1

ABSTRACT

This report provides a detailed plant design for the production of ethylene carbonate.
Ethylene carbonate is mainly used as a precursor for lithium-ion battery electrolyte,
plasticize production, and ethylene Glycerol production. The purpose of this project is
to design an ethylene carbonate manufacturing plant that will boost the automotive
industry to meet the growing global demand for ethylene carbonate.
The design flow sheet for this equipment is based on the Process for the
production of Ethylene Carbonate from Ethylene. The plant flow diagram details the
four main processes.
Direct Oxidation of Ethylene in the Presence of a Silver Catalyst to Form Ethylene
Oxide, Water, and Carbon Dioxide, followed by carbon dioxide capture including a
series of absorption and stripping processes.

Ethylene oxide recovery process consisting of absorption, stripping, distillation

processes and finally ethylene carbonate formation from the reaction of ethylene
oxide and carbon dioxide at the anion ex-changer in the catalyst.
The plant is designed to produce 1,000 tons of ethylene carbonate per
year and operates 345 days per year. The fulfillment rate of the factory is 90.41%. A
useful life of 25 years, during which profitability is established at a yield of
55.85% and a discount rate of 59.85%. The payback period is estimated to be two
years after the project commences. Based on the results of this project, the reaction
of ethylene oxide with carbon dioxide is a highly efficient means of producing
ethylene carbonate commercially, and economic analyzes demonstrate its economic
feasibility.
 2

Chapter 1
Introduction

Ethylene carbonate

Ethylene carbonate (often abbreviated as EC) has the chemical formula C3H4O3, its
other names include cyclic ethylene carbonate, cyclic ethylene ester, ethylene glycol
carbonate, glycol carbonate, 2- Dioxolane, 1,3 – dioxacyclopentan-2-one. It is a white
crystalline solid at room temperature, and insoluble in water in its solid state.
However, at its melting point, when it changes to liquid it becomes soluble in water. i
It is a biodegradable amorphous solid polymer, it decomposes cleanly at lower
temperature, in nitrogen and air most in comparison to other commercially used
polymers.

Physical properties: -

 Ethylene carbonate is a yellow or white solid at 25 °C.

 It is soluble in water, ether, alcohols, benzene, ethyl acetate, chloroform, n-
butanol and carbon tetrachloride.
 It is insoluble in gasoline and turpentine oil.
 It is an odorless gas.
 It is a low viscosity organic solvent.
 It is highly soluble in polymers.
 It has a high permittivity.
 It has a low melting point and high boiling point.
 Undergoes ring opening condensation reactions on many compounds
including active hydrogen.

It has high polarity and is a good polar solvent, a polar solvent has a large dipole
moment, bonds present has an electronegativity difference (tendency of an atom or
functional group to attract electrons towards it), it dissolves ions and other polar
solvents, the negative end attracts positively charged ions and positive end of the
molecules attracts negatively charged ions. Ethylene carbonate also has high
permittivity, that is it has a tendency of storing electrical charge, when present in an
electric field.ii
 3

Properties Of Ethylene Carbonate

Properties Values

Chemical formula C3H4O3

IUPAC name 1,3- Dioxolane2-one

Molecular weight 88 g/mol

Boiling point 243 °C

Melting point 35°C

Flash point 150°C

Critical temperature 908°C

Triple point 582.47°C

Auto ignition Temperature 465°C

Decomposition Temperature 246°C

Density 1320 kg/ m3

Vapor pressure 0.001 KPa at 20°C

Solubility in water 778g/l

Critical volume M3
0.19 .mol
kg
Proton Affinity 814 KJ/ mol

Ideal gas heat capacity 105.5 J/ mol. K

 4

Liquid phase heat capacity 133.9 J/ mol. K

Solid phase heat capacity 117.44 J / mol. K

Viscosity 1.92 mPa at 40°C

pH 7

Enthalpy of vaporization 60.80 KJ / mol

Enthalpy of formation (standard, liquid) -590.9 KJ/ mol

Enthalpy of fusion 11.86 KJ/mol

Reactions involving EC
 The hydrolysis of ethylene carbonate results in the formation of pure ethylene
glycol and carbon dioxide.
C3H4O3 + H2O → CO2iii
 When heated to decomposition, acrid smoke (strong, sharp) and irritating
fumes are formed.
 Ethylene carbonate is converted to dimethyl carbonate when reacts with
methanol via transesterification.
C3H4O3 + 2CH3OH → CH3OCO2CH3 + HOC2H4OH

Applications of Ethylene carbonate

 Polar solvent
It dissolves polyvinyl cyanide also known as PANiv. PAN is a synthetic organic
polymer, a thermoplastic (substance which are hard on cooling and become a plastic
when heated), it does not melt under normal conditions but dissolves readily in
Ethylene carbonate. It dissolves via radical polymerization a methodology which
involves successive addition of free radicals building blocks to a polymer unit.
It is also used to degrease (removal of excessive fat or grease) formulations, surface
coatings, polymer resins, lubricants etc.

 Food Packaging
EC has a high oxygen barrier property, that is why it is extensively used in food
packaging.
Barrie layers are materials which are used to separate food and atmosphere so that
there is no reactivity or interdiffusion between the two.v
 5

 Lithium-Ion batteries
Ethylene carbonate is used in the electrolyte of Lithium -ion batteries, along with
conducting salts and additives. Cyclic sulphate is often used as an additive, it makes
the graphite anode more stable, the conducting salt is lithium hexafluoro phosphate.
Ethylene carbonate aids the dissociation of conducting salts by reducing the coulomb
forces (forces of attraction or repulsion due to electrical charges) present within the
salt under consideration. It constitutes around 20-50 % electrolyte solution.vi
Ethylene carbonate also forms a protective layer of lithium- ethylene di-carbonate
(CH2OCO2Li) on graphite surface.
Lithium-ion batteries are extensively used in electric motor cars, they have a large
capacity for charging and are light in weight.

 Pharmaceuticals
Ethylene carbonate is used as an active pharma ingredient (API) in medicines, an API
is a component of a dose which plays a specified beneficial role in human body along
with healing the particular health problem. Ethylene carbonate is also used as a
feedstock in other pharmaceutical operations.vii

 Plasticizers
These are additives (added in small quantities to improve the quality) added to
plastics to make them more soft or pliable, Ethylene carbonate is also used as a
plasticizer in the manufacture of commonly used house hold items like table cloths,
wall covering, shower curtains, swimming pool liners. Packaging films, office
products etc.

 Polymer industry
EC is extensively used as a release agent and as a detergent in polymer industry. A
release agent is a substance which is applied on the surface of another substance so
that nothing sticks on it, it’s a protective layer. A detergent is a water-soluble cleaning
agent, it combines with impurities and dirt and makes them more soluble.
In polymer industry ethylene carbonate is also used in the production of SAP, that is
super absorbent polymers, in the production process they act as a cross linking agent,
such an agent controls the structure of polymer matrix, they control aggregation and
connection of functional monomers to each other. SAP are a type of polymers capable
of absorbing large amounts of water, and consist of a polymer chain as mentioned
above so that there is no dissolution.
 6

Demand of Ethylene Carbonate

The global demand of ethylene carbonate is anticipated to grow at a rate of 6.2 %

CARG
(Compound annual growth rate) between the years 2022 and 2032 in accordance to
surveys made by future market insights (FMI).
EC is used in a variety of applications as discussed above, growing demand for
electric motor cars is increasing the demands for lithium-ions batteries, which is
boosting the need for ethylene carbonate, the electric cars are being sold worldwide.
EC is also extensively used in end use industries such as oil, gas automotive and in
the production of grease and lubricants.
In accordance to the surveys made by FMI the ethylene carbonate is likely to be
dominated by East Asia, it is expected to reach 175 $ US dollars in the next decade.

According to grade ethylene carbonate is divided into industry grade and battery
grade. In the forecast period, the industry grade in expected to have a greater share in
the market, however battery grade is expected to grow at a fast pace, battery grade is
becoming popular because of the awareness of increasing use of recycled batteries. viii
Based on the form EC market is divided into liquid and solid. The solid form is
currently dominating the market till 2021 and is expected to continue to do so owing
to its various usages but liquid form is also expected to grow at a significant rate
owing to the fact that it is used as an electrolyte.
Based on application EC market is divided into lithium-ion batteries, lubricants
surface coating, chemical intermediates, plasticizers, processing agents, dyes etc.
Automotives hold the biggest share in the market currently, however it is expected
that lubricants will have the highest CAGR during the forecast period, also the
growing adoption of EC is processes involving gas separation is expected to derive
the market.
7
 8

Chapter no 2

Process selection and description

Processes to be considered: -
 Production of Ethylene carbonate by reacting ethylene oxide (C2H4O) and
carbon dioxide (CO2).
 Production of Ethylene carbonate by reacting Ethylene glycol and Urea.
 Production of Ethylene carbonate by reacting Ethylene glycol and Phosphene.

Ethylene oxide and carbon dioxide reaction

Ethylene carbonate is produced commercially by reacting Ethylene oxide (often

abbreviated as EO) and carbon dioxide. The plant is installed in the proximity of an
ethylene oxide plant always.ix
Ethylene and oxygen are reacted via direct oxidation in the presence of an epoxidation
forming catalyst, an epoxide is a molecule which has three rings, out of which two
ought to have carbon atoms and one has oxygen atom, ethylene oxide is an epoxide.
The catalyst here used is a silver catalyst in solid form. Two reactors are used in the
process, the first reactor produces ethylene oxide(C2H4O), carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water (H2O).

The following reactions takes place: -

C2H4 + 0.5O2 → C2H4O
C2H4 + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 2H2O

The temperature and pressure ranges for direct oxidation processes are always high,
our temperature range is 200-300 °C and pressure range is 10-30 bars.
The products formed are not pure enough to be employed as feed for the production
of ethylene carbonate, so they are made to go through purifying/ separation
equipments such as absorption columns, stripping columns, flash separators,
distillation columns so that pure reactants for ethylene carbonate production can be
obtained.
Once the reactants are obtained in pure enough form, they react in the second reactor.

The following reaction takes place: -

C2H4O + CO2 → C3H4O3

The temperature and pressure used for this reaction are in the range of 160 – 200 °C
and 50- 150 bars respectively. The catalyst used is an exchange resin, which is
capable of exchanging ions with the medium ions, these catalysts are polymers and
they can have both positive and negative ions.
Now the product obtained from reactor two is also made to go through some
purification process before it is taken in storage.
 9

 Ethylene glycol and Urea reaction

Urea is produced on an industrial scale via the reaction of ammonia (NH3) and carbon
dioxide (CO2).x

Ammonia

Ammonia is produced via Haber process, a process used extensively on industrial

scale for the production of NH3. xi
It involved artificial fixation of nitrogen (the process by which nitrogen is assimilated
into organic compounds), the process involves conversion of atmospheric nitrogen
(N2) into ammonia (NH3) in the presence of hydrogen (H2)
.
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3

Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is formed with the decomposition of limestone (CaCO3), which
results in the formation of calcium oxide (CaO) and carbon dioxide.xii

Urea formation
Liquid ammonia and carbon dioxide are reacted in a reactor at elevated temperatures
and pressure, the temperature and pressure are in the range of 1300-1500°C and 35
atm respectively. The reactants combine together to give ammonium carbamate (NH4
H2NCO2)
The reaction is as follows: -

2NH3 + CO2 → NH4H2NCO2

This is a highly exothermic reaction, goes to completion and operates at a fast rate.
Now after the formation of ammonium carbamate, the product is decomposed and
results in the formation of urea and water.

NH4H2NCO2 → CO(NH2)2 + H2O

The product urea contains unreacted ammonia. Carbon dioxide and ammonium
carbamate, ammonium carbamate can be separated by decreasing the pressure and on
heating carbon dioxide is separated.

Ethylene glycol

It is produced via ethylene, ethylene reacts with oxygen via direct oxidation process
and results in the formation of ethylene oxide, which when goes through hydrolysis
results in the formation of ethylene glycolxiii

C2H4O + H2O → HO-C2H4-OH

This reaction has temperature and pressure of 200 °C and 20 bars respectively. It can
be catalyzed by an acid or a base, or can take place without a catalyst at elevated
 10

temperatures. However, the largest amounts are produced when the catalyst is acidic
or neutral and there is a large amount of water, under such conditions the yield can be
around 90%.

EC formation

Now that both the reactants are obtained, they are introduced in a batch reactor, so
that ethylene carbonate can be made.
HO-C2H4-OH + CO(NH2)2 → C3H4O3 + 2NH3

The reaction is performed under reduced pressure, so that ammonia can be removed
with ease, as the pressure is decreased EC yield is increased, this reaction can’t be
performed under atmospheric pressure.

 Ethylene glycol and phosphene reaction

Ethylene glycol can be obtained by reacting ethylene oxide and water as mentioned
above, and ethylene oxide can be obtained by the direct oxidation of ethylene.
Phosphene is a mixture of carbon monoxide and chlorine (COCL2).
Same amounts of ethylene glycol and phosphene are reacted in a closed vessel at
room temperature (25 °C).

