Compendium of Latin Grammar compiled and edited by Andrew Csontos and, though enlarged, systematized and otherwise changed considerably, based on Mr. Himwich’'s ‘101 Grammatical Tidbits’ |Preface The goal of this text is not to take the place of a Latin textbook used in classrooms, but rather to be a supplementary aid for high school and college students who desire to lea more about Latin grammar. Many tidbits of information which have previously been found on national and state grammar tests have been included to help students better prepare for these tests. For a more in depth study, Allen and Greenough’s New Latin Grammar and Buck and Hale's Latin Grammar are excellent choices. Andrew S. Csontos ‘Virginia Senior Classical League PresidentContents Cxarter 1: PHONoLosy .. ‘The Latin Alphabet... ‘The Names of the Consonants Basic Pronunciation Rules ..... Pronunciation of Vowels Diphthongs Syllebification.. Length of Syliables .. Accent .. CuarTer Oppmes of DecteNsion 9. 10. wW 12, 13. First Declension fea Second Declension .. Third Declension .. Fourth Declension Fitth Declension «1... Caper 3: Genrives . 14, 15. 16. 17, Genitive with Adjectives .. Genitive of Specification .... Genitive of Material Genitive of Measure Genitive of Quality ( |. Objective Genitive... sehen Partitive Genitive (Genitive of the Whoie) Partitive Adjectives Genitive of Charge of Penalty Remembering and Forgetting .. Prepositions. Cuapter 4: Datives .. 25. Dative with Verbs Other Verbs Taking the Dative Dative of Possession ... |. Dative of Direction .. Dative with Adjective: i iadeieieatiel Desum, Absum... Dative of Agent .. Doubie Dative Ethical Dative Cuapter 5: Accusatives 34, Cognate Accusative sesesstessesenes . Predicate Accusative . at 38. 37 38. 39. 40. Accusative of Secondary Object ...... Double Accusatives Verbs that Don't Take a Doubie Accusative Accusative of Spacification «a... Accusetive of Exclamation ....41, Accusative Extent of Space 42. Accusative with Prepositions ... Cuapter 6: ABLATIVES 43. Ablative of Origi 44. Ablative of Material 45. Ablative of Cause. 46. Ablative of Agent. 47. Ablative of Separation .... 48. Ablative of Comparison. 49. Ablative Dagree of Difference ... 50. Ablative of Means or Instrument 51. Ablative of Manner. 32. Abiative of Accompaniment... 53. Ablative of Price .. 54. Ablative of Description (Quality! 85, Ablative of Specification (Respect! «. 56. Ablative Absolut 87. Abiative with Prepositions 5B, Partitive Abiative Cuapter 7: Vocative, Locarive.. 59. Vocative -. 60. Piace Constructions. Cuapter 8: ADJECTIVES 61. Agreement of Adjectives... 62. Substantives .. 63. Irreguisr Adjectives ee 64. Irregular Comparison of Adjectives 65. Adjectives Declined Like liber, libera, liberum . 66. Adjectives Declined Like pulcher, puichra, pulchrum Carter 9: Numaers. 67. Cardinal and Ordinal Numbers 68. Distributive and Numeral Adverbs .. 63. 70. Fractions ... Chapter 10: Veres . 71. Impersonal Verbs 72, Semi-deponents . 73, Neutral Passives vn 74, Inceptive {inchostive) Verbs 78, Diminutive Verbs 76. Intensive (Iterative) Verbs 77. Meditative Verbs. 78. Desiderative Verbs Carter 11: Inrinitives.. 79. Subjective infinitive 80. Complementary Infinitive : 81, Objective Infinitive (Infinitive with Subject Accusative) 82, Historical Infinitive Indirect Statement (Oratio Oblique)Taaiaaininiaanasasasianeiaiaeaiaaammemseemammnmmsmeesssseseeeeeeeeeeel Cuarter.12: PaRTICiPLes saseretsnesseeese: OD 84, Participies — Verbal Adjectives... Cuarter 13: Sussunctives . 85. Volitive (Horatory) Subjunctiv 86. Indirect Question .... 87, Indirect Command 88. Optative Subjunctive .. 89. Deliberative Subjunctive Carter 14: OrHer Vers Forms . 90. The Supine verse. 91. Imperative Mood... 92. Negative Commands. Cuarter 15: Conpiriona SENTENCES ., 93. Simple Condition 94. Future Conditions.. 95. Contrary to Fact 98. Generel Conditions ... Crapren 16: OTHER Causes... 987, Relative Clauses of Characteristic 98. Result Clauses 89. Purpose Clauses... 100. Clauses of Anticipation 101. Quin Clauses esr 102. Quominus .. . 103. Cum Clauses . Crater 17: Consunctions, ENcurtics, anp DEMONSTRATIVES....... 104. Enclitics 108. Hic, ille, iste «. 108. Quem 107. Ut.. 108. Hed... 108. Coordinates. CrapTer 18: Rare ano ALTERNATE FORMS... 110. Syncopations .. 111. Archaic Forms Of 112, Alternate forms of Verbs.. 118, Abbreviated Forms Cuapter 19; OTHER Opormes . 114. Distinguishable: 116, Irregular Declensions 118. Odd Genitives. 117. Nouns Only Found in the Plural (Piuralia tantum) . 118. Nouns With Different Maasings inthe Singular and Phra 119. regular Verbs. 120. Reduplicative Verbs 121. Trees... 72. ae Cuapter 1: PHONOLOGY The Latin Alphabet Latin and English, as well as most modem European languages, are descendants of the same parent language generally lmown as Indo-Eurepean. For this reason, the English alphabet is almost identical to the Latin alphabet with the following exceptions: 2) The Latin alphabet did not contain the letters: J, U, or W. b) Jand ¥ were used as both the vowels / and U and the consonants J and ¥. Consonental V and the vowel V are distinguished as V and U in this text, as most people are accus- tomed to this. c) In early Latin, there was no letter G, so the letter C took its place. This can still be seen in the abbreviations: C for Gaius and Cn: for Gnaius. d) Xand Z are called double consonants since they represent the sounds of ks (cs) and dz. The Names of the Consonants ‘The names of all of the consonants in Latin were as follows: B = be (pronounced bay) Neen P= pe (pay) Q= au (i00) Reer S=es le (tay) Basic Pronunciation Rules ‘The Latin consonants should be pronounced like the English with the following exceptions: a) C ang g are always hard as in come and get. b) Sis always soft as in fips and never pronounced like a z. ¢) Consonantal i is pronounced like a y as in pou. 6) Ph, th, and ch are properly pronounced p, t, and ¢ followed by a short breeth, €) Bs is pronounced like ps, and bt like pt. e.g. urs should be pronounced “urps",4. 5. Pronunciation of Vowels Long Vowels Short Vowels aasis father a asin idea eas in date eas in net jas in machine iasinsit oas in holy asin gbey was in boot was in foot y is across between u andi Diphthongs Diphthongs are combinations of vowels which are pronounced as one. There are six ofthese in the Latin language: ae like I ei asin eight 08 as in boy eu like e'00 au as in now ui like 00'ee Syllabification ‘A Latin word has as many syllables as it contains separate vowels or diphthongs. Consonantal «js not counted as a vowel, nor is ‘u’ when preceded by a ‘g’. The rules for the division of Latin words are as follows: 2) A consonant between two vowels belongs to the second syllable: a’ mo, 0” cul-us, su" us b) Ina group of two or more consonants, only the last consonant is pronounced with the following vowel unless itis an h, J, orr, preceded by 6, ¢, dg p, or, in which case both consonants are pronounced with the following verb. agri’ co-la, quat-tu-or’ de-cim ¢) In « compound word, the prefix is usually separated from the rest of the word: con-scri‘bo, in-ter’ €-0 ; the next to last the penulf, and the d) The last syllable of a word is called the ultir second from last the antepenutlt For example, in the word a-gri-co-la, “Ja” is the ultima, ‘co’ is the penult, and “gri” is the antepenult.7. Length of Syllables ‘The Romans pronounced a long vowel twice as long as a short one. A syllable containing along ‘vowel ora diphthong is therefore considered long by nature. A syllable is considered short by nature when the vowel is followed by another vowel, ‘nr’ or ‘nd’. A syllable is said to be long. by position when a short vowel is followed by two or more consozants or a double consonant (e or2) with the following exception: a syllable ending in a short vowel and followed by a mute 6 g, p) is common and may be short or long. Accent A dissyllabic (2 syllable) word has the accent on the penult or first syllable (e.g. pu'er). This is true of polysyllabic words as well when the penult is long (e.g. gra-ti'as); otherwise the accent ison the antepenullt (e.g. a-gri'co-la). In 2 polysyllabic word, the accent is never on the ultima.CHaPTER 2: Oppities oF DECLENSION au First Declension a) Masculine Nouns of the First Declension ‘Most nouns ofthe first declension are feminine. Names of males (such as Catilina) and the following nouns are masculine: agricola (farmer) andabata (blindfolded gladiator) auriga (charioteet) collega (colleague) incola (inhabitant) rauta (sailor) pirata (pirate) posta (poet) seriba (secretary) ) Dative and Ablative Plurals Ending in -abus To differentiate the word filia (daughter) from jilius (son), the Dative and Ablative | plurals of filia become filiabus. This is also true ofthe following nouns: dea (goddess) equa (mare) filia (daughter) liberta (freedwoman) ‘mula (she-maule) 10. Second Declension | a) jinine Nc ‘Most nouns of the second declension are masculine, however, many cities, countries, islands and trees are feminine. Some examples are: | Aegyptus Egyp') alvus (belly) i amus (old woman) arctus (polar bear) ascanthus (evergreen) carbasus (linen) colus (distaff) Corinthus (Corinth) fagus (beech tree) ficus (fig tree) ‘rumus (ground) ‘methodicus (method) l Rhodus (Rhodes) vannus (winnowing shovel) Exceptions: ascanthus, i (When it means "bear's foot") is masculine. b) Even though Latin has forms for second declension neuter nouns, there are a few neuter ‘nouns of the second declension end in -ws end are declined as follows: Sing. Piur. cetus (sea monster) oust pelagus (sea) “i -onum virus (poison) 0 vis vulgus (crowd) stc) Nouns with -e- in their base ‘The following nouns retain the -e- in their base es puer, pueri: adulter (adulterer) armiger (armor bearer) gener (son-in-law) Liber (Bacchus) ‘puer (boy) signifer (standard bearer) ssocer (father-in-law) vesper (evening) Note: All nouns stemming from fero and gero (e.g, signifer and armiger will retain the 4) Genitive Plural The Genitive plural of some second declension nouns may be shortened to -um for ‘metrical reasons: superum = superorum, virum = virorum, socium = sociorum. 