Z-Score Standardized Distribution

● number of standard deviations that a ● is composed of scores that have

score is above (or below, if it is been transformed to create
negative) the mean of its distribution predetermined values for µ and σ
● it is an ordinary score transformed ● used to make dissimilar distributions
so that it better describes the score’s comparable
location in a distribution
The Normal Curve
Formula to Change a Raw Score to a ● specific, mathematically defined,
z-Score bell-shaped frequency distribution
For Population: 𝑍 = 𝑋−µ/σ that is symmetrical and unimodal;
For Sample: 𝑍 = 𝑥−𝑀/𝑠 or distributions observed in nature and
𝑍 = 𝑥−𝑀/𝑆 in research commonly approximates
it
Steps to Change a Raw Score to a ● also called the Gaussian Distribution
z-Score
1. Figure the deviation score: subtract
the mean from the raw score.
2. Figure the z-score: divide the
deviation score by the standard
deviation

Formula to Change a z-Score to a

Raw Score
For Population X = µ + zσ
For Sample x = M + zs or The Normal Curve Table
x = M + z (SD) ● table showing percentages of scores
associated with the normal curve
Steps to Change a z-Score to a Raw ● also called the z Table
Score
1. Figure the deviation score: multiply Steps for Figuring the Percentage of
the z-score by the standard Scores Above or Below a Particular
deviation Raw Score or z-Score using the
2. Figure the raw score: add the mean Normal Curve Table
to the deviation score Change • If you are beginning with a raw
score, first change it to z-score.
The Mean and Standard Deviation of Draw • Draw a picture of the normal
z-Scores curve, decide where the z-score falls on it,
For Population µ=0 and shade in the area for which you are
σ=1 finding the percentage.
For Sample M=0 Make • Make a rough estimate of the
s=1 shaded area’s percentage based on the
50%-34%-14% percentages.
Find • Find the exact percentage using middle range of IQ Scores? (Use the
the normal curve table, adding 50% if M = 100, SD = 15 for IQ Scores)
necessary.
Check • Check that your exact Probability
percentage is within the range of your ● the extent to which an event is likely
estimate from Step 3. to occur as determined by the the
fraction or proportion of successful
Examples outcomes to all the possible
● If a person has an IQ of 125, what outcomes
percentage of people have higher ● outcome – term used in discussing
IQ? (Use the M = 100, SD = 15 for probability for the result of an
IQ Scores). experiment (or almost any event)
● If a person has an IQ of 75, what 𝑝 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 / 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
percentage have lower IQ? (Use the 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
M = 100, SD = 15 for IQ Scores).
Probability (Notation and Values)
Figuring z-Scores and Raw Scores from Fraction: 𝑝 (𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑑𝑒) = 1/52
Percentages Using the Normal Curve Percentage: 𝑝(3) = 16.67%
Table Decimal/Proportion: 𝑝 (ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠) = 0.50
Draw. Draw a picture of the normal curve,
and shade in the approximate area for your Random Sampling
percentage using the 50%-34%-14% ● requires that each individual in the
percentages. population has an equal chance of
Make. Make a rough estimate of the being selected
z-score where the shaded area stops. ● a sample obtained by this process is
Find. Find the exact z-score using the called simple random sample
normal curve table (subtracting 50% from
Sampling With Replacement
your percentage if necessary, before looking
● keeping the probabilities from
up the z-score).
changing from one selection to the
Check. Check that your exact z-score is
next by returning each individual to
within the range of your rough estimate from
the population before you make a
Step 3.
selection
Change. If you want to find a raw score,
change it from z-score (x = M + z (SD)).
Probability and Frequency Distributions

Examples
1. What IQ Score would be a person
need to be in the top 5%? (Use the
M = 100, SD = 15 for IQ Scores).
2. What IQ Score would be a person
need to be in the top 55%? (Use the
M = 100, SD = 15 for IQ Scores)
3. What is the range of IQ Scores
includes the 95% of people in the
Probability and Normal Distribution ● Parameter – a value that
describes the population

Sampling Frame
● specific list of the members of
the population in order to
select a subset of that
population
Sample
Range of Probabilities ● a set of individuals drawn from
0.00 – 1.00 the sampling frame, usually
0.00% - 100.00% intended to represent the
population in a research study
Probabilities Expressed as Symbols
● Statistic – a value that
p=½
p = 0.50
describes a sample
p = 50% Element
● basic unit that represents
Probability Rules whatever is being sampled and
Addition Rule from which survey data are to
● “or rule”, is used when there are two
be gathered
or more mutually exclusive
outcomes
● Ex. Heads or tails on a single flip of Probability Sampling
a coin? Or Getting a 3,4,5 in a single ● uses randomization to make sure
roll of dice? that every element of the population
Multiplication Rule gets an equal chance to be part of
● “and rule”, is used when figuring the selected sample.
probability of getting both of two (or ● Simple Random Sampling
more) independent outcomes - participants has an equal chance of
● Ex. Getting a head on the second getting selected to be the part
flip of the coin? Or Getting a 5 on sample
two throws of a dice? Or Getting ● Stratified Random Sampling
two questions correct on a 4-option - divides the elements of the
multiple choice exam? population into small subgroups
(strata) based on the similarity in
Sampling Techniques such a way that the elements within
the group are homogeneous and
Population
heterogeneous among the other
● a set of all the individuals of subgroups formed.
interest in a particular study ● Cluster Sampling
 - entire population is divided into ● Referral/ Snowball Sampling
clusters or sections and then the - this technique is used in the
clusters are randomly selected. All situations where the population is
the elements of the cluster are used completely unknown and rare
for sampling.
Single Stage - entire cluster is Application to Inferential
selected randomly for sampling. Statistics
Two Stage – first, we randomly
select clusters and then from those
selected clusters we randomly select
elements for sampling
● Systematic Sampling
- a probability sampling method
where the elements are chosen from
a target population by selecting a
random starting point and selecting
other members after a fixed
‘sampling interval’.
● Multistage Sampling
- it is the combination of one or more
methods described above.

Non-Probability Sampling
● a sampling technique where the
samples are gathered in a process
that does not give all the individuals
in the population equal chances of
being selected.
● Convenience Sampling
- the samples are selected based on
the availability.
● Purposive Sampling
- sampling technique that is based
on the intention or the purpose of
study.
● Quota Sampling
- sampling technique wherein the
assembled sample has the same
proportions of individuals as the
entire population with respect to
known characteristics, traits or
focused phenomenon.