HO-C2H4-OH + COCL2 → C3H4O3 + 2HCl

EC was produced formerly by this process but the product is not highly pure and the
byproduct (HCL) produced as a result of double elimination is hazardous.
The yield is also low.

Comparison of production methods

Methods Ethylene oxide and Ethylene glycol and Ethylene glycol and
carbon dioxide Phosphene reaction Urea reaction
reaction

Operating temperature 160-200°C 27°C 160-180 °C

Operating Pressure 50-150 atm 1 atm 110 atm

Catalyst  NaOH No catalyst Lanthanum nitrate

 Na2CO3 La (NO3)3
 Anionic
exchange resin
Yield 98 % Low 93 %

Conversion 95 % Low high

Advantages  High yield and  No catalyst  Low

 11

selectivity. requirement. temperature

 Low  Low requirement.
temperature temperature  High yield and
requirement. requirement. conversion
 Moderate  Low pressure  Less amount of
energy requirement. catalyst
required.  Less reaction requirement.
 Catalyst easy to steps
prepare and requirement.
recover.
 Less reaction
steps.

Disadvantages  High pressure  Low yield  High pressure

requirement.  Low requirement.
 Exothermic conversion  Multiple
process  Slow process reaction steps.
 HCL formed is  High reaction
hazardous. time.

Process selection and justification

When selecting a suitable process for the manufacture of an industrial product several
factors are to be taken under considerations, like yield (moles of products formed, is
relation to the reactant being consumed), selectivity, operating parameters and
concerned operations to be performed, for example if a reaction is highly exothermic
a coolant is out to be provided, and availability of the raw materials to be used.
And also, prices of the raw materials used, if the raw materials are expensive the
profits margins drop drastically, the raw materials, there handlings, transportation,
nature and prices are also taken under considerations.
After comparison it can be concluded that ethylene oxide and carbon dioxide reaction
is the most preferred because the yields and the conversions are the most, the raw
materials are easily available and the catalyst used is easy to generates, this route
requires less steps of reaction and corrosion is also less, so EO and CO2 route is
chosen.
 12

Process description

Ethylene oxide reactor

Ethylene(C2H4) and oxygen(O2) enter ethylene oxide reactor for the purpose of
producing ethylene oxide (C2H4O). The reaction takes place at 250 °C and 10 bar
pressure, and the catalyst used is 13- 18 % silver based on an aluminum oxide surface,
the size is 0.1-1mm, often used in epoxidation reactions.xiv
The ethylene and oxygen react via direct oxidation, it results in the addition of oxygen
to a molecule, a process performed at elevated temperatures and pressure.

C2H4 + 0.5O2 → C2H4O

C2H4 + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 2H2O

The reactions are highly exothermic, the enthalpies are -106 KJ/mol and -1323
KJ/mol respectively, now since the reactions are exothermic temperature control is
very important, that is why coolant is provided in the reactor around the catalyst
tubes.
The reactor conversion is 86 % and the reaction time is 90 seconds.
The product stream leaving the reactor is a gas phase mixture.

Absorber 1
An absorber is an equipment that operates on low temperature and high pressure, gas
absorption will take place here, a component of a gas mixture will be separated when
it will come in contact with a liquid, a solution will be formed. Here the absorbing
liquid will be the solvent and the gas absorbed will be the solute.
 13

A gas mixture of ethylene oxide (C2H4O), carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O) and a
small amount of unreacted ethylene (C2H4) will enter absorber 1, here water will be
introduced as absorbing media, ethylene oxide will be absorbed in it forming a dilute
ethylene oxide solution and it will go to stripper 2. And remaining carbon dioxide and
ethylene will exit the absorber. Only ethylene oxide will be absorbed in water because
both these liquids are polar solvents, and others will pass. Now a part of the exit
stream will go back to the reactor and a part of it will enter absorber 2.

Absorber 2
Here carbon dioxide and ethylene will enter and a regenerated solution of potassium
carbonate (K2CO3) will be introduced for absorption of carbon dioxide.
Again, mass transfer will take place from gas to liquid phase and result in the
formation of a solution in which carbon dioxide is a solute and potassium carbonate is
a solvent. The remaining ethylene carbonate will be recycled back to the reactor. The
carbon dioxide is to be removed continuously so that its concentration in recycle
stream is acceptable, otherwise it adversely effects the performance of the reactor
catalyst.

Stripper 1

A stripping column is an equipment which operates on high temperature and low

pressure, it this process mass transfer will be from liquid to gas phase. A stripping
column is also called a desorption column, because its opposite to an absorber in
operation.
Steam will be introduced to the solution of carbon dioxide and potassium carbonate
entering the stripper, CO2 will be stripped and will exit the stripper along water
vapors.
The remaining potassium carbonate solution will be recycled back to absorber 2 to be
used again and this becomes regenerated.

Flash separator 1

It is a pressure vessel which works on the basis of centrifugal segregation, centrifugal

force is a force due to the inertia of a body and is always directed outside from the
axis of rotation of the body. It is a cone shaped rotating container creates a spinning
cortex angle.
Flash separator separated on the basis of densities the denser fluid moves to the sides
of the walls of the container and less dense is at the axis of rotation, now carbon
dioxide and water vapors enter the flash separator, the density of water is 995 kg/m3
and that of carbon dioxide is 1.87 kg/m3, water being the denser fluid is separated and
pure carbon dioxide is obtained as a result.
Now at this point one of the two reactants for the production of ethylene carbonate is
obtained.

Stripper 2

Dilute ethylene oxide solution enters this stripper and mass transfer is occurred from
liquid to gas phase, the steam introduced separates the constitutes of the solution,
liquid flows downward direction and gas always flows upward, the steam decreases
 14

the boiling point of the component it is to separate by decreasing the vapor pressure of
that particular component in the solution.

Distillation column

It separated a mixture on the basis of relative volatilities, it’s a physical separation.

The boiling point of water is 100 °C and ethylene oxide is 10.8 °C, ethylene oxide
leaves as the overhead gas and is condensed to a reflux drum, and some part is
refluxed back into the column for the sake of more purity. A distillation column
consists of a reboiler and a condenser, the reboiler partially boils the less volatile
component coming from the bottom stream and sends it back to the distillation
column.
Now here pure ethylene oxide, the other reactant is obtained.
The ethylene oxide and carbon dioxide are mixed and sent to the ethylene carbonate
reactor.

Ethylene carbonate reactor

Here the reaction temperature is 160-200°C and the pressure is 50-150 atm, the
catalyst is an exchange resin catalyst bed, exchange resins can have both positive and
negative ions that they can exchange with medium ions, here anionic exchange resin
catalyst bed is being utilized. Ethylene carbonate is formed here.
C2H4O + CO2 → C3H4O3
The product stream is not hundred percent pure, as in it has some amount of ethylene
oxide leaving with it, which is treated in the stripping section.

Stripper 3

In this stripper a solution of ethylene carbonate and ethylene oxide is introduced,

carbon dioxide is used as a stripping gas via a conduit and as a result ethylene oxide is
removed from ethylene carbonate. These enter the flash separator.

Flash separator 2

Ethylene carbonate rich solution in entered in the flash separator here denser ethylene
carbonate due to the aid of gravity is collected and stored in the storage and the
overhead gas containing ethylene oxide and carbon dioxide are recycled back to the
reactor to be used again.
 15

Chapter 3

Material balance

Material balance involves the calculations of material entering or leaving a system, it

is based on the law of conservation of mass which states that mass can neither be
created nor be destroyed in process and the total mass remains constant.
Accumulation = Input – output + generation - consumption xv

Assumptions: -

 Steady state operation (no accumulation).

 All masses are calculated on an hourly basis.
 Overall plant production rate is 10,000tons/ year of ethylene carbonate.
 Plant attainment is 345days in a year.
 Hourly production rate is 1207.729 kg/hr.
 The diagrams contain a summary of material balance on the major plant
equipments.

Material balance on ethylene oxide reactor: -

Input stream

Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction

C2H4 633.395 41 %

O2 910.535 59%

Input = 633.395 + 910.535

= 1545 kg
 16

Output stream

Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

C2H4O 603.158 39

CO2 603.46 39.1

C2H4 93 6

H2O 246.85 15.977

Output = 603.158 + 603.46 +93 + 246.85

= 1545

Material balance on Absorber 1: -

Input stream

Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

C2H4O 603.158 39

CO2 603.46 39.1

C2H4 93 6

H2O 246.85 15.977

 17

Solvent input
Component Mass kg/hr

H2O 1156.2

Input = 603.158 + 603.46 +93 + 246.85 + 1156.2

= 2801.2

Output stream

Treated gas
Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction

C2H4 603.46 21.54

CO2 93 3.3

Spent solvent

Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction

C2H4O 603.158 21

H2O 1403 51

Output stream = 603.46 + 93 +603.158 + 1403

=2801.2

Material balance on Absorber 2: -

Input
Feed gas
 18

Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction

C2H4 56.35 14.7 %

CO2 329 85.9 %

Solvent
Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction

K2CO3 1472.2 100 %

Input = 56.35 + 329 + 1472.2

= 1857.55

Output
Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

C2H4 56.75 81.9

CO2 13.15 18.8

Spent solvent
Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction

K2CO3 1472.2 81.7

CO2 316 18.26

Output = 56.75 +13.15 + 1472.2 + 316

= 1857.55
 19

Material balance on Stripper 1: -

Input
Liquid feed

Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

K2CO3 1472.2 69.6

CO2 644 30.4

Stripping gas

Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

Steam 4232.8 81.7

Input = 1472.2 + 644 + 4232.8

= 6349 kg

Output
Exit liquid
Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

K2CO3 1472.2 99.1

CO2 12.88 0.9

Exit gas
 20

Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

H2O 4232.8 12.98

CO2 631.3 87.02

Output = 1472 + 12.88 + 631.3 + 4232 .8

= 6349 kg

Material balance on Flash separator 1: -

Input
Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

H2O 4232.8 12.47

CO2 603.452 87.51

Input = 4232.8 + 603.452

= 4836.252
Output
Exit liquid
Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

H2O 4232.8 100

Exit gas
 21

Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

CO2 603.452 100

Output = 4232.8 + 603.452

= 4836.252

Material balance on Distillation column: -

Input
Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

C2H4O 604.158 70.99

H2O 2468.5 29.9

Input = 604.158 + 246.85

= 851.008

Output

Distillate
Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

C2H4O 604.158 100

Bottom liquid
 22

Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

H2O 2468.5 100

Output = 604.158 + 246.85

= 851.008
Material balance on ethylene Carbonate reactor: -

Input
Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

C2H4O 604.158 49

CO2 631.13 51

Input = 604.158 + 631.13

= 1235.288
Output
Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

C2H4O3 604.158 98.9

C2H4O 6.13 1.9

Output= 604.158+6.13
= 610.288

Material balance on Stripper 3: -

 23

Input
Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

C2H4O3 604.158 98.9

C2H4O 6.13 1.9

Stripping gas
Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

CO2 1329 100

Input = 1329 + 6.13 + 604.158

= 1939.26
Output
Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

CO2 1196.1 99

C2H4O 5.44 1

Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

C2H4O3 604.158 81.8

C2H4O 0.66 0.08

CO2 132.9 18
 24

Output = 1196.1 + 5.44 + 604.158 + 0.66 + 132.9

= 1939.26

Material balance on Flash separator 2: -

Input

Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

C3H4O3 604.158 81.89

C2H4O 0.66 0.08

CO2 132.9 18

Input= 604.13 + 0.66 + 132.9

= 737.69

Output

Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

C3H4O3 604.13 100

Component Mass kg/hr Mass fraction %

CO2 132.9 99.5

C2H4O 0.664 0.5

Output= 604.13 + 0.66 + 132.9

= 737.69
 25

Chapter 4

ENERGY BALANCE

ENERGY balance Equation:

At steady state condition:

In + Heat added = Out

Assumptions:
1. Steady state conditions for all the operations
2. Basis: 1kJ/hr
3. All gases are assumed ideal, hence Enthalpy depends only on temperature.
4. The k.E and P.E terms are neglected and hence they are equals to zero.
5. Reference Temperature = 25ºC (assumed)
6. Reference Pressure = 1atm (101.325)
7.
The below diagram shows the summary of Energy Balance on all major equipments

Balance on Reactor 1

Tin=100 C INPUT
COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY Percentage
C2H4 384.015 2016 0.37
O2 219.437 3291 0.62

TOTAL 5307 100

Tout= 200 OUTPUT

COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY Percentage
C2H4O 604.158 7400 40.33
C2H4 192.00 3024 16.2
CO2 603.453 4224 23.8
H2O 246.866 3456 19.9
 26

TOTAL 18104 100%

BALANCE ON REACTOR 2:

Tin = 200 INPUT

COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY Percentage
CO2 631.3 4419 37
C2H4O 604.13 7400 62.6
TOTAL 11819 100%