11. Third Declension J-stem nouns have -iumt in the Genitive plural, may have -is rather than -es in the Accusative plural, and if neuter have an Ablative singular ending in -i: One should use the following rules to determine if e third declension noun is an i-stem or not: OE tThica Devtestion 18 1) The noun ends in -es or ~is in the Nominative singular and has the same number of syllables in the Genitive singular: caedes, caedis(f. slaughter) acdes, aedis (house) i hostis, hostis (m. enemy) civis, civis (citizen) 2) The noun ends in -ns or -rs in the Nominative singular: inftans, infantis (c. infant) ‘mors, mortis (£. death) 3) A noun of one syllable in the Nominative singular has a base that ends in two consonants: nox, noctis (f. night) hex, luctis (Z light) 4) A neuter noun ending in -al, -e or -ar in the Norninative singular: animal, animalis (animal) iubar, iubaris (radiance) ‘mare, maris (sea) examplar, exemplaris (example) calcar, calcaris (spur) sedile, sedilis (seat) vectigal (tax) ancile, ancilis (shield) 5) The following are exceptions to these rules and are therefore not i-stems: canis (c. dog) iuvenis (c. youth) seces (£. seat) vates (c. prophet)) Bure L-stems Pure i-stems have -im in the Accusative singular, -/ in the Ablative singular, ~is in the ‘Acousative plural, and -ium in the Genitive plural. The following nouns fit into this category and are declined like turris: buris (m. plough beam) cucumis (ga. cucumber) Jebris (E fever) puppis (E. stern, ship) ‘avis (£ hoarseness) rrestis (E. rope) securis (f. axe) sementis (f. planting) sitis(f. thirst) nurris (f. tower) russis (£ cough) vis (£. force) c) k:stems Ending in -er ‘Even though the following nouns end in -er, they are pure i-stems. imber, imbris (m. rain) liner, lineris (E. boat, tub) suter, utris m. (bag) venter, veniris (m. stomach) 4) Masculine nouns ending in -men ‘While almost every noun ending in -men is neuter (carmen, flumen, ...) flamen (priest) is masculine. ©) Eemini eee ‘All third declension nouns that end in -fas are feminine: celeritas, brevitas... 12. Fourth Declension ad ‘The fourth declension is primarily a masculine declension, and though it does have endings for the neuter, there are very few fourth declension neuter nouns. The follow- ing words are fourth declension neuter: cornu (hom) gelu (frost) gens (knee) ppecu (herd) veru (skewer) b) The following nouns of the fourth declension are feminine, though are declined the same as a regular fourth declension nouns.) cus (needle) anus (old woman) colus (distaff) domus (house) Idus (des) ‘manus (hand, band of men) rmurus (young wornan) porticus (port) |¢) Heteroclites Heteroclites are nouns that alternate between two declensions. domrus (f. house) and colus (f. distaff) are examples of heteroclites that altemate between the second and fourth declensions. domus domus domus {domi} domazum {domorum) domui {domo} domibus domum domos {domus} domo {domu} . ___domibus 13. Fifth Declension ) Dies and Res ‘There are only two nouns of the fifth declension which are declined in full: dies (day) and res (thing). ») Exceptions to gender rule Most nouns of the fifth declension are feminine except for dies and meridies which are usually masculine except when referring to a fixed time or time in general as the fol- lowing: constinuta die (on the decided day) Jonga dies (in a long time) Nomnally: die quarto (on the fourth day)Cuapter 3: Gewitives 14. Genitive with Adjectives “The Genitive case is often used to show: desire, knowledge, memory, fullness, power, sharing, and guilt with adjectives. affinis* (related 10) appetens (eager, greedy) cavidus (greedy) __ cupidus (desirous of) egenus (destitute of) expers (Gee from) {fastidiosus (disagreeable to) inanis (empty, poor) ‘inops (destitute of) ingons (harmless) memor (mindful of) oblitus (forgetful of) particeps (sharing in) cperitust (skilled in) ‘plenus (full of) ‘potens (powerful over) vrefertus (crammed, full) + Note: Affinis may occasionally be found in Dative. + Note: Peritus often takes an Ablative. 15. Genitive of Specification The Genitive of Specification is an extension of the Genitive with Adjectives callidus amoris — skilled in love ‘fessus rerum —tired of things integer vitae — whole of life rnotus virtutis— known for courage ‘pauper aquae — a scant of water ‘purus animi — pure of spirit 16. Genitive of Material “The Genitive may be used when specifying the material of an object. talentum auri—a talent of gold Note: Contrast this with the Ablative of Material, 17. Genitive of Measure “The Genitive of Measure is used with mumerals to denote beights, depths, etc. “fossa trium pedum — 2 trench of three feet (in depth) ‘murus sedecim pedum — a wall of 17 feet (in height) ‘Note: While the Genitive of Measure is used with, heights and depths, the Accusative Extent of Space is normally used with horizontal distances. —10—Genitive of Quality (Description) The Genitive may be used to describe 2 particular quality of an object when the quality is modified by an adjective. vir summae virtutis — a man of the highest courage Note: See also the Ablative of Description . 19. Objective Genitive ‘The Objective Genitive may be used with nouns of agency, action, feeling, skill, participation, memory, ete. caritas tui — care for you desiderium oti — longing for rest fuga malorum — refuge from disaster vacatio muneris — relief from duty ‘Note: The Objective Genitive requires the ‘i’ endings of vos and nos (vestri and nostri,) 20. Partitive Genitive (Genitive of the Whole) ‘A Partitive Genitive, or Genitive of the whole, is used to denote the whole to which e part belongs. The Parttive Genitive is regularly used with adverbs, ordinal numbers, comparatives, superlatives, and the following words: alius (one) alter (the one) ‘milia (thousands) ‘milia (thousands) nihil (nothing) pars (part) guisgue* (each) satis (enough) tantum (so much) ubinam (wherever) uterque* (both, each) guingue milia passuum — five thousands of paces (five miles) pars virorum — part of the men tantum spoti — so much of space sumus ubinam gentium — wherever in the world we are * Note: Uterque and quisque take a Partitive Genitive only when used with pronouns. utrague casira — both camps terque consul — both consuls utergue nostrum — each of us (guisque vestrum — each of you Note: The Partitive Genitive requires the -um endings of vos and nos (vestrum, nos- trum). =22. 23. Partitive Adjectives Since the partitive idea is included in meanings ofthe following adjectives, they do not take = Genitive of the whole, but take the case of the noun they modify. medius (middle of) multi (coany of) ‘omnes (all of) summus (on top of) religuus (rest of) in medias res — into the middle of things bibimmus reliquum vinum — we drank the rest of the wine Note: There are several adjectives that take neither the Genitive nor have the partitive idea ‘contained within their meaning. For a list of these, please see the Partitive Ablative, Ger “The Genitive of Charge or Penalty is used with verbs of accusing, condemning and acquitting, ‘The person charged is put in the Accusative, and the charge itself in the Genitive, It is used with the following verbs: ve of Charge of Penalty absolvo (to acquit) accuso (to accuse) arguo (to aceuse) coarguo (to convict) condemno (to condemn) damno (to condemn) arguit me furti — be accuses me of thievery damnare capiti — to sentence to death Remembering and Forgetting ‘Verbs of remembering and forgetting take their objects in the Genitive case. obliviscor (to forget) reminiscor (to remember) ‘memini (to remember) ipse sui meminerat — he was mindful of himself Exception: Recordor (to remember) takes an Accusative rather than a Genitive for its object.24. Prepositions ‘The following prepositions take the Genitive for their object: ‘causa (because of) ergo (because of) gratia (because of) instar (jn the likeness of) ‘emus (as far 0s) Note: Gratia and causa are usually used with a Genitive, but are used with an Ablative when their object is a pronoun. ‘exempli gratia. for the sake of aa example ‘mea causa — for my sake25. 