)  (1,2)  (1, 2,  1)

64
 MAT212-LINEAR ALGEBRA I

Exercise

1. In each case, find a linear transformation with the given properties and compute T (v) .
(a) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(b) T : P2  P3 ; T ( x 2 )  x 3 , T ( x  1)  0, T ( x 1)  x; v  x 2  x  1

65