Tout =150 OUTPUT

COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY Percentage %
C3H4O3 604.13 4530 98
C2H4O 6.13 53 1.95
TOTAL 4583 100

BALANCE ON STRIPPER 1:

Tin=150 INPUT
GAS FEED
COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY Percentage %
STEAM 4232 47610 100
 27

LIQUID FEED
COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY Percentage %
K2CO3 1472.2 165600 0.30
CO2 644.2 3840 0.69
TOTAL 5496 100

Tout=125 OUTPUT
EXIT GAS
CO2 631.3 2525 0.22
WATER 4232.8 8464 0.77
TOTAL 10989 100

EXIT LIQUID
COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY Percentage %
K2CO3 1472.2 165600 0.99
CO2 12.88 64.4 0.0003
TOTAL 165664.4 100

BALANCE ON STRIPPER 3

COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY Percentage %

C3H4O3 604.13 3624 98
C2H4O 6.13 42 1.98
TOTAL 3666 100

COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY Percentage %

CO2 1329 5316 100
 28

Tout=125 OUTPUT
COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY Percentage %
CO2 1196.1 4784
C2H40 5.44 38

COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY Percentage %

EC 604.13 3624 0.87
EO 0.66 4.62 0.001
CO2 531.6 0.12
TOTAL 4160.22 100

BALANCE ON HEAT EXCHANGER

Tin=125 INPUT
COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY %age
C2H4O 604.13 4228.91 4.7
H2O 4232.8 8465.6 95.2
TOTAL 88884.91 100

Tout= 55 OUTPUT
COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY %age
C2H4O 604.13 1268.673 33
H2O 4232.8 2539.68 66.3

TOTAL 3808.353 100

 29

BALANCE ON DISTLLATION COLUMN

Tin=55 INPUT
COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY %age
C2H4O 604.13 1268.67 33
H2O 4232.8 2539.68 66.3
TOTAL 3808.35 100

DISTILLATE
COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY %age
C2H4O 604.13 634.36 100

BOTTOM
COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY %age
H2O 246.85 74.05 100

BALANCE ON ABSORBER 1
 30

Tin=40 INPUT
GAS FEED
COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY %age
C2H4 192.00 1900.8 0.63
CO2 603.452 362.07 0.12
C2H4O 604.158 634.36 0.21
H2O 246.866 74.05 0.02
TOTAL 2971.28 100

SOLVENT
COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY %age
WATER 1156.2 346.86 100

Tout= 50 OUTPUT
TREATED GAS
COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY %age
C2h4 192.00 3168 0.83
Co2 603.452 603.452 0.16
TOTAL 3771.452 100

SPEENT SOLVENT
COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY %age
C2H4O 604.158 1057.2765 0.60
WATER 1403 701.5 0.39
TOTAL 1758.776 100
 31

BALANCE ON ABSORBER 2

Tin=50 INPUT
FEED GAS
COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY %age
C2H4 56.75 936.375 0.73
CO2 329 329 0.26

SOLVENT
COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY %age
K2CO3 1472.2 33124.5 100

Tout= 50 OUTPUT
COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY %age
C2H4 56.75 936.375 0.98
CO2 13.15 13.15 0.013
TOTAL 949.525 100

SPENT SOLVENT
COMPONENT MASS ENTHALPY %age
K2CO3 1472.2 33124.5 0.99
CO2 316 316 0.09
TOTAL 33440.5 100

-----------------------------------------------
 32

Chapter 5
Design of major equipment
Design of a Fixed bed reactor
A Reactor is a vessel, in which chemical transformation pf reactants into products take
place, provided that favorable conditions such as temperature and pressure are
provided.xvi

Types of Reactors

Classification base Reactors

Mode of Operation Batch, continuous, semi-batch

End use base Polymerization, electrochemical, biological

Phase Single phase, multiphase

Catalyst Homogenous, Heterogenous

Residence time of Ideal, non-ideal

molecules

Batch reactor
A batch reactor is a reactor type in which the reactants are placed inside the reaction
vessel, and left sometime for reaction, after that the products are attained. This reactor
is also provided with an agitator and cooling jacket if the reaction is exothermic. The
residence time of molecules is more in this type.
The conditions are unsteady state, because as the reaction proceeds, reaction mixture
properties are changed with time. It is used for liquid phase reactions.

Advantages Disadvantages

Simple construction, easy to operate, Difficult large-scale production, Requires

flexible operation, inexpensive, high time (empty, clean, refill), high labor cost
conversion.

Continuous Reactors
In this reactor, reactants are continuously being provided and products are
continuously being formed and collected, these reactors are preferred over batch
because they have better catalyst life, reduced labor cost and resultantly less overall
cost.
 33

Continuous stirrer tank reactor (CSTR)

These are also known as mixed flow reactors, back mixed reactor or C star reactors.
They also have an agitator and a cooling jacket. There is continuous inflow and
outflow of reactants and products, the condition is of steady state and it is commonly
used in homogenous gas phase reactions xvii

Advantages Disadvantages

Good temperature control, good Lowest conversion per unit volume, not
isothermal operation, relatively suitable for high pressure, by-passing and
inexpensive. channeling.

Ideal plug flow reactors

These are tubular reactors, it can either consist of a big long coiled tube or several
tubes in parallel, reactants enter at one end and leave at the other, throughout the tube
there is a variation in reactor mixture, it is also operating at unsteady state condition.
A cooling jacket is provided if necessary, mixing is in radial direction. These reactors
are also used for homogenous gas phase reactions

Advantages Disadvantages

Easy maintenance Poor temperature control, Hotspots,

shutdown and cleaning is expensive.
Good conversion

Fixed bed reactor: -

Also commonly known as packed bed reactor, is a type of reactor in which two beds
are fixed and there is solid catalyst present between the two. These are large diameter
bed or beds or in tubular arrangement. Reaction mixture passes through mass of
catalyst and the reaction takes place. It is used in the reaction of gas phase
heterogenous systems.

Advantages Disadvantages

Highest conversion per unit volume, low Thermal gradient, channeling, catalyst
operating cost, continuous process, more placement difficult
contact between reactants and catalyst,
low residence time

Justification of choice
After comparing various factors, it has been concluded that a continuous catalytic
heterogenous reactor is best for this process because it promotes good catalyst life,
reduced labor , less cost and more production rates
 34

Reactions: -
CH2=CH2 + 0.5O2 -> C2H4O
CH2=CH2 + 3O2 -> 2CO2 + 2 H2O
Reaction temperature = 250 °C Pressure = 10 bar
Activation Energy
k 1 Ea T 2−T 1
2.3 log = ⦋ ⦌
k2 R T 2.T 1
−4
7.624 x 10 Ea 523−373
2.3 log = ⦋ ⦌
3.9 x 10 −6
8.314 523.373

Ea = 56.7 x 10 3 J/ mol

Rate of reaction
Based on dual site Langmuir- Hinshelwood mechanism
KoPEPo
rA =
¿¿
¿ Ea
Ko = reaction rate constant oxygen K= Ae RT

KE = reaction rate constant Ethylene

PO= partial pressure oxygen PE= partial pressure ethylene
3
−56.7 x10
Ko = 3.5 x 102. e 8.314 x523 = >7.624 x 104
3
−56.7 x10
KE = 17.8 x e 8.314 x523 = >3.9 x 10−6

Po = yo x PT = >5.9 bar
PE = yE x PT => 4.1 bar
mol
rA = 0.0177
g hr
 35

Weight of catalystxviii
fao
Dfa
Wc = ∫ Fao = input ethylene into reactor Fa= output ethylene from
fa rA
reactor
= 387 kg
Volume of catalyst bed xix

Wc = PB.VB VB => 0.6 m3

Height and Diameter of catalyst bed

H/D = 3

Volume of bed 0.6 m3

H= =
flow area 3.14 d
2

D= 0.255m H = 3 x D = 0.764m
Volume of reactor xx

VB = VR (1-Ɛ) void fraction can be ( 0.6-0.8)

= 3 m3

Tube length and diameter

Tube length range = 6-12 m so LT = 6.5 m
Tube diameter range = 20-50mm inner diameter = 35mm Outer diameter =
45mm
Reactor length Allowance 20-50 %
LR = LT + 30 % LT => 8.45 m
Area Reactor VR = AR x LR

= 0.36 m2

Diameter of reactor AR = (π. DR 2)/4

=0.68m
Pressure Dropxxi

2488.635 Pa/m - 4490 Pa /m => 26 KPa

Residence time
volof reactor
Τ= => 130.434s
volumetric flowrate

space velocity = 1 / Τ => 7.67x 10−3 1/s

 36

No. of tubes

π <. Dt 2
VR = n ⦋ ⦌ n=> 290
4
Tube side linear velocity
G
Ut = => 0.09 m/s
P

Heat transfer co-efficient at tube side

0.95
G W
h = 15.1 ( 0.42 ) => 38.114 2
DT °C m .

Bundle diameter

Nt 1n
Db = do ( ) => 0.516m
k
Ds = Db + clearance => 0.574m
Baffle spacing = 30-50 % shell diameter = 0.23m
2
3.14( Ds )
shell side area = = 0.26 m2
4
nio+ viƐ
Extent of reaction: Yi =
xxii
no+ v Ɛ

Ɛ1 = 0.0033 mol/s Ɛ2= 9.16. 10−6 mol/s

Heat loss
(Ɛ1x heat of reaction1) + (Ɛ2 x heat of reactions 2) + Q

= -9.32x 105 kJ/hr

Heat consumed by catalyst

total heat consumed
Heat consumed by volume of catalyst =
volume of catalyst bed
W
= 4.32x 105 3
m
Shell side linear velocity
Q kg
m= = 0.32
cp(T 2−T 1) s

Shell side mass flowrate

mass flowrate
Mass flowrate unit area =
areaof shell
 37

kg
= 1.23 2
m s
Heat transfer co-efficient shell side
0.95
G W
h = 15.1 ( 0.42 ) => 67.6
DT °C m2 .

Specification sheet

Rate of reaction mol

0.0177
g hr

Weight of catalyst = 387 kg

Volume of catalyst bed 0.6 m3

Height of catalyst bed 0.764m

Diameter of catalyst bed 0.255m

Volume of reactor 3 m3

Tube length LT = 6.5 m

Tube outer diameter 45mm

Tube inner diameter 35mm

Reactor length 8.45 m

Area Reactor 0.36 m 2

Diameter of reactor 0.68m

Pressure Drop 26 KPa

Residence time 130.434s

space velocity 7.67x 10−3 1/s

No. of tubes 290

Tube side linear velocity 0.09 m/s

Heat transfer co-efficient at tube side W

38.114
°C m2 .

Bundle diameter 0.574m

 38

Shell diameter 0.574m

Baffle spacing 0.23m

shell side area 0.26 m 2

Heat consumed by catalyst W

4.32x 105
m3
Shell side mass flowrate kg
1.23
m2 s
Heat transfer co-efficient shell side
W
67.6 2
°C m .
 39

Design of a distillation column

Dual Distillation Design:

Problem:
Design a binary distillation column that separates a mixture of ethylene oxide and
water. Ethylene oxide of interest at
exits the overhead at a flow rate of 664.5 kg /hr to reach the ethylene
carbonate reactor, and water exits the storage tank at a rate of 6040.42 kg / hr.
Main Purpose
Design of a dual distillation column for separating ethylene oxide from a mixture of
ethylene oxide and water.
Specific Goals
The specific goals of this project are:
1. Select the column type for the distillation process.
2. Perform the mass balance and energy balance of the unit (distillation column). 4244
3. Create mechanical and chemical design and drawings of the distillation column.

Introduction 
Distillation is a widely used separation technique for separating mixtures and is based
on the conditions necessary to change the phase of components from liquid
to vapor due to differences in boiling point or relative volatility.
Distillation is preferred over the
technique.
Separating the more volatile components from the less volatile components in the
feedstock solution by partial evaporation of the feedstock followed by condensation.
The produced vapor
is richer in volatile components. Distillation is also known as
fractional distillation or fractional distillation. Although this is the most economical
method for separating
liquid mixtures, it can be energy intensive. Distillation can consume 50% or more of
a plant's operating energy costs, especially if the components being separated have
low relative volatilityxxiii

Column Type Selection 

There are two main types of distillation columns. Plates and filling columns. The

industrial distillation operation is most commonly performed
on trayed columns, but the use of
filled columns is increasing. In some cases, the distillation column
may contain both trays and fillers. The
tray tower is a vertical cylindrical pressure vessel in
which vapors and liquids are currently counter current
, contacted by a series of trays or plate down comers, and gravity transports the liquid
to the lower tray
. The gas flows through the openings in each tray and foams through the
liquid on the tray. The three main types that exist are: Sieves, valves, bubble trays. A
packed column, on the other hand, is a vertical cylindrical pressure vessel containing
one or more sections of packing material over which the liquid flows downward
by gravity as a film or droplets between the packing materials. Vapor flows upward
 40

through the wet packing and contacts the liquid. The package section Between

the lower gas injection support plate that holds the packing and the upper
grid or mesh hold down plate that prevents packing migration. Located above the hold
down plate
, the liquid distributor ensures that the liquid is evenly distributed across the cross-
sectional area of the column as it enters the
packing section. Packs can be freely filled with marble balls, Raschig rings and
scrap ceramics.