26. Guapter 4: Datives Dative with Verbs ‘The following verbs may take the Dative for their objects: appropinguo * (to approach) bellum inferre (to attack) cedo (to yield to) credo (to believe) _faveo (to favor) ‘fido + (to trust) ‘gratificar (to do service) ‘gratulor (to congratulate) -— — igmosco (to pardon) haereo t (to mix) impero (to order) indulgeo (to indulge) invideo (to envy) iungo $ (to join) mando (to order) misceo t (to mix) rroceo (to harm) mubo (to marry) pareo (to obey) parco (to spare) ppermitto (to permit) ‘persuadeo (to persuade) pplaceo (to please) ;praesum: (to be in charge of) iprobo (to approve) ‘praeficio (to put in charge of) provideo (to provide for) rresisto (to resist) rrespondeo (to respond) sservio (to be a slave to) studeo (to be studious) suadeo (to persuade) ‘supplico (to pray to) tempero (to refrain) * Note: Appropinguo may take a preposition with the Accusative instead of a Dative. appropinguo ad silvam (I am approaching the forest) + Note: Fido and confido may take an Ablative of the object entrusted. + Note: Misezo, iungo, and haereo are more often found with an Ablative of Accompa- iment than a Dative. Other Verbs Taking the Dative ‘The following verbs may take a Dative of the Person and an Accusative of the Thing or an ‘Acousative of the Person and an Ablative of the Thing. aceingo (to make ready) circumdo (to surround) dono (to present) exuo (to lay aside) impertio (to communicate) implico (to involve, connect) indo (to put on, entangle) inspergo (to sprinkle on) donat coronas suis — he presents wreaths to his men (Dative) donat suos coronis — he presents his men with wreaths (Ablative)27. 28. 30. Dative of Possession ‘The Dative may be used with a form of sum to denote possession. The would be direct object is then placed in the Nominative case (domus) below, and the former subject is placed into the Dative: ‘est miki Romae domus. — 1 have a house in Rome. — (Dative of possession) Romae domum habeo. —I bave a house in Rome. — (normal) Dative of Direction ‘The Dative of Direction is occasionally used in poetry instead of the Accusative with 2 prepo- sition. inferretque deos Latio — He brought his gods into Latium inferretque deos ad Latio — He brought his gods into‘Latium (poetry) (prose) Dative with Adjectives Adjectives that fit into the following ditry: “kind, friendly, dear...pleasing, hostile, near...and their opposites” all take the Dative case. The following are some of these: accommodus (suitable) affinis * (near to) amicus (friendly to) aptus (Gi) dificilis (difficult, awkward) dispar (uneven) dissimilis (dissimilax) facilis (easy, well suited for) _fidelis (faithful to) “finitimus (near to) gratus (pleasing) idoneus (Suitable for) ignotus (unknown) infestus (unsafe) inimicus (unfriendly) inutilis (useless) invisus (unseen) iucundus (pleasant) ‘molestus (annoying) notus (familiar) opportunus (opportune, useful) par (even) propinguus (near) similis + (similar) utilis (useful) vicinus (near) * Note: Affinis is often used with the Genitive. + Note: With pronouns, similis usually takes the Genitive case: est similis mei — He is similar to me. Desum, Absum Desum and absum * take a Dative of Possession. ‘hoc unum Caesari defuit — This only was lacking to Caesar guid abesse huic poterit — What can be wanting to him? * Note: Absum usually takes the Ablative case, but is occasionally in the Dative. eg oeDative of Agent “The Dative of Agent is used with the passive periphrastic construction to denote the person on ‘whom the necessity rests. mihi est amandum —1 must love (lit. It must be loved by me.) Note: The Ablative with @ or ab is used instead of the Dative of Agent when the Dative case would be ambiguous. ei liber a me est dandus — 1 must give the book to him. Double Dative “The Double Dative is @ combination of the Dative of Purpose and the Dative of Reference. 2) Dative of Reference “The Dative of Reference is used to show the advantage or disadvantage of the action of the verb. Ede illum cibum Eat that food for yourself +) Dative of Purpose ‘A noun demonstrating purpose may be placed in the Dative when used with the Dative of Reference. The following nouns are commonly used to express purpose: ausilio (as an aid) praesidio (for a guard) curae (for a care) ‘subsidio (for a support) impedimento (hinder) ‘usui (for an advantage) Examples: Caesar auzilio erat copiis. — Caesar served as an aid to his troops. | 33. Ethical Dative ‘The Dative of Reference when used with personal pronouns (mihi, ribi, sui) may be used to show certain interest felt by the person indicated. In this sense, itis called the Bthical Dative.Cuapter 5: Accusatives Cognate Accusative Intransitive verbs may take a noun of kindred meaning in the Accusative case. This construc- tion may also be used with verbs of smelling and tasting. vitam vivere - to live a life Be servire servituteni - to serve servitude vinum redolens - smelling of wine Predicate Accusative Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, etc. take their object in the Accusative, al- though the same verb, when passive, will have a Predicate Nominative instead. (active) __Ciceronem consulem creare — to elect Cicero consul (passive) Cicero creatur consul — Cicero is made consul Accusative of Secondary Object With verbs compounded by prepositions, the object of the preposition is often placed in the Accusative. This is especially common with verbs compounded by trans. Caesar Germanos flumen traicit — Caesar throws the Germans across the river. Double Accusatives Some verbs of asking and teaching, and a couple of hiding, take a Double Accusative: of the person, and of the thing. celo (to conceal from) doceo (to veach) interrogo (to ask about) lateo (to lie hidden) oro (to pray, beg) posco (to ask) reposco (to reclaim, demand back) ogo (to ask) me sententiam rogavit — He asked me my opinion. haze praetorem postulabas — You demanded this of the practor. docere pueros grammaticam — To teach children grammar. ron te celavi sermonem — I did not conceal the oration from you.Ec 40. 41. Verbs that Don’t Take a Double Accusative Some verbs of asking take a preposition and the Ablatve of the person asked ratber than & Double Avcusative. This is always the case with peto end quzero, and occasionally with the others. flagito (ab) ‘peto (ab) ‘posca * (ab) © postulo (ab) quaero (de, ab, ex) ‘pacem ab Romanis petierunt — they asked for peace from the Romans quod quacsivit ex me P. Apuleius — whet Publius Apuleius esked from me + Note: Posco may also be found with a Double Accusative. Accusative of, Specification ‘The Accusative of Specification, modeled after the Greek, is very rare in Latin, but is ovcasion- ally found in poetry to denote a part of the body which has been affected. ‘muda genu - naked with respect to her knee ‘caput nectentur - they shall be bound by the bead 1 femur ictus - wounded in the thigh varventis pculos sufecti sanguine et igni — suffused as to their eyes with blood and fire nitent arbor fulva comam — A tee shines yellow in its branches. Accusative of Exclamation ‘The Accusative is most often used for exclamations (though the Nominative may be used.) ‘Ecce® eos - look at them Ome infelicem - O unhappy 1 # Note: Eece is almost always used with Nominative: ef. ecce komo — behold the man. Accusative Extent of Space ‘The Accusative Extent of Space denotes the object through or over which the action takes place, The action inthis case is a horizontal motion es opposed to @ vetisl one, “fossa quingue pedes longas — « trench five fest long “progressus milia passim duodecim — having advanced about 12 milesAccusative with Prepositions 2) Adjest : The following adjectives take the Accusative case: ad (to, toward, at, near) apud (at, neat, among) circiter (about) contra (against) extra (outside) : inter (among) ~ 0b (on account of) per (through) ‘post (after) prope (neat) supra (above) ultra (beyond) >) Inand sub ‘When in and sub are used with motion, they take the Accusative, but when they are used without motion, they take the Ablative. Navigo sub pontem — 1 am sailing under the bridge. Sum sub ponte — am under the bridge. ante (in front of, before) circum (around) cis, citra (this side of) erga (toward) infra (below) inoxa (near) ‘penes (in the power of) ‘pone (behind) raster (beyond) ‘propter (on account of) trans (across)CHAPTER 6: ABLATIVES 43, Ablative of Origin ‘The Ablative of Origin expresses the place of birth or the source of the object. creatus (son of) cretus (descended, born from) editus (descended from) generatus (bred from) sgenitus (bor, produced from) natus (bor from) oriundus (sprung from) cortus (bom from) ssatus (sprang from) edite regibus — descended from kings genitae Pandione — daughters of Pandion (lit. the female offspring of Pandion) Ablative of Material ‘The Ablative of Material with a preposition may be used instead of the Genitive of Material. Templum de marmore ponam — 1 will build a temple of marble. ‘Note: See also the Genitive of Material. Ablative of Cause ‘The Ablative of Cause shows the cause of an action and may be used with or without a preposition. The following verbs lend themselves to this construction: ardeo (to burn with) exsilio (to jump for) exsulto (to exult in) ‘facio (to do) ‘gaudeo (to rejoice in) ‘glorior (to glorify) Taboro (to suffer) lacrimo (to cry) sriumpho (to triumph in) hoc feci amore vestri — I did it because of my love for you. inopia cibi laborabant — They were suffering from a lack of food. Neglegentia plectimur — We are chastised for our negligence. gua de causa — for which reason 46. Ablative of Agent ‘The Ablative with the preposition a (ab) denotes personal agent. Jaudatur a viro— he is praised by the man| 47. Ablative of Separation a) Nouns. and Verbs “The Ablative of Separation is used with verbs and adjectives meaning to remove, set free, be absent, want, lack, etc. ei aqua ef igni interdicinur — it is debarred to him from fire and water voluptatibus carere — to lack enjoyments oculis se privavit — he deprived himself of eyes b) Adjectives ; The following adjectives take an Ablative of Separation: immunis (exempt from) liber (free from) muda (naked of) vvacuus (empty of) urbs nuda praesidio — a city naked of defense liber periculo — free from danger vacuus agua — empty of water ») Verbs | The following verbs take an Ablative of Separation: eg¢0 (to be destinute of) careo (to lack) libero (to free fom) 48. Ablative of Comparison a) Without Quam ‘The Ablative of Comparison may be used without quam compare two words if the first word is either in the Nominative or Accusative. If this is $0, then the second word being compared is placed in the Ablative case. Cato est Cicerone eloguentior — Cato is more eloquent than Cicero (abl.) Cato est eloguentior quam Cicero — Cato is more eloquent than Cicero (quam) hhaec via est longior illa est — This road is longer than that one. ») With Relati n ‘The Ablative of Comparison is always used with relative pronouns or when a general negative is implied: Rex erat Aeneas nobis, quo iustior alter nec — Aeneas was our king, than whom. none was more just nemo est carior te — No one is dearer thin you.49, 50. c)} Special Comparatives The following comparatives of measure or number may be used with the Ablative of ‘Comparison without guam: amplius (more than) Tongius (longer than) ‘minus (Jess than) pplus (more than) plus tertia parte interfecta — with more than one third having been slain Ablative Degree of Difference ‘The Ablative may be used to denote the general difference between time periods. Paulo (a little) and mulzo (a ot) are commonly used for this purpose. paucis post diebus — a few days later ‘multis ante horis — many hours before ‘mulio brevior — rauch shorter (lit. shorter by much) paulo brevior — shorter by a little ‘altior duabus pedibus — two feet higher (it. higher by two feet) Ablative of Means or Instrument a) i "The Ablative of Means may be used with words of filling, abounding, ete. compleo* (to fill up with) confertus (crowded) . differtus (crammed) expleo (to fill up) impleo* (to satisfy) opimus (rich with) plenus* (full with) Deus bonis omnibus explevit mundum — God has filled the world with all good things. * Note: The Genitive case is more common with compleo, impleo, and plenus in poetry. b) Verbs and Idioms. The Ablative of Means is used with the following verbs: utor (to use) fruor (to enjoy) fungor (to perform) ‘potior (to gain possession of) vvescor (to feed upon) ‘opus est (there is need) usus est (there is need) _fruor malis — 1 enjoy apples : ‘magistratibus opus est nobis — We need magistrates. (lit. There is a need to us of Magistrates) —2—51. 53. ‘Note: When any of these verbs are used with a gerundive, the case of the gerundive will override that of the verb. venit ad utendam latrinam — He comes to use the latrine. venit causa utendae latrinae — He comes to use the latrine. Ablative of Manner ‘The Ablative may be used with or without the preposition cum to express manner. When cum is used with a noun modified by an adjective, it must fall between the noun and its adjective, cum celeritate — with speed maxima celeritate — with the greatest speed ‘maxima cum celeritate — with the greatest speed Ablative of Accompaniment ‘The Ablative of Accompaniment with cum may be used with verbs of motion to express the person who is accompanying the subject. Amulo cum matre —1 walk with my mother 2) Verbs of mixing ‘The Ablative of Accompaniment may be used with or without cum with verbs of mix- ing or joining. confundo (to mix, confuse) haereo (to cling to) iungo (to join with) misceo (to mix with) b) Verbs of contention The Ablative of Accompaniment may be used with cum to express the object of contention. armis cum hoste certare — to fight with the enemy in arms Ablative of Price ‘The Ablative case is used to define a definite price, and may be used with some verbs of exchanging as well. permuto (to exchange) -verto (to tum into, exchange) ‘muto (to change) commuto (to barter) agrum vendidit sestertium sex milibus — He sold the land for 6000 sesterti fidem suam et religionem pecunia commutare — to barter his faith and conscience for ‘money a ‘Note: The Genitive may be used to denote indefinite value. —3—54, 5 6. Ablative of Description (Quality) ‘The Ablative of Description may be used to describe the physical qualities of a noun. This form say be used interchangeably with the Genitive of Description, however, the Ablative is more often used to describe physical qualities such as height or size. est vir magna virtute — be is a man of great virtue Note: This construction, as with the Genitive of description, may not be used without an fadiective. To say: he is aman of virtue, one must say: vir fortis est (it. He is # brave man.) Ablative of Specification (Respect) a) With Nouns The Ablative of respect or specification may be used without @ preposition to show ‘wat respect the quality of a word applies to praecedunt virtute - They excel in courage rex nomine erat — He was king by name “Marcus par tibi virtute est ~ Marcus is equal to you with respect to virtue b) With Adjectives The following adjectives take an Ablative of respect: contentus (content with) igus (worthy of) _fretus (relying on) indignus (unworthy of) Iaetus (rejoicing in ) ‘peritus (experienced) patre indignus est — he is unworthy of his father lenitate fretus — relying on leniency rnon contentus laude — not content with praise ow ‘ When an adjective is used with the supine, the supine is placed in the Ablative, mirabile dictu —marvelous to say. Ablative Absolute a) Formation The Ablative Absolute consists of two words in the Ablative case which denote a time, cause or condition. The two words are usually separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, and may be: 1) TwoNouns : Caesare duce, sumus invicti — With Caesar as leader, we are unconquerable,57. 58. 2) ANoun and s Participle Signo dato, oppugnavimus — With the signal having been given, we attacked. AN dicot Periculo magno, fugiunt — With the danger being great, they fled. b) Translation The Ablative Absolute may be translated many different ways. For example, signo dato may be translated as follows: with the signal having been given _since the signal was given after the signal was given when the signal was given if the signal is given although the signal was given ‘Note: The noun in the Ablative Absolute may not refer to the subject of the main clause. * Note: The Ablative singular of the present participle ends in -e when used in an Ablative Absolute or when used substantively (es a noun). (substantive) ab amante — by @ lover (Adjective) ‘ab amanti muliere — by a loving woman | {Abl. Absolute) amante muliere — with the woman, loving | Ablative with Prepositions ‘The following prepositions take the Ablative case for their objects: a, ab, abs (from, by) absque (without) coram (in the presence of) cum (with) de (down from, about) ex (out of) | in (in, on) ‘palam (in the presence of) rae (before, in front of) ‘pro (before, in front of) ‘procul (fas fom) ssine (without) sub (under) tenus * (os far as) * Note: remus sometimes takes the Genitive, + Note: im and sub may also be used with the Accusative, Partitive Ablative ‘With cardinal numbers, pauci, guidam, and complures, the partitive Genitive is not used, but” rather the Ablative case with the prepositions: de or ex. Either the partitive Genitive or the | parlitive Ablative may be used with mulfi (many) | umus ex pueris — one of the boys quidam ex feminis — a certain of the women, ‘paucos de libris poetae dedimus — we gave 2 few books to the poet complures de viris — several of the men —3—59. 60. Cuapter 7: Vocative, Locative Vocative 2) Nouns “The vocative case is used for direct address and is usually separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, The vocative case is the same as the Nominative case for all Geclensions except for second. The vocative of second declension nouns ending in ~ius (ike Lucius) end simply in-i(Luei), and mouns ending in -us (Marcus) end ine (Maree). Note: Filius is the only common noun ending in -ius which is normally used with a ‘vocative. b) Adjectives The vocative of an adjective is the same as the Nominative with two exceptions: adjec- tives ending in -us (bonus) have a vocative ending of -e (bone), and adjectives ending in ius (egregius) have a vocative in -i (egregie) Place Constructions a) Locative ‘With names of cities, towns, small islands, domus, humus, and rus, the locative case is ‘used to express place where rather than an Ablative with a preposition. In the singular, the locative case of nouns of the first and second declensions is the same as the Genitive, and for the other declensions the Ablative. In the plural, the locative case is the sane as the Dative or Ablative form. ») i ‘i a ni The Ablative place from which and the Accusative place to which may be expressed without a preposition with nouns that have a locative. Note: Irregular locatives: ruri (in the country), Carthagini (in Carthage), anim (in the ming), humi (on the ground). Note: A noun in apposition to a locative is placed in the Ablative case: habito Romae, ‘magna urbe — 1 live in Rome, a great city. Note: The following adverbs were originally locatives: (ubi, ibi, hodie, perendie, hic, peregre {peregri})Construction Place to which: etCxapter 8: ADJECTIVES 61. Agreement of Adjectives a) An adjective agrees with the noun that it modifies in gender, number, and case, | »b) An attributive adjective agrees with the nearest noun. | ‘multae operae ac laboris — of muck rouble and labor ¢) Two or more abstract nouns of the same gender may have a predicate adjective in the neuter plural. ‘stultitia et temeritas et iniustitia sunt fugienda — folly, rashness, and injustice are | [things] to be shunned. @) A predicate adjective will be masculine if nouns of different genders refer to living things, and will be neuter if referring to things without life. 62. Substantives ‘An adjective, when left by itself, may be used 2s a noun, The translation of this substantive depends on the gender and number of the adjective. bonus (a good man) oni (good men) bona (a good woman) bonae (good women) bonum (a good thing) ona (good things) 63. frregular Adjectives ‘The following adjectives are irregular in the Genitive and Dative singular: alius, alia, aliud (other, another) alter, altera, alterum (the other) neuter, neutra, neutrum (neither) ruil, -a, -um (none) soli solus, ~2, -um (only, alone) otus, -a, -um (whole, entire) ulus, -a, -um (any) ums, -a, um (one) ter, utra, utrum (which of two) utergue, utrague, utrumgue (each of two) Masculine Feminine Neuter | solus sola ssolum i solius solius i soli soli soli solum solam solum solo sola solo ‘Note: The plurals of all of these are regular. —28—64. Irregular Comparison of Adjectives 2) Irregular Comparisons ‘benevolus, benevolentior, benevolentissimus (kind) ‘maledicus, maledicentior, maledicentissimus (foul-mouthed) magnificus, magnificentior, magnificentissimus (grand) iprovidus, providentior, providentissimus (fas-sighted) ‘egenus, egentior, egentissimus (needy) ») ois o arduus, magis arduus, maxime arduus (difficult) dubius, magis dubius, maxime dubius (doubtful) idoneus, magis idoneus, maxime idoneus (suitable) 3) . jectives Endi 7 ‘The following adjectives are compared like sim similis, similior, simillimus Jacilis (easy) difficilis (difficult) ‘similis (similar) dissimilis (dissimilar) gracilis (slender) humilis (rumble) Note: All other adjectives ending in -lis are compared normally: utilis, utilior, utilissimus ¢) Other Irreeular Comparisons ‘bonus, melior, optimus (good) dexter, dexterior, dextimus (handy) dives, ditior {divitor}, ditissimus {diventissimus) (ric) _frugi, frugalior, frugalissimus (useful, worthy) invenis, iunior, natu minimus (young) magnus, maior, maximus (great) malus, peior, pessimus (bad) maturus, maturior, maturrimus {mavurissimus} (mature) rmultus, plus, plurimus (taany) nequam, neguior, nequissimus (worthless) parvus, minor, minimus (small) pprae/pro, prior, primus (before) satis (enough), satius (preferably), —— secus (otherwise), setius (worse), senex, senior, natu maximus (ld) superus, superior, supremus (above) vetus, vetustior, vererrimus (016) [verustior is from verusrus] * Note: Frug? is undeclinable. —29—66. Adjectives Declined Like liber, libera, liberum ‘The following adjectives retain the -e- in their stem: asper (rough) aliger (winged) lacer (mangled) miser (wretched) saetiger (bristly) sarur (Billed) tener (tender) ‘Adjectives Declined Like pulcher, pulehra, pulchrum ‘The following adjectives do not retain the -e- in their stem. caeger (sick) ater (black) ereber (thick) ‘faber (skillful) glaber (bald) integer (whole) ludicer (playful) macer (lean, poor) niger (dark) noster (our) iger (slow, dull) ruber (red) ssacer (sacred) seaber (rough) sinister (lef) taeter (foul) vafer (crafty) vyester (yout)67. Cuapter 9: NUMBERS Cardinal and Ordinal Numbers Cardinal numbers ‘Ordinal numbers Roman Numerals “How many?” “In what order?” sunus (one) ‘Primus (Gist) I duo (two) secundus (second) fi tres (three) tertius (third) m quattuor (Fou) quartus (fourth) Vv guingue (five) quintus (Eifth) Vv sex (Six) ssextus (sixth) vl septem (seven) septimus (seventh) vn octo (eight) octavus (eighth) vit nove (nine) onus (ninth) x decem (ten) deciraus (tenth) x undecim (eleven) undecimus (eleventh) XI duodecim (twelve) Guodecins (twelfth) x decem et tres (thirteen) —_tertius decimus (13th) XII duodeviginti (eighteen) duodevicesimus (18a) XVII undeviginti (nineteen) _umdevicesimus (19th) xx viginti (twenty) vicisemus (twentieth) x ‘Note: Ordinal numbers are regular adjectives, and must agree with the noun that they modify. Cardinal numbers are indeclinable, except for the numbers: one, two, and three, and all numbers 200 and above (though not mille), duo* uae duo res ria miliat duorum — duarum — duorum rium rium milium duobus — duabus — duobus tribus ——tribus milibus duos duas duo res ria milia duobus — duabus —duobus tribus ——stribus milibus * Note: Ambo, ambae, ambo (both), an old Greek dual form, is declined like duo. +Note: Mille is not declined in the singular, but in the plural is declined as shown and usually takes a Partitive Genitive: mille passus — one thousand paces (one mile) quingue milia passuum — five thousands of paces (five miles)stributive and Numeral Adverbs How many at a time? How often? ssinguli, ae, a (one by one) semel (once) Bini (two by two) bis (twice) ini {terni) (three by three) ter (three times) quaterni (four by four) ‘quatter (four times quini (five by five) quinguiens (five times) deni (ten by ten) _ deciens (ten times) ‘Note: Bini is used with plural nouns that have a special meaning to mean “two”. ‘Bina castra = two camps (duo castra = two forts) rina castra = three camps una castra = one camp 69. Temporals and Multiplicatives Temporals How much time? What fold? bimus (of two years age) simplex (single) srimus (of three years age) duplex (two fold) triplex (three fold) triplex (three fold) biduum (a period of two days) bimestris (a period of two months) biennium (e period of two years) 70. Fractions 2) Fractions in Latin are very similar to those in English. The numerator is e cardinal squmber and the denominator is an ordinal number. The noun partes (from pars, partis, £ pan) is assumed. tres octavae = three eighths = 3/8 b) When the mimerator is one, use pars and an ordinal number (una is assumed): tertia pars = one third = 1/3 ) When the numerator is one less than the denominator, use partes with 2 cardinal: duae partes = two thirds = 2/3 ) One half 1/2 is translated dimidium or dimidia pars.71. Cuapter 10: VerBs impersonal Verbs Impersonal verbs are verbs whose only subject is “ tense, but not to person. 2) Time and Weather = “fulgurat (it's lightening) luciscit (jt is getting light) pluit Git is raining) ‘onat (it thunders) ») Taking.2 Genitive * interest (it concerns, it is of interest) *, They may be conjugated with respect to grandinat (jt hails) rningit (it is snowing) rorat (the dew falis) vesperascit (it grows late) refert {it matters, it concerns) interest Caesaris (itis of interest to Caeser) Note: Instead of # personal pronoun, the feminine Ablative singular of the possessive adjective is often used: Quid tua id refert ? (How does that concer you) c) Impersonals Taking the Dative displicet (it displeases) licer (it is permitted) placer (it pleases) tempus est (itis time) placet ei — itis pleasing to him 4) Impersonals Taking the Accusative decer (itis fing) fallit (it deceives) oportet (itis necessary) ¢) Verbs of Feeling liber flubet} (it pleases) necesse est (it is necessary) prodest (it benefits) videtur (it seems) delectat (it pleases) iat (it pleases, it helps) ‘With the following impersonal verbs, the person affected is in the Accusative, and the cause of the feeling is in the Genitive. miseret (it grieves) paenitet (it repents) piget (it disgusts) ‘puder (it shames) taedet (it wearies) tui me miseret (I pity you) me paenitet (I am sorry) ‘me iniusttiae piget (Injustice pains me) tui me pudet (I am ashamed of you) me facetiarum taedet (I weary of witticisms)£) Impersonals and Subordinate Clauses ‘The following impersonal verbs (all meaning, “it happens”) are usually followed by substantive clause of result. accidit contingit evenit fit obtingit obvenit accidit ut esset luna plena — it happened that it was a full moon . | g) Impersonals with Infinitives - ‘The following impersonal verbs usually take an infinitive clause rather than a substan | tive clause of result. decet liber licet necesse est oporiet opus est ] paenitet piger places | pudet taedet visum est necesse est discipulum studere —It is necessary for the students to study. 