Equipment Selection

Previous analyzes performed on distillation operations between the tray and

packed columns indicated that the tray/tray column was a more effective set
due to its longer residence time and lower maintenance costs. Design Information
Most theory and design principles are based on
step wise equilibrium.

Device Description 

A distillation column is used to separate ethylene oxide from a mixture of

ethylene oxide and water. The distillation column is
a cylindrical vertical housing with Tori
ball seals on the top and bottom, and the interior of the housing column consists of
multiple components of
, each to improve heat transfer or transfer of
material. Used for. The distillation column contains several major components.
 Vertical jacket on which the separation of liquid components is performed.
Inside columns such as trays / plates used to improve component isolation.
 The upper re-boiler provides the evaporation of ethene required for the distillation
process.
 A condenser for cooling and condensing the steam coming out of the top of the
column.
 A re-flux drum for collecting condensed vapors from the top of the column so
that the liquid (re-flux) can be returned to the column.

Materials of Construction

There are several material properties that affect the load-bearing capacity of a

design. These include: Tensile strength, Young's modulus, ductility, hardness,
fatigue resistance, and other considerations such as corrosion resistance and economic
feasibility.
The material considered in this process is stainless steel.

Mode of Operation

The column is divided into two sections which are the stripping and rectification
sections. The feed enters the column at an optimum point and moves down the
column where the re boiler heats the feed. The high volatile component in the feed
vaporizes which moves up the column. The vaporized component rising up the
 41

column contacts the feed and partially strips of the volatile component in the feed.
The vapour flows up to the top of the column into the condenser. All the vapours are
condensed liquid and part of it is returned to the column (re flux). The stripping
section is below the feed point. As the vapour moves up the column, it comes into
contact with the condensed liquid. The less volatile components move down the
column. The rectification or enriching section is enriched with more volatile
component. The liquid and vapour contacts are on the trays. The vapour moves up
through the holes of the plates while the liquids flow horizontally on the surface of the
plates. The vapour and liquid meet perpendicularly. The liquid flows over the weir
and moves vertically through the down-comer on to the next plate. This liquid
movement occurs on several plates
until it gets to the bottom of the column and the vapour continues through the holes to
the top of the column.

Chemical Engineering Design:

The amount of ethylene oxide entering the Chemical Design

column is 0.99 wt% and the composition of the bottom
product water is 90.1 wt%. The light key is ethylene oxide with a boiling point of
at 10.8 ° C at 1 ATM, and the heavy key is water with a boiling point of 100 ° C.
Chemical engineering designs are categorized as follows:

Material balance

Raw material enters as saturated liquid

Raw material enters at 80 ° C, 3 ATM
Distillate exits at 80 ° C, 3.45 ATM
Eviller operates at 150 ° C 3.45 ATM
Steam enters the condenser at 120 AC

Assumption by Maccabees Thieve

Negligible pressure drops and heat loss.
2. Significant enthral changes and heat of mixing are negligible compared to
latent heat of vaporization.
3. The latent heat of vaporization of the two components is equal and constant.
Design Parameters known:
Feed flow rate, F =
Ethylene carbonate fraction in feed, F =
Ethylene carbonate fraction in distillate, XD =
Ethylene carbonate faction, IN bottom, XB =

Relative Volatility

Relative Volatility is a measure that compares the vapor pressures of the components

in a
liquid chemical mixture. This size is often used when designing large industrial
distillation processes. Relative volatility is usually represented by 'α' = Pa/Pb
Relatively volatile mixtures are easy to separate by distillation. Separation by
distillation is possible if the relative volatility is greater than 1 and Pb is the vapor
 42

pressure of components a and b at a given temperature.

The relative volatility of ethylene carbonate and water is α=

VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM (VLE) DATA

Vapor-liquid equilibrium curves for mixtures are plotted using the following
equations:
159
Y=
αX
1+(α-1) X
where Y= ratio of lighter-key in gas phase
X= ratio of lighter-key in liquid phase
α=18.63
is Xf 0 to 1, the corresponding Y values are shown in the table.
VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM (VLE) DATA
Vapor-liquid equilibrium curves for mixtures are plotted using the following
equations:

Y=α X/1+(α-1) X
where Y= ratio of lighter-key in gas phase
X= ratio of lighter-key in liquid phase
α=18.63
is X from 0 to 1, the corresponding Y values are shown in the table.

X Y
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1

Q line
The location of the intersection of the two lines of motion forms the equation of the q
line.
Y= Xq
q-1
XF
q-1
The liquid is saturated, so q=1 and the slope of
is a vertical line, so the slope is undefined. Therefore, the next line to be drawn in the
partial McCabe - Thiele diagram of drawing the equilibrium curve and the 45-
degree line is the q line. q-line is the
vertical line through the points (0.12, 0.12) and (0.1, 0.65).
Commutation Working Line of
 43

The working line of the commutation section passes through the point x=y=XD=0.95

on the
45" straight line through the intersection of the q line and the equilibrium curve
with 0.537 and y intercept of 0.44

The operating line for stripping

The stripping line can be obtained by drawing a line from (XB, XB) to the
intersection of the commutation line and the q line.

McCabe THIELE GRAPH

calculation of minimum re flux ratio

Y intercept = D/Rm + 1
From the rectification line, intercept=0.67andXD=0.95. Therefore
0.67 = 0.95/ Rm + 1
R min= 0.47

ACTUAL REFLUX RATIO)

R = (1.2........1.5) R min
R=1.35×Rm
R=1.35×0.47
R = 0.6

MINIMUM NUMBER OF TRAYS

The minimum number of theoretical trays in the column is obtained at total re flux.
From the graph below the minimum number of trays at total re flux are 4stages

ACTUAL NUMBER OF TRAYS

Theoretical no. of trays=10

Actual no. of trays=10+1=11
trays above feed tray=6
trays below feed tray=3

Over-all Tray efficiency

In theoretical analysis of the column performance such as the McCabe- thiele method,
the trays are assumed to operate at maximum efficiency. This means that the vapor
and liquid phases are assumed to reach equilibrium as they interact over the plate.

Overall tray efficiency = 0.9

Vapor and Liquid Flow

Rectification Section
R=L/D
L=R×D
 44

= 0.75 × 704.448 = 493.11 kg/h

where R is the re-flux ratio, D is the distillate flow
L is the re-flux flow, V is the steam flow top
V=L+D
= 493.11 + 704.44 = 1197.55 kg/h.

Stripper
Vb=V/B
where, Vb=Boil up Ratio
B=Bottoms Flow
V=Vb ×B
Vb= =Left Line Pitch=3.8
Vb+1
Vb=3.2
Therefore V= 3.2 × 146.56 = 468.99 ≈ 469 kg/h.
L = V + B
Where, V is the steam flow rate at tray
. L is the liquid flow rate in Tray
. L = 468.99 + 146.56 = 615.552 kg/h.

FLOOD VELOCITY
Determining the liquid-vapor flow coefficient FLV
FLV=(LW/VW) ×√ρv/ρl
Where,
 LW and VW are the liquid and vapor flow rates (kg/h) respectively
ρl and ρv are liquid and vapor densities, respectively
ρlv At the Top
ρL = 0.95 (882) +0.05(1000)
= 887.9 Kg/ms
Assuming Vap Obeys ideal gas law
Vapor density at Top
Ρv = PM/ RT
M(EO) = 44.01Kg/kmol
M (H20) =181Kg/km0l
M= 0.95(44) +0.05(18)
= 42.7475Kg/kmol ρv=101.325×42.7475/8.314×328.15
ρv = 4331.39/2728.23
ρv =1.58 kg/m³
FLV AT TOP
FLV (604.158/246.85) √1.58/887.9
= 2.42 × 0.042
= 0.09
ρLV AT Bottom
ρL=1000Kg/kmol
M=0.05(44.01) + 0.95(18)
=19.3025Kg/kmol
ρv=101.325×19.3025
8.314×313.15
ρv=0.75Kg/hr
 45

FLV AT Bottom
=0.06
Uf=Cf×√ρl-ρv/ρv
(Cf is a constant and FLV from above and below figures)
AT THE TOP
Uf=0.07×√887.9-1.58/1.58
=1.8155
AT THE BOTTOM
Uf=0.06√100-0.75/0.75
=2.32

U operating

U operating=0.85×Uf
=0.85×1.8155
=1.5682

AT THE BOTTOM

U operating

U opt=0.85×Uf
=0.85×2.32
=1.972

Maximum Vapor Rate

V = mº/ 3600×ρvap

AT the Top
V at top of column=704.369/3600×1.58
=0.15m³/s
At the Bottom
V at bottom of column=702.188/ 3600×0.75
=0.26m³/s

Net column area required (A req)

AT the Top
An = V/Uf
= 0.15/1.8155
=0.08 → For top
At the Bottom
An = V/Uf
=0.26/2.32
=0.11 → For bottom

Downcomer Area (Ad)

Uses 12% of column cross-sectional area
For TOP
Ad=0.12×Areq
 46

=0.12×0.11
=0.0132㎡
For Bottom
Ad=0.12×Areq
=0.12×0.11
=0.018㎡
Column Diameter
Area c = л D²/4
Dc = √4×Ac /л
=√4× 0.0132 /л
=0.129m = 4.72 Inches

For Bottom
Area c = лD²/4
Dc = √4×Ac /л
=√4× 0.018/ л
=0.15m = 5inches

PROVISIONAL PLATE DESIGN

Active Area of Plate (Aa)

Aa = Ac - 2(Ad)

For Top
= 0.11 - 2(0.0132)
= 0.0836m²
For Bottom
= 0.15 - 2(0.018)
= 0.114m²

Hole Area

Take 10% of Active Area

= 0.10 ×Aa
Top Section
Ah = 0.10 × 0.0836
= 0.00836㎡
Bottom Section
Ah = 0.10 × 0.114
= 0.0114㎡

Weir Length (lw)

The weir length is usually estimated to be 0.77 0f column dia

For Top
lw = 0.77Dc
= 0.77× 0.129
= 0.099m
For Bottom
lw = 0.77Dc
 47

=0.77 × 0.15
= 0.115m

HOLE DIA:
A hole diameter of 5mm is used

HOLE THICKNESS(TH)
A hole thickness of 3mm is used.

WEIR HEIGHT(HW)
A weir height of 50mm is chosen
HOLE DIA:(dh):
A hole dia of 5mm Is used

PLATE THICKNESS:
A plate thickness of 5mm is used

CHECK WEEPING

Actual minimum Vapour Velocity

minimum vap velocity= min vol flow rate/ Ah
For Top
= 0.7 × 1.8155
= 1.270
For Bottom
= 0.7 × 2.32
= 1.624

Weir Liq. Crest

How= 750× (Lw/lw × ρl) ⅔

Where
lw= length of weir
Lw = liq. flow rate
ρl= liq. Density
For Top
How=750(1.270/0.099×887.9) ⅔
= 12.7939mmliq
How + Hw = 12.7939+50
=62.7939
For Bottom
How= 8.3701mmliq
How + Hw= 62.7939+50
= 58.3701

MINIMUM VAP. VELOCITY:

Uh = K2-0.90(25.4-DH) / (ρV) ½
 48

Uh=min. vap velocity through this holes at weep point m/s

k2= Constt. depends depth of clear liq. on plate=30.4
For Top =9.632
For Bottom=13.76

MAX. VOLUMATRIC FLOW RATE (VAPORS)

BASE= 0.26 m³/s

TOP = 0.15 m³/s
At 70% turns down ratio
FOR TOP
Actual min. Vapor velocity = min. Vap rate/ Ah
= 0.7 (0.15)/ 0.0083
= 12.65
FOR BOTTOM
Actual min. Vapor velocity = 0.7 (0.26)/ 0.0114
= 15.96
S0, min. Vapor velocity is above the weep point.
DRY PLATE PRESSURE DROP (hd)

Hd= 51(Uh/C。) ² ρv/ρl

C。= Discharge coefficient
C。=0.84 (from fig)
For Top
Hd=51(9.632/0.84) ² 1.58/867.9
= 51 (131.48) (0.0017)
=11.93mm liq
For Bottom
Hd=51(13.76/0.84) ² (0.75/1000)
=10.26 mm liq.

Residual Head

hr= 12500/ρl
=12500/887.9
=14.07
For Top
hr= 12500/887.9
=14.0782mm liq.
=1876.93Pa
For Bottom
hr= 12500/1000
=12.5mm liq.
=1666.53Pa

Total Pressure Drop

ht= hr + hd+ (how + hw) (mm, liq)

For Top
 49

=14.0782+11.93+62.7939
=88.8021
For Bottom
=12.5+10.26+58.3701
=81.1301
TOTAL COLUMN PRESSURE DEOP:

△Pt=9.81exp-3 ht ρl(Pa)

For Top
=9.81exp-3(88.8021) (887.9)
=773.49
For Bottom
=9.81exp-3(81.1311) (1000)
=795.886

DOWN COMER Liq. BACKUP

Caused by pressure drop over the plates and resistance to flow in the down comer
itself.