72. Semi-deponents Semi-deponent verbs are normal in the present tenses, however use passive forms for the per- fect tenses. audeo, audere, ausus (to dare) | gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus (to rejoice) soleo, solere, solitus (to be accustomed) ‘ido, fidere, fisus (to trust) A semi-deponent verb is therefore conjugated as follows: Present audeo (I dare) Perfect ausus sum (I have dared) Imperfect audebam (I used to dare) Pluperfect ausus eram (1 had dared) Future audebo (I shall dare) Fut. Perf. ausus ero (I shall have dared) 73, Neutral Passives Neutral passives are verbs that are active in form but passive in meaning (the opposite of a | deponent verb.) accedo, accedere * (to be added) exsulo, exsulare (to be banished) ‘fo, fier, factus (to be made) vapulo, vapulare (to be flogged) veneo, venire (to be sold) {comes from venum ire}* Note: Accedo can also mean “to approach”, and is therefore only sometimes neutral passive. Inceptive (Inchoative) Verbs Inceptive endings show the beginning of an action, and can be recognized by the ending -sco on the end of the verb. The perfect tense of these verbs does not exist, therefore the original verb is substinuted for the perfect. calesco (to become warm) (from caleo) ‘Note: Inceptives only have a present stem. To make such a verb perfect, one would use the perfect of the pre-inceptive form. For example, the perfect of calesco would be calui, Diminutive Verbs Diminutive verbs end in -il/o and make a verb have a smaller or dearer action, cantillo - to chixp (from canto, cantare) intensive (Iterative) Verbs Intensives (occasionally called frequentatives) show repeated action and ere formed from the supine stem of the verb and end in -fo or ito, | dormito, -are (to be sleepy) vendito, -are (to try to sell) * Note: First conjugation verbs end in -ito rather than ~afo as one would suspect. Meditative Verbs Meditative verbs, which are similar in origin to intensives, denote energy or eagemess for action. These verbs end in -esso or -isso, Meditative verbs are formally of the third conjugation, however have perfect and supine stems of the fourth conjugation. arcesso, ere, ivi, Itum - to summon capesso (to lay hold of) lacesso (to provoke) petesso (to seek eagerly) Desiderative Verbs Desiderative verbs indicate 2 wish or longing for something and are designated by the endings -turio ot -surio, it esurio, ire, -itum (to be hungry) parturio, -iri (10 be in labor) eeu pee79. Cuapter 11: INFINITIVES ret ROR OL LLhy ACTIVE PASSIVE 2nd principle part amare habere PRESENT | —_regere capere audire ‘ eee 2nd prin. part -re +i amari haberi audiri 2nd prin, part -ere + -i regi capi 3rd principle part + -sse 4th principle part + esse amavisse amarum esse habuisse habitum esse PERFECT rexisse rectum esse cepisse captum esse audisse auditum esse 4th principle part - us + -urus 4th principle part + iri amaturum esse ‘amatum iri habiturum esse habitum iri FUTURE ne recturum esse rectum iri capturum esse captum iri auditurum esse auditum iri Subjective Infinitive ‘The infinitive may be used as a noun, (as the nominative of the Gerund) though it is not de- clined. The gender of the infinitive is neuter. Currere est bonum — Running is good. ‘Amo currere — 1 like to ron.80. 81. 82, 83. Complementary infinitive ‘The infinitive is used with many verbs to complete their meaning. constituo (to decide) debeo (to ought) possum (to be able) queo (10 be able) ‘conor (to try) dubito (hesitate) oportet (it is necessary) ‘patior (to permit) | Castra movere constituerunt — They decided to break camp. Possum audire te—1 can hear you. am able to hear you) Debeo iuvare eum —1 ought to help him, Objective Infinitive (Infinitive with Subject Accusative) Many verbs of ordering take their object in the Accusative case with the verb in the infinitive rather than being followed by a substantive clause of purpose (Indirect Command.) cogo (to compel) iubeo (to order) atior (permit) prohibeo (to prohibit) Caesar iubet me necare Marcum — Caesar orders me to kill Marcus. Historical Infinitive The historical infinitive is occasionally used for an imperfect indicative in narrations. In this case, the subject of the infinitive is Nominative. ego instare ut mihi responderet — | kept urging him to answer me. Indirect Statement (Oratio Obliqua) Indirect statement is used with verbs of saying, telling, thinking, knowing, perceiving, etc. The subject of the indirect statement is put in the Accusative, and the verb in the infinitive. There is no word in Latin to express the English word “that”. Primary dicit se cadere — He says that he is falling dict se cecidisse — He says that he was falling dicit se casurum esse — He says that he will fall icit se fore ut cediderit — He says that he will have fallen. ‘Secondary dixit se cadere — He said that he was falling. dixit se cecidisse — He said that he had fallen. dixit se casurum esse — He said that he would fall. dixit se fore ut cecidisset — He said that would have fallen, 2) Clauses in Indirect Discourse 1, Real questions in an indirect statement are put in the subjunetive. Rhetorical ques- tions are put in the infinitive mood. ie2, Relative clauses in indirect discourse are in the subjunctive. 5 Conditions in indirect discourse are quite strange. The protasis go tive, though the apodosis remains in the infinitive. dicit si Caesar veniat, exercitum esse victurum, — He says that if Caesar comes, the amy will win. Note: A direct statement may be accomplished by using the following with quotation marks. apa ‘aio (say) (common forms: aio, ais, ait, aiunt, aiebam) inguam (I say) (Common forms: inguam, inguis, inguit, inguiunt) inquam "est bonus” —I say “he is good”. —38— es in the subjunc- g defective verbs: ese Cuapter 12: ParTiciPLes eens ACTIVE Verb stem + ns | amans, amantis doving) - Z| habens, habentis (boléing) | _regens, regents (ruling) # | capiens, capientis (capturing) ©] cudiens, audtentis (wearing) ; 4th principle part 5 ‘amatus, um (having been loved) 2 habs, a, um (having been held) 2 rectus, a, um (baving been ruled) 2 captus, 2 um (having been captured) cuits, a, um (having been heard) 4th principle part - us + rus Verb Stem + -ndus amaturas, 2, um (abont to love) mandi, 6, um (about tobe loved) 2) Aabinerus,e, um (about to hold) hnabendis, a, um (about to be held) recturus a, um (about to rule) regndis, a, un (about tobe ruled) E | capnus, a, um (aboot to capture) capiendvs, a, um (about to be captured) E | audituras,o, um (about 10 heat) azudiendus,e, um (about to be heard) 84, Verbal Adjectives ‘There are four participles in Latin, the present active, the perfect passive, the future active, and the future passive (also known as the gerundive.) Since participles are essentially adjec- tives, they are declined as such. The present participle is declined like a third declension adjective, with the neuter form being the same 2s the masculine/feminine. (¢g., the neuter of amans is amans.) Since participles are also verbal in nature, they can take a direct abject as wel 2) Translations ‘The participle is used in Latin much more frequently than in English. Therefore, there are many ways of translating it. Often the best translation is that of a relative clause. cibum coctum edit He ate the food, having been cooked He ate the food which he bad cooked. egb) The Ablative singular The Ablative singular of the present participle normally ends in~f; however, when itis used substantively ie., as a nown, the Ablative ends in -¢. This is also the case when the participle is being used in an Ablative Absolute. (g.v.)Cuapter 13: SuBsunctives Eyer g ory ACTIVE PASSIVE Special vowels: She wears a diamond ‘Verb stem ~ vowel + special vowel + Verb stem — vowel ~ special vowel ‘+, 5, ur, mr, mini, mtr | mst mas, tis mt S| anem amer ©] hadeom hhabear E| regan regor coplam caplor cudian cular 5 2nd Prim. part +m, 5, % mus, tis, nt 2nd Prin. part +r, ris, mr,... naren cmarer E | haberem haberer Z| regerem regerer E | copirem copirer Z| audren audlrer Perfect stem + Supine stem + | eri, eris, crit, erimus, eritis, erint sim, sis, sit, siraus, sitis, sint O] Sanerim fomatus sim | habuerin habitus sim | pexerin rectus sin EB) ceperim apts sim cudiverim cndinu sim PLUPERFECT Perfect stem + isse + endings abuissem cepissem caudivissem Supine stem + estem, esses, esset, essemus, essetis, essent ‘amatus essem habitus essem rectus essem captus essem cauditus essemaan 85. Volitive (Hortatory) Subjunctive ‘The hortatory subjunctive expresses a command or exhortation. In English, we usually trans- Jate it “let”; Latin uses the present subjunctive, and the negative is expressed by ne. Eamus igitur — Let us go, therefore. Ne bibamus curramusque — Let us not drink and érive, ‘Note: The word “hortatory” generally refers only to first person and ‘‘ussive” to second and third persons, however there is no difference between the two in meaning. Seite Incomplete Action Completed Action of subjunctive verb of subjuncive verb Primary Sequences: Present Future Present Future Perfect Secondary Sequences: Imperfect Perfect Pluperfect Pluperfect ‘The Sequence of Tenses is shown below in the Indirect Question. 86. Indirect Question Indirect question is used with verbs of asking, requesting, etc., an interrogative particle, and a verb in the subjunctive. Primary dico te guid faciam —1 tell you what I am doing. dico te quid fecerim —1 tell you what 1 was doing. dico te quid facturus sim —T tell you what I will do. Secondary dixie quid facerem — I told you what I did. dict fe quid fecissem — I told you what I had done, di te quid facturus essem —I told you what would do. dixi te quid facturus fuissem — 1 told you whiat I would have done.Indirect Command Many verbs of asking, advising and commanding are followed by an Indirect Command (or Substantive Clause of Purpose), which is merely a subjunctive clause preceeded by ut and following the sequence of tenses. The case of the direct object is dependent upon the verb. a) Accusative (moneo, oro, rogo ...) ‘Me rogavit ne venirem — He asked me not to come. ) Dative (impero, mando, persuadeo ...) mihi imperat ut veniam. —— He orders me to come. ©) Ablative (peto, postulo, quaero.. .) a me postulavit ut venirem — He asks me to come. 88. Optative Subjunctive ‘The optative subjunctive is translated “if only” or “would that” and denotes an act as wished for or desired. The optative is often introduced by utinam or utinam ne if negative, though urinam is more often used with the imperfect than the present subjunctive. Present ‘An act denoted as possible is in the present subjunctive. sint beati — I wish that they be happy (lit. may they be happy) ‘Imperfect ‘An act denoted as unaccomplished is in the imperfect subjunctive. utinam Caesar adesset — Would that Caesar were here (but he is not). Pinperfect ‘An act denoted as unaccomplished in the past is in the pluperfect subjunctive, utinam ne venisset — would that he had not come (but he did) 89, Deliberative Subjunctive ‘The deliberative subjunctive shows doubt, indignation, or impossi form of a question. ‘quid agam — What am 1 to do? ity, and is usually in the31, Cuapter 14: OTHER VerB Forms The Supine “The Supine in Latin, asin English, isa verbal noun. ln Latin, there are two forms forthe supine, ‘The Ageusative supine (ending in -tum) is used with verbs of motion to express purpose, and the ‘Ablative supine (ending in -u) is used with adjectives to denote respect or specification. Venit pugnarum — I came to fight. Mirabile dictu — Marvelous to say. Note: The Ablative supine cannot take an object. Imperative Mood ‘The imperative mood is used for commands. 2) Present Imperative “The present imperative is formed by removing the -re from the second principal part and the plural by adding -te to this. Festina lente — Hurry slowly. ‘Marcus, da librum mihi — Marcus, give the book to me, ‘Liberi, date libros mihi — Children, give the books to me. Note: The imperatives of dico, duco, facio, fero, and sum are irregular. These are: dic, dicite; duc, ducite; fac, facite; fer, ferte; and es, este. ) Euture Imperative Present imperatives are used for commands in the immediate future; commands in the distant funure, however, require a furure imperative. ‘The verbs: memini (to remember), scio (to know), and habeo (to have, consider) have no present imperatives — only future imperatives since their meanings denote actions which must be continued in the future. Thus: memento, scito, and habeto. present: future (2nd) future (3rd) amantor 1. The second person future imperative is used to show continued action in the fuure. 2. The third person fimure imperative is usually used for precepts, wills, and starutes: in iuris civilis custos esto — \et him be the guardian of civil right —4—Negative Commands a) noli with present infinitive The most common form of negative command is formed with the imperative of nolo, nolle (to wish not) and a complementary infinitive, Antonius, noli amare celeres feminas — Don’t love fast women, Antonius. Viri, nolite currere sine caligulis — Soldiers don’t nun without boots. b) cave with the present subjunetive. Cave, the imperative of caveo, to wail, may be followed by the present subjunctive. cave festines — don't hurry ©) ne with the perfect subjunctive ‘Ne with the perfect subjunctive is the third possible way of expressing negative com- mands ne locutus sis — don’t speakCuapTer 15: ConpiTional SENTENCES ‘A conditional sentence consists of an independent clause and a dependent or subordinate clause. ‘The subordinate clause is introduced by the word si (if) and is called the protasis. The inde- pendent clause is called the apodosis. imple Condition ‘A simple condition, which expresses a simple fat, goes in the indicative mood. ssi adest, bene est — if be is here, itis well ‘si aderat bene erat — if he was here, it was well si adfuit, bene juit — if he has been here, it has been well 94, Future Conditions 2) Enture More Vivid ‘The future more vivid uses the future indicative and expresses fact in the future. i ‘si aderit, bene erit — if he is here, it will be well si adfuerit, bene erit — if he shall have been here, it will be well i b) Fumre Less Vivid The furure less vivid (or “should...would” clause) contains two subjunctives, and the apodosis always is in the present subjunctive, | si adsit, bene sit — if he should be here, it would be well ‘si adjuerit, bene sit — if he should have been bere, it would be well 95. Contrary to Fact ‘A contrary to fact condition uses imperfect subjunctives in both clauses if the time is present, or phuperfect subjunctives if in the past. present si adesset, bene esset —if he would were here, it would be well past si adfuisset, bene fuisset — if be had been here, it would be well 96. General Conditions ) apodosis: present indicative sihoc dicat, creditur — if he says this, it is believed ) Subordinate Clause in Past ‘protasis: perfect indicative apodosis: present indicative si quid divi, creditur — if he ever says anything, it is believed —46 ——————©) Repeated in Past Time ‘protasis: pluperfect indicative apodosis: imperfect indicative si quid dixerat, credebatur — if he ever said anything, it was believed ¢) Both in Past perfect subjunctive apodosis: imperfect indicative i guid diceret,credebanur — if ie were ever to say anything, it was believed97. 98. Cuapter 16: OTHER CLAUSES Relative Clauses of Characteristic ‘A relative clause of characteristic is used after expressions of existence, and takes a subjunc- tive, The following three phrases are often followed by the relative clause of characteristic, a) Sunt qui HH ‘sunt gui discessum animi a corpore puient esse mortem — There are some who think that the departure of the soul from the body constitutes death. +b) Unus, Solus ‘solus es cuius in victoria ceciderit nemo nisi armatus — You are the only man in whose victory no one has fallen unless armed. ©) Quam ut, quamaui ‘Quam ut ot guuam qui are used after comparatives. ‘maiores arbores caedebant guamguas ferre miles posset— They cut trees too large fore soldier to carry. Result Clauses a) With Utor UiNon ‘Clauses describing an action which results from the action of the main verb are called result clauses, and use uf or ut non with the subjunctive following the sequence of tenses, Result clauses are signaled by the following words: adeo (so long, so much) ita (so, tus) sic (so) talis (of such a kind) tam (50) tantus (so great) tot (so many) tanta vis probitatis est ut eam in hoste diligamus — So great is the power of goodness that we love it even in an enemy. Note: sic modifies only verbs, tam only adjectives and adverbs, and ita may modify either. b) Result clauses can also be used as the subject or object of certain verbs meaning “it bbappens” or other similar phrases. ceffecit ut tribunus discederet — He brought it about that the tribune left. ‘accedit ut consul adesset — It happened that the consul was present.9. Purpose Clauses ‘There are seven basic ways to express purpose. a) Ut(uth + Subjunctive Ut, when used to express purpose, takes a present subjunctive if the main verb is present and an imperfect subjunctive if in the past tense, venit ut petat pacem — He comes to seek peace. venir ut peteret pacem — He came to seek peace. Note: To make this clause negative;replace ut with ne. b Relative fee es ‘The relative pronoun may be used with the to express purpose if the subject of the subordinate clause is different than that of the main clause or to express the purpose of the subordinate clause rather than the whole clause. ‘mittit milites gui petant pacem — He sends soldiers who are to seek peace. ‘isit milites qui peterent pacem — He sent soldiers who were to seek peace. ©) Quo With C + Subjnneti Quo is used whenever the purpose clause contains a comparative adjective or adverb. venit quo facilius petat pacem — He comes by which he may more easily seek peace. @) Supine venit petitum pacer — He comes to seek peace. ©) Causa. Gratia + G: Gerndive in Geni vent causa pacem pesendi (gerund) venit causa pacis petendi (gerundive) DAdtG eed venit ad petendum pacem (gerund) venit ad petendam pacem (gerundive) g) Future Participle venit peturus pacem — it. He comes about to seek peace. 