Hb = (hw + how) + ht + hdc

The main resistance to flow in downcomer will be caused by constriction in the down
comer outlet, and head loss in the down comer can be estimated using the equation
given as,

Hdc = 166 [Lwd / ρl Aap] ²

Where,

Lwd = liq. Flow rate in down comer, kg/sec

Aap = clearance area under the down comer, m²

Aap = hap lw
The clearance area under the down comer
Where,
hap = height of bottom edge of apron above the plate.

hap = hw - (5 to 10mm)

hap = 50 - 10n

hap = 40mm
So, area under Apron

Aap = 0.004 m²
As this is less than Ad so put it in above formula
 50

Hdc = 166 [1.270 / 887.9 (0.004)] ²

Hdc = 21.22mm

As a result

hb = (hw + how) + h t+ hdc

= (58.3701) + (81.1301) + 21.22
= 0.16 m
Hb < 1/2 (tray spacing + weir height)
Hb < 1/2 (0.5 + 50)
Hb < 0.25 m

CHECK RESIDENCE TIME:

Sufficient residence time in the downcomer must be ensured so that the

entrained vapor can separate from the liquid. Prevents liquid from entering.
Mounted under the downcomer.

tr = Ad hbc ρl / L (max)
tr = (0.018) (0.16) (1000/ 493.11)
tr = 10 sec
It should be greater than 3sec, results are satisfied

HEIGHT OF DISTILLATION COLUMN (HC):

HC = (Nact - 1) Hs + △H + plate thickness
Nact = 11
Tray spacing = 0.50 m
△H = 0.5 m each for liq. Holdup and vap. Disengagement
△H = 1m
Total thickness of plate = 0.005 (11)
= 0.055
So, height of column = (11-1)0.5 + 1 + 0.055
Hc = 6 m

--------------------------------------------
 51

Design of an Absorber Tower

Construction Problem:
This chapter deals with the construction of an absorber tower used to absorb
ethylene oxide in water at a temperature of 50°C and a pressure of 20 bar.
This device removes 678.6 kg/hr from a feed stream containing ethylene oxide,
ethylene, CO2 and water at a flow rate of 2768.25 kg/hr.

Main goal
main goal is to develop absorbents to absorb ethylene oxide.

Targets

targets; specify column types and packing materials for basic operation, and materials
of construction for the Performing detailed chemical engineering calculations for
absorbers. Providing absorber mechanical engineering calculations. Provide detailed
mechanical engineering drawings of the absorber.

INTRODUCTION

absorption is the physical or chemical phenomenon in which a soluble gas, liquid, or

solid moves into a mass of liquid. gas absorption is a single process in which one or
more components of a gas stream are removed from a gas mixture by being absorbed
in a non-volatile liquid called the solvent. In gas absorption, soluble gas vapors are
absorbed by the solvent from a mixture with more or less inert gas.

As a stage in the preparation of some compound 3. For removal of air pollutants from
exhaust gases Absorption can be a physical or chemical phenomenon. Physical
absorption occurs when the solute has a higher solubility in the solvent than the other
gases. Chemical absorption occurs when the solute reacts with the solvent where the
resulting product remains in the solvent. Gas absorption is usually carried out in
vertical counter current columns. The solvent is fed in at the top of the absorber, the
gas mixture from the bottom. The absorbed substance is washed out by the solvent,
which is often recovered in a subsequent stripping or desorption operation. The
absorber maybe a packed column, plate tower, or simple spray column, or a bubble
column. The fundamental physical principles under lying the process of gas
absorption are the solubility of the absorbed gas and the rate of mass transfer.

Comparison Between Packed and Plate Piston

1. Packed columns provide continuous contact
between the gas and liquid phases, while plate columns bring the two phases into
stepped contact
.
2. SCALE: For column diameters less than approximately 6 feet.
packed towers are more common to deploy due to the higher cost associated with
smaller floors. However, if the column is very large, liquid distribution becomes a
problem, and the large volume of the packing and its weight becomes an issue.
 52

3. Pressure drop: Packed columns have lower pressure drop than plate columns.

tray columns create additional friction as vapor flows through the liquid in each tray.
If there are many trays in the column, this pressure drop can be very high and using
packed columns can lead to significant savings.
4. Liquid holdup: There can be a large amount of
liquid in the tray column because there is liquid in each tray, but
in packed columns the liquid flows as a thin
film over the packing.
5. Size and Cost: For diameters less than 6 feet, packed columns require lower
fabric and material costs for height than plate towers.
packed columns are generally shorter than comparable plate columns.

Packing

The packing is the most important component of the system. The packing is divided
into a type that is randomly tilted on the tower and a type that requires manual
loading. The most important requirements for
tower packing are: -
1)  Must be chemically inert to the liquid in the column.
2) It must be strong and not too heavy.
3) Must contain sufficient passages for both flows without excessive liquid stagnation
or pressure drop.
4) Good contact between liquid and gas should be ensured.
5) The cost should be reasonable.
Most packaging is therefore made of cheap, inert and fairly light materials such as
clay,
porcelain, and graphite. A thin metal ring made of steel or
aluminum may also be used.
Common Packings are:
a) Berl Saddle.
b) Interox saddle.
c) Lashing ring.
d) Lessing ring.
e) Cross split ring.
f) Single spiral ring.
g) Double spiral ring.
h) triple spiral ring

Basis for equipment selection:

There are two main types of
absorber towers: packed towers and tray towers.
9.6 Device Description The
Gas Absorber Tower is a device that allows absorption by contacting the
with liquid and gas streams.
Absorption operations are typically performed in vertical cylindrical column sorters
containing trays or packing. Gas and liquid flow counter currently.

Column Selection
 53

1. The component is corrosive, especially in the acidic form, in the presence of iron
, which acts as an accelerator.
2. Packed columns have lower liquid content.
3. Pressure drop across the packing is less than plate columns.
4. Low packing cost compared to plate columns.
Packing Type The
Ceramic Interox saddle was chosen for this procedure because:
1. Excellent resistance to acid and heat.
2. low pressure drop.
3. Low cost.
4. They can resist corrosion of various inorganic acids, organic acids and
organic solvents.
5. Usable from low temperature to high temperature.
6. Improve fluid distribution.

packing size:
38mm

Structural material

stainless steel is the structural material of the tower and packing material is
ceramic with steel saddles.

SPECIFICATION SHEET

Identification:
Item: Packed Absorption Column
Item Number: A-01
Number Required: 01
Function: Absorption of Ethylene Oxide in Gas Mixtures
Operation: Continuous
Showing The Flowrates of the Entry and Exit Flow rates

Design data:
Internals: Size and type:38mm Intalox Saddles
Material of packing: Ceramic Packing
arrangement: Random
Type of packing support: Simple grid and perforated support

Chemical Engineering Design Data:

Flow rate of inlet gases Gm=2768.25kg/hr
Flowrate of solvent Lm=1356.12kg/hr
Temperature of entering gas Tg=50℃
Temperature of solvent T l=25℃
Pressure of entering gas=15bar
Average molecular weight of entering gases=34.0575km/kg

Density of gas mixture

 54

PM/RT=15(34.0575)/0.08205(323) =19.2763 kg/mm

Pressure drop is 4mm of water per meter of packing

k4 = 0.026
K4 = 13.1(Vw∗) Fp (µl/〖^0.1/℘v (℘l−℘v)   
Vw* = K4(℘v) (℘l−℘v)/13.4(Fp)(µl/℘l)〖^0.1〗
Vw* = 0.026(19.2763) (997−19.2763)/13.1(50) (0.6527/997〖^0.1〗
Vw* = 490.01/655(0.4803) 
Vw* = 1.56 kg/m^2s
Converting 1646.477 kg/hr to kg/sec
Gives 0.4573 kg/sec
Flow parameters = L/G√℘g/℘l  
= 1156.2/1646.477√19.2763/997
= 1156.2/1646.477 (0.1390)
= 0.0976

Area Of Column

Area of column = mass flow rate of inlet gas/Vw∗

Area of column = 0.4523/1.56
Area of column = 0.28 m^2
Diameter of column = √4(Column area)/ℼ
Diameter of column = 0.5975 m

Component of each stream:

Material Balance:
Input = Output
G0Y0+ L0X0 = G1Y1 + L1X1
As L0= L1=L
G0= G1=G
Y0 - Y1=Y &X0 − X1=X
G (Y0 − Y1) = L (X1 − X0)
G(Y) = L (X)
Y = L/G∗X
To find the number of stages we have to draw the table by using the values
Y= L/G (X) = 0.7 (X)
Substitute
X= 0 to 0.6
 55

rom table we get

Number of stages = 5
Using 0.6 m as height of transfer units
So
Height of packing =5 (0.6) = 3m
Allowance of liquid distribution = 1m
Allowances of liquid redistribution = 1m
Total 3 towers = 1m + 1m + 3m = 5m
Volume of absorber =Area (Height) = 0.28 (5) = 1.4 m3

Summary of chemical reaction Design:

Mechanical Design

Material of construction:
The selection of material of construction for this unit is influenced by the safety,
reliability, life time, and cost of the equipment, ability to with stand impact and
fatigue
and more importantly its corrosion resistivity. The characteristics of the material when
subjected to the actions of strains and stresses are called mechanical properties.

Stainless steel is highly recommended as them material of construction because of its

corrosion resistance properties. The major constituents element of stainless steel are
nickel and chromium.

Design Pressure:
A vessel must be designed to with stand the maximum pressure to which it is likely to
be subjected in operation. For pressure vessels, the design pressure is normally taken
as the pressure at which the relief device is set. This will normally be 5 to 10% above
the normal working pressure
Design pressure = 110/100×20 = 22 Bar

Design temperature:

The strength of metals decreases with increasing temperature, and the maximum

allowable rated voltage depends on the temperature of the material. The design
temperature at which the design stress is evaluated should be regarded as the
maximum service temperature of the material given the uncertainties associated with
predicting vessel wall temperature. The design temperature of the
column is 50°C.

Corrosion Allowance:

Corrosion allowance is the thickness of metal added to account for material loss due

to corrosion and erosion or scaling. For unalloyed and low-alloy steels where severe
 56

corrosion is not expected a minimum tolerance of 2.0 mm should be used, whereas 4

mm should be used where corrosion is expected.

Stress:
Nominal voltage or rated voltage is the maximum allowable voltage allowed by the
material of construction. This is determined by applying the appropriate
design stress factor to the maximum stress the material can withstand under the test
conditions without failure. For materials not exposed to high temperatures, design
stress is based on the yield point (or yield strength) or tensile strength (tear
strength) of the material at the design temperature.

Design Loads:
The design loads to be commissioned are as follows. These loads are classified
as primary and secondary loads. The main load is always taken into account in the
ship's gn. A design decision is made for the load combinations that may result in
worst-case conditions.
Maximum weight of container and contents under operating conditions.
gnDesi pressure: including static liquid column.
Maximum weight of a container and its contents under hydrostatic test conditions.
Seismic (earthquake) loads

Wind loads
Loads carried or acted on by ships

Thickness of cylindrical shell:

The minimum thickness required to resist internal pressure of a cylindrical shell can
be determined from the equation below as given by the British standard PD 5500
e = PiDi/2S-P
Where;
e = minimum thickness required, mm
Pi= the internal pressure, N/mm2 = 2.2 N/mm2 (10%safety)
Di = the internal diameter, mm =1002 mm
S = the design stress (maximum allowable stress) of austenitic stainless steel 304 at
50◦C=165 N/mm2
E = Welded point efficiency
For a double-welded butt joint or equivalent, the welded point efficiency is 1
Internal diameter of reactor vessel is 1280mm
e = 2.2(1280)/ [2(165)-2.2]

e = 6.72 mm

Accounting for corrosion allowance of 4mm because severe corrosion is anticipated at

the closures. The minimum thickness of the cylindrical section of the reactor is
10.72mm.

Thickness of Ellipsoidal Head

The reactor will be covered with an ellipsoidal plate both at the top and the bottom.
The equation below can be used to calculate the minimum thickness required with
 57

major and minor axis ratio of 2:1 respectively. The minimum thickness of the flat
plate is given by the expression:
E =PiDi/2Sj-0.2Pi
For formed heads, the joint factor J is taken as 0.85.
e = 2.2(1280)/2(165)-0.2(2.2) = 7.87 mm
Allowing 4mm for corrosion, the thickness of ellipsoidal head and bottom is
11.87mm.

Total Dead Weight:

Total column weight includes container weight, insulation weight, package weight,

conductor weight, and liquid weight.

Vessel Weight (Wv):

Total weight of a steel vessel excluding internal fittings is calculated by:

Wv = 240×Cv ×Dm × (Hc +0.8 Dm) ×t
Wv =Weight of steel vessel
Cv = Factor to account for the weight of nozzles, manways, internal supports and is
taken as 1.15 for vessels with manways or equivalent fittings
Dm =maximum diameter of vessel, m
Hc =column height of vessel, m
t=minimum thickness of vessel, mm
Mean diameter of vessel = (Di +t×10-3)
Wv = 240×Cv ×Dm × (Hc +0.8 Dm) ×t
Mean diameter of vessel = (1.28) + (11.87×10-3)
Mean diameter of vessel =1.03m
Wv = 240×1.15×1.03 [5+0.8(1.03)] ×11.87
Wv = 19652.5 N
Wv ≈ 19.7 kN

Weight of insulation
The insulation selected is mineral wool
Density of mineral wool = 575 kg/m3
Thickness of insulation =100mm
Dm = minimum diameter of vessel =1.03187m
Hc =column height
Volume of insulation (Vi) = n × Dm× Hc ×t
= n×1.03×5×100×10 -3
= 2.57 m3

Weight of insulation (Wi) = Vi× ρ× g

Taking acceleration due to gravity =9.81 m/s2
Weight of insulation (Wi) =2.57×575×9.81
Weight of insulation (Wi) =14496.72
Weight of insulation (Wi) ≈ 14.7 kN
Double this to allow for fittings, sealing and moisture absorption.
Total weight of insulation = 2×14.7= 38.02kN
 58

Weight of Fluid into Reactor:

m ̇ (input stream) = 1156.2 kg/hr

Weight of fluid = m ̇ ×g
Taking acceleration due to gravity =9.81m/s2
Weight of fluid = 11342.3 N
Weight of fluid =11.32kN

Weight of Packing (Wp):

Density of packing (ceramic intalox saddles)

Wp = πD2/4×ρ×g
Wp = π (1.02)2 ×670×9.81/4
Wp = 5370.739N
Wp = 5.37KN

Weight of ladder (W l):

The force per unit length of a caged steel ladder is 360 N/m length.
This is chosen for higher safety purposes.
Weight of ladder = Force per unit length × length of vessel
W l = 360 × 5
W l = 1.8 kN

Total Dead Weight:

Total dead weight (WT) is

WT =Wv +Wi +Wf +Wp +Wl
WT= 19.7 + 14.7 +11.3 +5.37 + 1.8
WT= 52.87 kN

Wind Loading:

The loading per unit length of the vessel is given by (Fw) is given by
Fw = Pw × Deff
Fw = Load per unit length
Pw = Wind pressure, N/m2
Deff = Outer diameter with allowance for the thermal insulation
Allowance for thermal insulation =100mm
Deff = Di + 2 (t+100) =1002+2(11.87+100)
Deff = 1225.74 mm
Wind pressure for smooth cylindrical vessels is estimated from the relation
Pw =0.05Uw
Pw =Wind pressure N/m2
Uw =Windspeed km/h
Therefore, a wind speed of160km/hr(100mph) is used for preliminary design studies
Pw =0.05(160)
Pw=1280 N/m2
Load per unit length (Fw)=Pw ×Deff
=1280×1.22574
 59

=1568.9472 N/m

Bending Moment:

Mx = Fw ×Hc2/2
Mx –Bending moment
Fw – Load per unit length
Hc –Height of vessel
Mx = 1568.95 × (5)2 /2
Mx =19611.8 Nm

STRESS ANALYSIS:
Longitudinal Stress

The longitudinal stress is given by

σh = Pi Di /2t (Sinnott,2005)
σh = Longitudinal stress N/mm2
Pi = Design pressure 2.2 N/mm2
Di = Internal diameter of vessel = 1002mm
t= wall thickness = 11.87mm
σh = 2.2×1002/2×11.87 = 92.86 N/mm2

Circumference Stress:

The circumference stress is also calculated from the relation

σl = PiDi/4t
σl = Circumference stress, N/mm2
Pi = Design pressure, 2.2 N/mm2
Di = Internal diameter of vessel =1002mm
t = wall thickness =11.87m
σl = 2.2×1002/4×11.87 = 46.43 N/mm2

Dead Weight Stress:

The relationship for calculating the dead weight stress is

σw = wT /n (Di+ t) t
σl = Stress due to weight of vessel
wt = Total dead weight
Di = Internal diameter
t=wall thickness
σw = 52.87×10-3 /n (1002+11.87) 11.87 =1.05 N/mm2

Bending Stress:

The relationship for calculating the bending stress is (it can be compressive or tensile)
σb =± M/Lv [(Di/2) + t]
Where
M = total bending moment at the plane being considered
Lv = Second moment of are a of the vessel about the plane of bending moment
 60

Lv = n/64 [ Do*4 – Di *4]

Do (outside diameter of reactor) = Di +2t
=1002 + 2 (11.87) = 1025.74mm
Lv = n/64 [1025.74*4-1002*4
Lv = 4.86×10-9 mm*4
σb =± (84848.8 ×10-3/ 4.86×10-9) [(1002/2) + 16.93]
= ±8.95 N/mm2
Resultant total longitudinal stress, (σz) =σl +σw ± σl
Dead weight stress is compressive and therefore σw is negative
σz (upwind)=σl -σw +σl =46.43-1.25+8.95= 54.13 N/mm2
σz (downwind)=σl -σw +σl = 46.43-1.25-8.95 = 36.23 N/mm2

Stresses in Skirt:

σs (tensile)= σbs - σws

σs (compressive) = σbs + σws
σbs = 5.99 N/mm2
σws =dead weight stress in the skirt
σws = Wv/π (Ds +ts) ts
σws (operating) = 1.02 N/mm2
σ ws (test) = 0.12 N/mm2
Max(compressive)=5.99-1.02=4.97 N/mm2
Max(tension)=5.99+1.02=7.01 N/mm2

CRITERIA FOR DESIGN:

The skirt thickness should be such that under the worst combination of wind and dead
weight loading, the following design criteria are not exceeded:
σs (tensile) < f_sj sin Ѳ_s
σs (compressive)< 0.125E(t_s/Ds) sinѲ_s
Where: Fs is the maximum allowable design stress for the skirt material, normally
taken at ambient temperature = 165N/mm2
J is the weld joint factor, taking the weld joint factor as 0.85
Ѳs is the base angle of a conical skirt, normally 80 to 90o.
Taking 90o as base angle
σs (tensile) < f_sj sin Ѳ_s
7.01 < 140.25 N/mm2
σs (compressive)< 0.125E(t_s/Ds) sinѲ_s
4.97 < 25.06 N/mm2

Summary of mechanical design:

Thickness of shell 10.72mm

Thickness of head 11.87Mm
Weight of vessel 19.7 kN
Weight of insulation 14.7 kN
Weight of fluid into column 11.32 kN
 61

Weight of packing 5.37 KN

Weight of ladder 1.8 kN
Total dead weight 52.87 kN
Wind flowing 1568.95 N/m
Bending moment 19611.8 Nm
Longitudinal stress 92.86N/mm2
Circumferential stress 46.43N/mm2
Dead weight stress 1.05N/mm2
Bending stress 8.95N/mm2

Design of a Stripping column

Problem Statement: In the process plant for the manufacturing of ethylene

carbonate, the reaction of ethylene and oxygen yield and ethylene oxide as product.
This product is taken through an absorption process to remove CO2 using K2CO3,
thus the CO2 rich K2CO3 stream is to be regenerated by stripping the COKand2
 62

component flowing at a rate of 2116.4kg/hr with steam at 140OC flowing at

4232.8kg/hr.

Main Objective:

To design a stripping column that will selectively obtain a rich carbon dioxide gas
from a mixture of potassium carbonate and carbon dioxide at a flow rate of
2116.4kg/hr operating at conditions of 423150kPa.

Specific Purpose

- Selection of Column Type Suitable for Stripping Process.

- Select appropriate packaging.
- for performing chemical and engineering calculations.
- Generates detailed blueprints for selected
stripping columns based on calculated parameters from
chemical and engineering calculations.

References
stripping or desorption is the single operation of removing one or more components
from a
liquid stream by contacting them with a gas stream that is insoluble in the
liquid stream performed on packed or trayed columns stripping works based on mass
transfer. The purpose of the
stripping operation is one of the following: separation of commercially valuable
components, manufacturing stage of connections, and removal of unwanted
components (contamination).

Equipment description and mode of operation:

Stripping is mainly done in tray columns (plate columns) and packed columns,
in spray towers, bubble columns and centrifugal ladders.

Plate Column
It consists of a vertical column with liquid flowing in from the top and flowing out
from the bottom. The vapor phase enters from the bottom of the column and exits out
of the top. Inside the column are trays or plates that force the liquid to flow back and
forth
horizontally while forcing the vapor bubbles up through holes in the trays. The
purpose of these trays is to increase the amount of contact area between the liquid and
vapor streams. The most common designs are the sieve, valve, and bubble-cap trays.
The sieve and valve tray have mostly displaced the bubble-cap tray because they are
less expensive and have a higher capacity. The sieve tray is the most widely used and
should be considered first because of its lower installed cost, well known design
procedures, low fouling tendency, large capacity, unholy efficient.

Packed Column: They are similar to the plate columns in that the liquid and vapor
flows enter and exit in the same manner. The difference is that in packed towers, there
are no trays. Instead, the packing is used to increase the contact. There are many types
of packing used and each has its own advantages and disadvantages. The gas-liquid
 63

contact is continuous, non-stage wise as in plate columns, The liquid flows down the
column over the packing surface and the gas or vapor, counter-currently, up the
column. In some gas-absorption columns, co-current flow is used. The performance of
a packed column is dependent on the maintenance of good liquid and gas distribution
throughout the packed bed and this is an important consideration in packed-column
designs. The role of the packing material is to provide a large surface area, and must
have a geometry that provides large void space when packed in order to all for good
fluid flow characteristics. Raschig rings are a common example, consisting of hollow
cylinder shaving an external diameter equal to the length of the object. Other shapes
include Berl saddles, Intalox saddles, Lessing rings, cross-part ion rings, spiral-type
rings, and drip-point grid tiles. These objects are usually dumped into the column
randomly, orifice regularly shaped packing is used, stacked in an orderly fashion. In
general, randomly dumped packing has a higher specific surface contact are a and a
higher gas pressure drop across the bed will be experienced. Stacked packing
arrangements have an advantage of lower pressure drop and higher possible liquid
through put, but generally are more expensive to construct. The effectiveness of a
packed tower depends on the availability of a large, exposed liquid film.

Column Type Selection

The selection of plate and packed columns for a particular application can only be
made with complete certainty by calculating each design.
-packed columns bring the gas and liquid phases into continuous contact, whereas
plate columns bring the two phases into contact gradually.
- Plate columns can be designed to accommodate a wider range of liquid and gas flow
rates than
 64

packed columns.
- Packed columns are less suitable for low liquid percentages.
- Panel efficiencies are more predictable than equivalent packaging terms (HTU or
HETP).
- Plate columns are safer to build than packed columns.
Especially with the larger columns, it is always questionable whether good liquid
distribution can be maintained in a packed column and under all operating conditions.
- Easy to prepare for cooling plate columns. Coils can be attached to the plate.
- Provision is recommended to obtain a side stream from the tray column.
- It is easy to dedicate a plate column to cleaning only if the liquid causes fouling or
contains solids. A catwalk can always be attached to the plate.
- For corrosive liquids, packed columns are typically less expensive than comparable
plate columns.
Liquid uptake is significantly lower in packed columns than in plate columns.
This is important if, for safety reasons, the stock of toxic or flammable liquids should
be kept as low as possible.
- packed columns are suitable for processing foam systems.
- Pressure drop per equilibrium stage (HETP) may be lower with packing than with
plates. For vacuum columns, packing must be considered.
- Small diameter supports, e.g.
less than 6ft, should always be considered in packs as they are cheaper to manufacture
and material than plate supports. Therefore, after considering the cost analysis and
various advantages and disadvantages of the two types of columns, the packed
column was chosen as the best choice.

Packing Types:
The main requirements for packing according to are:
- Facilitating uniform distribution of liquids on package surfaces.
- Promotes uniform vapor flow across the column cross-section.
- Must be chemically inert to the liquid in the column.
- You must be strong even if you are not fat.
- Sufficient passage for both flows is required to avoid excessive fluid stagnation or
pressure drop.
- Must be cheap.
As such, most packages are made from cheap, inert, fairly lightweight materials such
as clay, porcelain, and graphite. Thin-walled metal rings made of steel or aluminum
are sometimes used. Many different types and shapes of packages have been
developed to meet these requirements. They can be divided into two broad classes.
– Regular geometry packing; such as stacked rings, lattices, and his own structural
packing.
-Random Packing Rings; saddles, and eigenforms are thrown into his packing and
placed randomly. The
grid has an open structure and is used for high gas flow rates where pressure drop is
essential, such as cooling towers.

Chemical Engineering Design Data:

Flow rate of entering gas stream, G=4232.8kg/hr

Flow rate of entering liquid stream, L=2116.4kg/hr
Temperature of entering gas, Tg=130oC=403K
 65

Temperature of entering liquid stream, Tl=80oC=353K

Pressure of gas stream, P=1atm
Density of gas stream, ρg =1.4968kg/m3
Density of liquid solvent at80 °C, ρl=1450kg/m3
Viscosity of liquid solvent at 80°C, µl=0.005cp=5×10 Pa.s

Using mass transfer coefficient method:

due to high concentration, it is expected to remove 99% of the CO2 from the feed
Amount of CO2 in feed = 0.304x = 0.304(2116.2) = 643.386kg/hr
Amount to be removed = 0.99 × 643.386 = 636.952 kg/hr
Amount left in feed = (Amount of co2 in feed) - (amount to be removed)
= 643.386 - 636.952 = 6.4 kg/hr
XB = amount left/LB = 0.0043

Using solute free basis for calculation:

Lt = LB (Solute free liq flow rate)

VT= VB (Solute free gas flow rate)
YB = YB/1-YB
XT = XT = 0.304 = 0.437
1-XT 1- 0.304
XB = XB = 0.0043 = 0.0043
1- XB 1- 0.0043

Material Balance:

in = out
LTXT + VBYB = LBXB + VTYT
LTXT + VB (0) = LBXB + VTYT
LTXT = LBXB + VTYT
LTXT - LBXB = VTYT
VTYT = LTXT - LBXB
VTYT = LTXT - LTXB
= LT (XT - XB)
YT = LT/VT (XT - XB) ----------(1)
This is the operating line for the process
but LT/VT = 0.9 (LT/VT) max
(LT/VT) max = m
LT = 2116.2 - 643.386 = 1473Kg/hr
VT = 4232.81 Kg/hr
put the values
(LT/VT) max =0.387

Equilibrium Relation:

Y = 0.348X
YT = 0.348 (XT - XB)
= 0.348(0.304 - 0.0043)
 66

= 0.15

N0. OF TRANSFER UNITS:

NoG =

= YT - YB/ (Y - Y*) m
y - y*) m = △YT - △YB
ln (△YT/YB)
△YT = YT - Y* = YT – m XT
YT = YT/1-YT = 0.15/1-0.15 =0.17
△YT = 0.00124
△YB = YB - Y* = YB – m XB
△YB = 0.0016
Y- Y*) m = △YT - △YB
ln(△YT/△YB)
= 0.0124 - 0.0016
Ln (0.0124/0.0016)
= 0.00534
NOG = YT - YB = 24.35
(Y - Y*) m

Effective Wetted Area:

Formula:

where
aw = effective interfacial area of packing per unit volume, m/m³
aw = surface area of packing
σL= critical surface tension of particular packing material, ceramic = 61mN/M
σL = Surface tension of liq.at 80℃ = 41mN/m
L*W = liq. mass velocity
= weight flow rate of fluid
cross sectional area
2.248kg/m³s
L*W/aȠ l =
liq. mass velocity/surface area of packing × viscosity of liq.
= 2.248/114.6(5exp-3)
= 3.92
L*W^2a/ρl^2g = 2.811exp-5
 67

L*W^2a/ρl σ Lg = 8.674exp-6
substituting in formula
aw/a = 0.308
aw = 0.308a
= 0.3089(114.6) = 35.3m²m³

Calculation of Diffusivity in gas phase (Dv):

where;
Dv = Diffusivity in gas phase,
P = pressure of the gas = 1atm = 1.013bar
T= temperature of gas = 423 K
= molecular weight of stream water = 18.02g/mol
= molecular weight of carbon dioxide = 44.01 g/mol
= atomic volume of water = 12.7
= atomic volume of carbon dioxide = 26.9

By substituting the value:

Dv =

Calculation of Diffusivity in Liquid phase (DL):

D_Lμ_B/T= 7.4×10^−8(φ_BM_B) ^1⁄2T/V_bA^0.6

Where;
D_L = diffusivity in liquid phase
M_B = molecular weight of solvent water = 18.02g/mol
Temperature of liquid stream = 80C = 353K
μ_B = viscosity of solvent water=
φ_B = association factor of solvent = 2.26
V_bA = 26.9 + 12.7 = 39.6

Substituting the values:

D_L =1.8264×10^−5m^2⁄s

Gas film mass transfer coefficient:

 68

K_G = gas film mass transfer coefficients

a = surface area of packing =
R = gas constant = 0.08206
T = inlet gas temperature = 150C = 423K
D_v = Diffusivity of carbon dioxide in gas phase
K_5 = 5.23 for packing above 15mm
V^∗w = gas mass velocity = flow rate of gas stream / cross sectional
area=4.496kg/m2s
ρ_g = density of gas = 1.4968
μ_g = viscosity of gas = Pa. s
d_p = packing size = 50mm
RT/a D v = 1.7548×10^−4 V^∗w/aμ_g = 2949.78

μ_g/ρ_gD_v = 5.14825 ad_p = 5.73

K_G = 4.1846×10^−3 kmol/m^2 s.atm

Liquid film mass transfer coefficient:

= liquid film mass transfer coefficient

= density of liquid at T = 80C = 1450

= viscosity of liquid
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8
= liquid mass velocity =
aw =effective interfacial area of packing per unit volume =35.3

= Diffusivity of CO2 in liquid phase

a = surface area of packing = 114.6
dp = size of packing = 50 mm
= 2959.84

= 12.737

= 0.1888
 69

adp = 114.6 ( ) = 5.73

Substituting
= 1.7046×10^−3m/s

Height Of overall gas phase transfer unit

= HG + m G_m/L_m H_L
Height of gas-gas phase transfer unit:

H_G = G_m/K_Ga_wP
G_m= molar flow rate of gas per unit cross sectional area = 4.496/18 =
0.25kmol⁄m^2s
K_G= gas film mass transfer co-efficient =4.1846×10^−3 kmol/m^2 s.atm
a_w = 35.3m^2⁄m^3
P = operating pressure in column = 1atm
Substituting:
H_G = 2.128m

Height of liquid phase transfer unit:

H_L= L_m/K_La_wc_t
where;
H_L= Height of liquid phase transfer unit, m
L_m= molar flow rate of liquid per unit cross sectional area = 2.248/138 = 0.0163
K_L= Liquid film mass transfer coefficient = 1.7046×10^−3m/s
a_w= 35.3m^2⁄m^3
c_t = total concentration of solvent = 1450/138 = 10.51kmol/m3
Substituting
H_L= 0.025m

Calculating overall height of transfer units:

where;
H_OG= height of overall gas phase transfer unit, m
H_G= height of gas phase transfer unit = 2.128m
m = slope of equation line = 0.348
G_m = 0.25
L_m=0.0163
H_L= 0.0319

mG_m/L_m 5.337

substituting
H_OG= 2.128+5.337 (0.0319) = 2.298m

height of packed bed:

Z = N_OG × H_OG
 70

Z = 4.35×2.298=55.96m ≅56m
divided by number of trays 5, height of tower will be = 11.2m
Super facial gas velocity:
y=L/G√ρ_g/ρ_l = 2116.4/4232.8√1.4968/1450 =0.016≅0.02
Flow parameter at flooding
yflood = exp [−(3.5021 + 1.028ln × 0.11039(lnX)^2]
Where X = flow parameter = 0.02
by substituting the value of X
yflood = 0.3104

Capacity factor of flooding:

Cs flood = [yflood/Fp (μ_l) ^0.1] ^0.5
where;
Cs flood = capacity factor at flooding
Y flood = flow parameter at flooding = 0.3104

Fp = packing factor for 50mm ceramics = 40ft^−1

μ_l= viscosity of liquid = 5×10^−3Pa.s
Substituting
Cs = 0.1148m/s

Super-facial gas velocity at flooding:

V_GF= Cs flood/ρ_g/(ρ_l−ρ_g) ^ 0.5

where:
V_GF = super-facial gas velocity at flooding,
Cs flood = capacity factor at flooding = 0.1148m/s
ρ_g= density of gas = 1.4968kg/m3
ρ_l = density of liquid at 80C = 1450kg/m3
Substituting;
V_GF = 3.571m/s
V_G= V_GF× f

V_G = Super-facial gas velocity

V_GF =super-facial gas velocity at flooding = 3.571m/s
f = 0.7 since actual gas velocity through packed towers operate near 70% of the
flooding rate
Substituting;
V_G = 0.7 × 3.571 =0.785 /s

Diameter of column:

D = █((4× Q_G/V_G×π)@ )^0.5

where;
D = diameter of column, m
Q_G= volumetric flow rate of gas= V/ρ= 1.175kg/s/1.4968kg/m3 =0.785 m^3/s
 71

V_G =superfacial gas velocity = 0.785 /s

Substituting;
D =0.577m

Effective particle diameter, dp:

dp= 6(1−ϵ/a)
where;
dp = effective particle diameter, m
ϵ = void fraction of packing = 0.761
a = surface area of packing = 114.6m^2⁄m^3
Substituting;
dp = 0.0125m

Wall factor, K_w:

1/K_w= 1+2/3(1/1−ϵ) (dp/D)

where;
ϵ = void fraction of packing = 0.761
dp = effective particle diameter = 0.0125m
D = diameter of column = 0.577m
Substituting;
K_w = 0.943

Reynolds number of gas in column, R_EG

R_EG= V_G×d_p×ρ_g×Kw/(1−ϵ) μ_g

where;
V_G = superfacial gas velocity = 3.0m/s
dp = 0.0125m
ρ_g = 1.4968kg/m3
Kw= 0.943
ϵ = 0.761
μ_g = viscosity of gas = 1. 33×10^−5Pa.s
Substituting;
R_EG = 16651.65

Dry packing resistance coefficient:

Ψ_0= C_p (64/R_EG + 1.8/(R_EG) ^ 0.08

where;
Ψ_0 = dry packing resistance coefficient
C_p = packing constant 0.742

R_EG = Reynolds number of gas in the column = 16651.65

Substituting;
Ψ_0 = 0.6166
 72

Dry gas pressure drop:

∆P_0/Z= Ψ_0× a× ρ_g× V_G/∈^3×z × Kw

where:
∆P_0= dry gas pressure drop, Pa
z = tower height, m
Ψ_0 = dry packing resistance coefficient = 0.6166
a = surface area of packing = 114.6m^2⁄m^3
ρ_g = density of gas = 1.4968 kg/m3
V_G = superficial gas velocity = 3.0m/s
∈ = void fraction of packing = 0.761
Kw = wall factor = 0.943

Substituting;
∆P_0/Z = 381.75 Pa/m
Pressure drop at flooding:

∆P flood = 93.9(F_p) ^0.7

where;

∆P flood =pressure drop at flooding

F_p = 40ft^−1

Substituting;
∆P flood = 1241.96Pa/m

Correcting the pressure drop for liquid hold up:

L_x = L × 4/π×∩^2
where;
L_x = liquid mass velocity
D = diameter of column = 0.577m
L = liquid flow rate = mass flow rate / 3600s = 0.5879kg/s

Substituting:
L_x = 2.248kg/ m^2

Ratio of specific area:

The ratio of specific area is given as:

a_ℎ/a= 0.85C_ℎ R_EL^0.25 F_RL^0.1

where;
a_ℎ = hydraulic specific area of packing
F_p = packing constant for 50mm ceramic = 1.0
R_EL = 3.923
F_RL = 2.811×10^−5
Substituting;
a_ℎ/a = 0.4195
 73

no of liquid in the column, R_EL

R_EL= L_x/a× μ_l

where;
L_x = liquid mass velocity = 2.248kg/m^2s
a = surface area of pa Reynolds = 114.6 m^2⁄m^3
μl = viscosity of liquid = 5×10-3 Pa. s
R_EL = 3.923

Frouele no of liquid, F_RL

F_RL= a × (L_x) ^2/g × ρ_l^2

Substituting:
F_RL = 2.811×10^−5

SPECIFICATION SHEET:

Item: Packed Stripping Column

Item No: ST - 01
No. required: 01
Function: To strip carbon dioxide from potassium carbonate solution.
 74

Operation: Continuous
 75

CHAPTER 6

Plant Location

CHOICE OF LOCATION:

The plant location is very much important factor before any other analysis. The final
location of plant should be a complete and detailed survey and keeping in mind the
geographical importance of that place.
Factors that should be in the mind during the selection of plant location:

1. Easy access to basic material

2. Transport facilities

3. Tax exemptions on imports

4. Availability of skilled and unskilled labor

5. Environmental impact and effluent disposal

6. Availability of suitable land

7. Availability of utilities

8. Climate
EASY ACCESS TO BASIC MATERIAL:

The starting material for the whole process which is Ethylene will be imported
into the country through the port at Tema. Nearness to our source of material will
cut down cost of transportation.

TRANSPORT FACILITIES:
 76

The transportation of materials and products to and from the plant is a major factor
in plant location. Transportation of products and materials can be done via road,
railway, pipelines and sea port. The location of the plant close to the sea serves as
a good factor for transporting products abroad to the international market. Tema
has good road networks linking other major industries that will make use of the
final product.

TAX EXEMPTIONS ON IMPORTS:

It’s intended for this plant to be sited within the Free Zone enclave. In the
free zone enclave, companies are given tax waivers on some materials
needed for the proper functioning of the plant.

Availability of Skilled and Unskilled Labor:

Labor needed for construction of the plant and its operation can be recruited from
the community. Skilled construction workers are usually brought in from outside
the site area where as unskilled labor needed are recruited and trained from the
community. This helps to reduce the rate of unemployment in the community. The
operation of the plant will help produce jobs for quite a number of people both,
skilled and unskilled workers.

Environmental Impact and Effluent Disposal:

Regulations will be consulted during the initial stage of construction in order that
right procedures for implementation are followed. The land size Disposal of
effluent and waste from the plant will be regulated by local regulations and
authorities. These of the plant site area are of adequate capacity to help in the
disposal of waste generated. Also, the location of the plant will contribute in
achieving the permissible tolerance levels for various wastes emitted from the
plant, seeing as the population density of the area is quite high. Careful
consideration and attention will be been given to the requirements for additional-
waste treatment facilities.

Availability of Suitable Land:

Suitable land size must be available for building of the proposed plant and future
expansion when necessary. The land must be well leveled, well drained and has
load- bearing characteristics. Being in the free zones enclave will give access to
quite a large land suitable for our plant siting.
Availability of Utilities:
 77

Chemical processes invariably require large quantities of water for cooling and
general process use, and the plant must be located near a source of water of
suitable quality. Process water may be drawn from a river, from wells, or
purchased from a local authority. At some sites, the cooling water required can
be taken from a river or lake, or from the sea; at other locations cooling towers
will be needed. Electrical power will be needed at all sites. Electrochemical
processes that require large quantities of power; for example, aluminum smelters,
need to be located close to a cheap source of power. A competitively priced fuel
must be available on site for steam and power generation.
 78

Climate:

Cost usually increases due to adverse climatic conditions. Extremely low temperatures will
require the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment and piping.
Excessive humidity and hot temperatures also poses serious problems, however
Ghana does not experience the adverse climatic conditions as compared to other countries.
The climate in Ghana is either dry or wet moreover the dry season in Ghana has less effect
On Tema. Tema is also relative with regards to rainfall.

Site Layout:

1. Size requirements: 50 acres of land including transportation and tanks.

2. Ghanaians with Disabilities Act compliance

All our structures will be built with the necessary accessories for the disabled (stairs, ramps,
Parking lots, etc.) to comply fully with this act.
Key

L&DO - Loading and Discharge

Office G1, G2 & G3 - Gates 1, 2 and
3
PM&IU - Planning, Maintenance and Inspection unit
WB- Weight Bridge

QA - Quality Assurance

ME&F - Mechanical, Electrical and Fabrication

HSE – Health, Safety, and Environment
79
 80

CHAPTER 7

PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION

PROCESS CONTROL:
PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION:
PROCESS VARIABLES CONTROL SYSTEM:
 Chapter no. 9

ECONOMIC EVALUATION

INTRODUCTION

Economic analysis essentially entails the evaluation of costs and benefits. It starts by ranking
projects based on economic viability to aid better allocation of resources. It aims at analyzing the
welfare impact of a project. As the purpose of investing money in chemical plant is to earn money,
some means of comparing the economic performance of projects is needed.
For small projects, and for simple choices between alternative processing schemes and equipment,
the decisions can usually be made by comparing the capital and operating costs. More
sophisticated evaluation techniques and economic criteria are needed when decisions have to be
made between large, complex projects, particularly when the projects differ widely in scope, time
scale and type of product.
COMPONENTS OF OPERATING COST:
Operating costs are associated with the maintenance and administration of a business on a day-to-
day basis. Operating costs include direct costs of goods sold (COGS) and other operating
expenses—often called selling, general, and administrative  (SG&A)—which include rent,
payroll, and other overhead costs, as well as raw materials and maintenance expenses
COST OF GOODS SOLDS
Cost of goods sold (COGS) refers to the direct costs of producing the goods sold by a company.
This amount includes the cost of the materials and labor directly used to create the good. It
excludes indirect expenses, such as distribution costs and sales force costs.
SELLING,GENERAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE (SG&A )
The category of selling, general, and administrative expenses (SG&A) in a company's income
statement includes all general and administrative expenses (G&A) as well as the direct and
indirect selling expenses of the business.

Components of capital and operating cost are


Total capital investment 
Total cost of production 
Profitability

Basis:
Construction period =
Plant operation =
Plant life =
Plant production capacity =
Number of working days per annum =
Number of working days per week =

Total Capital Investment(TCI)

Total capital investment means the sum of the following: all costs required to purchase needed
process equipment
purchased equipment cost;
the costs of labor and materials for installing that equipment
direct installation costs;
the costs of site preparation and buildings; other costs such as engineer

Fixed Capital Investment (FCI).

Fixed capital is the portion of total capital outlay of a business invested in physical assets such as
factories, vehicles, and machinery that stay in the business almost permanently, or, more
technically, for more than one accounting period.

FCI = DIRECT COSTS+ INDIRECT COSTS

DIRECT COSTS

1. Purchased equipment: Columns, Heat Exchangers, pumps, tanks, etc.

2. Equipment Installation
3. Piping (includes insulation)
4. Instruments and Control
5. Electrical Equipment.
6. Buildings: Process, Administration, Maintenance shops, etc.
7. Site Preparation
8. Service Facilities: steam, water, air, fuel, etc.), Waste treatment, fire control. Offices, etc.
9. Land

INDIRECT COSTS:

1. Engineering and Supervision: Administrative and Design. Supervision and Inspection.

2. Construction Expenses
3. Contractor's fee
4. Contingency.
5. Start up expenses

WORKING CAPITAL :
Capital needed for the initial operation of the Plant. Raw material and supplies, cash for operating
expenses. Typically it is 10-20% of the Total Capital Investment TCI.

COST ESTIMATION:
PRESENT COST = ORIGINAL COST [INDEX VALUE AT PRESENT/ INDEX VALUE AT
ORIGINAL COSST TIME]

1: COST OF DISTILLATION COLUMN:

COST IN 2018 = 985111.9 $

INDEX at 2018 = 603
Present index = 806
PRESEENT COST = 1316749.903$

2:COST OF REACTOR:

COST IN 2017 = 243181.1

INDEX IN 2017 = 567.5

PRESEENT COST= 345381

3:COST OF HEAT EXCHANGEER:

COST IN 2017 = 32874.8

PRESEENT COST= 46690.9 $

4:COST OF ABSORBER:

COST IN 2020 = 46188

INDEX IN 2020 = 556.2

PRESEENT COST = 62441.342 $

4:COST OF STRIPPER:

COST IN 2020 = 50,000

PRESEENT COST = 67594.77 $

EQUIPMENT COST $
DISTILEATTION 1316749.9
REACTOR 3453881.3
HEAT EXCHANGER 466909
ABSORBER 62441.342
STRIPPER 67594.8
TOTAL 2259076.342

TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT

T. C.I = F.C.I + W.C.I

F. C.I = FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT

W.C.I = WORKING CAPITAL INVESTMENT

PURCHASED EQUIPMENT COSTc

INSTALLATION: (6-14%)

= 0.13 (2259076.342)
= 293679.92
INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL: (2-12%)

= 0.1 (2259076.342)
= 225907.6342

STRIPPING: (4-17%)

= 0.08 (2259076.342)
= 1807260.07

BUILDING:(2-18%)

= 0.15 (c
= 338861.45

YARD IMPROVEMENT: (2-5%)

=0.03 (2259076.342)
= 67772.29

SERVICE FACILITY:(8-30%)

= 0.25 (2259076.342)
= 564769.1
LAND: (1-2%)

= 0.01 (259076.342)
= 22590.764

TOTAL DIRECT COST

INSTRUMENT COST

INSTALLATION 293679.92

INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL

225907.6342

STRIPPING 1807260.07

BUILDING 338861.45

YARD IMPROVEMENT 67772.29

SERVICE FACILITY 564769.1

LAND 22590.764
TOTAL 3953383.7
INDIRECT COST:

ENGINEERING AND SUPERVISION: (4-20%)

= 0.18 (2259076.342)
= 40663.742

CONSTRUCTION EXPENSES:(4-17%)

= 0.1 ( (2259076.342)
= 225907.6342

CONTRACTORS FEE: (2-6%)

= 0.04 (2259076.342)
= 90363.053

CONTIGENCY: (5-15%)

= 0.07 (2259076.342)
= 158135.344

TOTAL INDIRECT COST:

EXPENSES

ENGINEERING AND SUPERVISIO 40663.742

CONSTRUCTION EXPENSES 225907.6342

CONTRACTORS FEE 90363.053

CONTIGENCY: 158135.344

TOTAL 881039.8

F.C.I DIRECT COST +

INDIRECT COST

3953383.7+ 881039.8

F.C.I 4834423.5

WORKING CAPITAL INVESTMENT:

STEAM GENERATION: (3% F.C.I)

= 0.03 (4834423.5)
 = 145032.7 $

STEAM DISTRIBUTION: (1% F.C.I)

= 0.01 (4834423.5)
= 48344.235 $

WATER SUPPLY COOLING PUMPING: 1-8% F.C.I)

ELECTRIC SUBSTENTION: (1.3 % F.C.I)

= O.O13 (4834423.5)
=62847.5

ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION: (1%

WATER TREATMENT: (1-3%)

= 0.013 (4834423.5)
= 62847.5

WATER DISTRIBUTION: (8% F.C.I)

= 0.08 (4834423.5)
= 386753.9

GAS SUPPLU & DISTRIBUTION: (0.3%)

= 0.003 (4834423.5)
= 14503.3

AIR COMPRESSION & DISTRIBUTION: (1%)

= 0.01 (4834423.5)
= 48344.235

REFRIGERATION DISTRIBUTION: ( 1%)

= 48344.235

PROCESS WASTE DISPOSAL: (1.5%)

= 725116.35

SANITARY WASTE DISPOSAL: (0.4%)

= 19337.7
COMMUNICATIONS: (0.2%)

= 9668.85

RAW MATERIALS STORAGE: (0.5%)

= 24172.12

FINISHED PRODUCT STORAGE: (1.5%)

= 72516.4

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM: (0.5%)

= 24172.12

SAFETY INSTALLATION: (0.4%)

= 193377

EXPENSES COST

STEAM GENERATION
= 145032.7 $
STEAM DISTRIBUTION

WATER SUPPLY COOLING

PUMPIN

WATER TREATMENT 62847.5

WATER DISTRIBUTION: 386753.9

GAS SUPPLU & DISTRIBUTION 14503.3

AIR COMPRESSION & 48344.235

DISTRIBUTION

REFRIGERATION DISTRIBUTION 48344.235

PROCESS WASTE DISPOSAL 25116.35

SANITARY WASTE DISPOSAL 19337.7

COMMUNICATIONS 9668.85

RAW MATERIALS STORAG 24172.12

FINISHED PRODUCT STORAGE
72516.4

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM 24172.12

SAFETY INSTALLATION: 193377

TOTAL 1520481

PRODUCT COST
Assume F.C.I depreciates by straight line for 20yrs 5% salvage values at end of plant.

V = F.C.I = 4834423.5

VS = 0.05 (F.C.I)
= 241721.175 $

N = 20

D = V - VS / N
= 229635.12

TOTAL PRODUCT COST:

= T.C.I - D
= 6125268.9 $

MANUFACTURING COST = DIRECT PRODUCTION COST +FIXED CHARGES +

PLANT OVERHEAD COST

D. P.C = 55% T.P.C

= 3368857.9

FIXED CHARGE: (12% T.P.C)

= 735032.3

PLANT OVERHEAD:( 10% T.P.C)

612526.9

HAMUFACTTURING COST:

= 3368857.9 + 735032.3 + 612526.9

= 4716457.1 $
GENERAL EXPENSES:

= ADMINISTRATION COST + DISTRIBUTION COSST AND SELLING

+ RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT COSST + INTREST

ADMINISSTRATIO
N COST: (2.6% T.P.C)

ASSUME 4%

= 245010.8

DISTRIBUTION AND SELLING COST: (2.20% T.P.C)

CONSIDER 10%

= 612526.9

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT COST:( 5%

= 306263.445

INTREST:( 0 - 10%) T.C.I

4% ASSUME

GENERAL EXPENSES = 1189220.77

U. P.C = GENERAL EXXPENSES + MANUFACTURING

= 5905677.9 $

GROSS EARNING:

TOTAL INCOMME = 4845413.5

GROSS INCOME = TOTAL INCOME - T.P.C
= 4254845.8 $

TAXES: 40% GROSS INCOME

= 1701938.32

NET PROFIT = 2552907.5 $

----------------------------------------------
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