100. Clauses of Antici Clauses of Anticipation 8) Dum Dum, meaning “while”, uses the present tense, though it is translated in English by the imperfect, Dum, meaning “as long as”, takes the indicative. | Dum, meaning “until”, take the subjunctive. eec} dam diu, iam dudum 1) Jam diu with a verb in the present tense means that the act was begun in the past and is continuing in the present. In English we translate it in the perfect tense. ‘patimur multos iam diu annos — We have suffered now for many years (and still do). 2) Jam diu with a verb in the imperfect tense denotes that the act was being continued {n the past and begun before. It is rendered pluperfect in English. iam dudum flebam — {had been weeping for a long time (but no longer am). 101. Quin Clauses a) Result Quin may be used in a negative result clause to mean “gui non”. nemo est tam fortis quin perturbetur — No one is so brave as to not be disturbed. ya a ‘Quin may be used in a clause of characteristic to mean “gui non". ‘nemo nostrum est quin sciat — There is no one of us who does not know. c) With Verbs of Hindering, Ftc, With verbs of hindering, resisting, refusing, doubting, delaying, etc., when negative, quin may be used with the subjunctive. ‘praeterire non potui quin sciberem ad te — 1 could not neglect to write you. ] 4) Non dubito ‘Ouin is often used in clauses with non dubito and non est dubirum. non dubitabat quin ei crederemus — He did not doubt that we had believed him. non erat dubitum quin Helvetii plurimum possent — There was no doubt that the Helvetii were the most powerful. ©) General Quin may be used with the indicative to mean “why not”. 102. Quominus Quominus is often used with verbs of hindering meaning “to prevent from” when no negative is implied. nec aetas impedit quominus agri colendi studia teneamus — nor does age prevent ws from retaining an interest in tilling the soi nihil impedit quominus id facere possimus — Nothing prevents us from being able to do ‘this.703. Ieee) Cum Clauses The conjunction eum (as opposed to the preposition) may be used with several clauses to denote four different things, a) Temporal Clauses ‘When cum merely establishes the time at which a certain even occurred, itis translated “wen” and the main verb is in the indicative, Cum Caesar transit Rubi¢on, mensis erat Januarius. — When Caesar crossed the Rubicon, the month was January. pet ne Cum, in this usage, is also translated as “when”, however, in this instance, cum does not merely establish the time, but rather the circumstances of the events. The main verb is therefore dependent upon the cum clause for its occurrance. The verb in the cum clause is subjunctive if it refers to past events and indicative if referring to present ot future events. The main verb will be indicative in all situations. Cum Caesar transiverit Rubicon, populus territus erat. — When Caesar crossed the Rubicon, the people were frightened, Cum imperator clamat, audimus. — When the general shouts, we listen, ©) Cum Causa} When cum is translated “since” the verb in the cum clause is in the subjunctive, Cum Caesar esset in Gallia, Pompeius rexit senatus. — Since Caesar was in Gaul, Pompey ruled the senate, ¢) Cum Concessive Cum may be translated “although” when coupled with famen or tuum or another such word. Again, the verb of the cunt clause will be in the subjunctive. Cum Caesar non adsit in corpore, tamen adest in animo. — Although Caesar is not here in body, nevertheless, he is here in mind.Cuaptér 17: Consunctions, Enctitics, ANo DEMONSTRATIVES Enclitic Use Example .. demonstrative. . (hosce annos — for these years) (nondum —not yet) (egomet —T) (quisnam) (esine puer — Are yous boy?) (suapte natura — by its own nature) (pueri puellaeque — boys and girls) (rue — you yourself) (pueri puelaeve — boys or girls) 105. Hic, ille, iste Hic is the Ist person demonstrative (this...of mine) ‘ste is the 2nd person demonstrative (that...of yours) ‘ile is the 3rd person demonstrative (that..of bis) Iste may be used to indicate something well known to everyone: ille Marcus (that Marcus ‘whom we know well), or it is often used with contempt iste femina (that woman). Hic often means “the latter” and ille “the former”. In the sentence: “Brutus killed Caesar,” “Caesar” would be the latter, and “Brutus” the former. 106. Quam i ‘The word quam has many uses in Latin. 2) Relative Pronoun ‘As a form of gu, quae, quod, it means “whom” or “which”: ppuella quam amo...— the girl whom I love... b) Interrogative ‘As a form of the interrogatives qui, quae, quod or quis, quid, it means “which?” or Quam puellam amas? — Which girl do you love? c) With Comparative ‘Quam may be uses with a comparative adjective or adverb to mean “than’ Puer est celerior quam puella — The boy is faster than the girl. a107. 108. 109. ¢) With Superlative ‘Quam with a superlative means “as as possible”: ‘quam celerrime — as quickly as possible e) With the Positive With a positive adjective or adverb, quam means “how”: ‘Quam longe? — How long? Ut Ut may mean “as, how, while, since or where” with the indicative. Haud Hud negates a single word. haud facile — not easily Coordinates cum... tandem (although ... nevertheless) cum... tum (both ... and) of (not only ... but also) or (although ... nevertheless) ‘mono ... modo (noW ... n0W) gua ... gua (on the one hand ... on the other) quanto gravior ... tanto crebriores (the severer ... the more frequentiy) quo minus ... e0 plus (1 the more) tam .. quam (50. 88) Jantus ,.. quantus (as great ... as) tot... quot ( tum... tum (not only ... but also)Cuapter 18: Rare AND ALTERNATE Forms 110. Syncopations Synopations are shortenings of a normal word, mostly used in poewy for metrical reasons. a) The -vi or -ve may be removed from the third principal part of a verb for metrical reasons: amavisti = amasti amaveram = emaram ») The third person plural of the perfect tense, -erunt, may be exchanged for -ere: amaverunt = amavere ‘monuerunt = monuere ¢) The -is, -iss, -sis may be removed from the perfect tenses: dixisti = dizti rracisse = raxe evasisti = evasti virisset = vixet decessisse = decesse erepissemus = erepemus 4d) The second person singular, passive voice of a verb, -ris, may be exchanged for -re. audieris = audiere 111. Archaic Forms Of Nouns ‘The following are old forms of the various declensions. 2) Genitive Sing 1. -as = archaic form of the Genitive case for first declension paterfamilias — Genitive = patrisfamilias 2. -ai = archaic form of the Genitive case for first declension aulai — (aula: court) c) Ablative Singular First declension: -ad Second declension: -od Fourth declension: -udrT c) Old Forms of Feo, Tu, and Ile mis, tis = mei, tui med, ted = me, te ole = ille 112. Alternate forms of Verbs a) Present Passive Infinitive ‘The present passive infinitive may end in -ier. mari =amarier; agi = agier +) Present Subjunctive ‘The present subjunctive used to end in -im. dem = duim c) Euture Perfect ‘The future perfect endings may be substituted by the present stem and -asso. | amavero = amasso amaveris = amassis amaverit = amassit 0 Shismsiee runs peaectinaiat Jecero = faxo “fecerim = fexim ausus sim = ausim 113. Abbreviated Forms fors sit an= forsitan homo est = homost qui ne = quin siaudes = sodes sivis™= sis si vultis = sultis ut e0 = guo ut €0 minus = quominus ut is = qui, quis verum dare = vendere venum ire = venire visne, scisne = vin, scin _futurum esse = fore teruli = tuli (3rd principle part of fero)Cual 114, Distinguishables cerno, cernere, indico, ~are (to levis (smooth) mare, maris (B. modo (only) primo (at frst) ‘quogue (also) tego (to cover) ius, iuris (n. law) Iatus, lateris (a. side) iuceo, lucere, luxi (to shine) 0s, oris ({n. mouth) sapio (to be wise) sterno (to strew) pavi (Som paveo) 115. Irregular Declension: Note: The vocative of deus is dee or just plain deus. pTer 19: OTHER OppiTIES crevi, cretum (think) ‘flamen, flaminis (t. priest) indicate) ius, iuris (p. broth) {with macron on e} . $e) ‘modus, -i (way) 0, assis (a. bone) primum (Sxstly) guisque (each) saepio (to hedge in) sternuo (to sneeze) exo (to weave) ‘pavi (from posceo) S (cow, ox) (Aeneas) (pig) (god) bos deneas sus. deus bovis Aeneae suis dei vi bovi deneae sui = deo vim bovem Aenean suem — deur ; bove Aenea sue eo (rength) (cows) (noone) (igs) (gods) vires boves nemo sues dei, di, di virium. Bown =—mullius,——— suum viribus -bobus == nemini —«subus dis, dits, dis vires doves neminem = sues deos viribus —bobus——mullo subus dis, dis, dis ‘resco, crescere, crevi, cretum (increase) (flamen, flaminis (n. gust) ‘indico, -ere, dixi, indictum (to proclaim) asus, -a, -um (wide) levis (ight) {no macron} Iugeo, lugere, lux (to mourn) ‘mas, maris (masculine) deorum, deum, divom116. Odd Genitives bos, bovis (£. cow) iecur, iecinoris/iecoris/iocinoris (a. liver) Funis, funeris (n. funeral) Juppiter, Jovis (Jupiter) ‘mel, mellis (n. honey) nix, nivis (£. snow) supellex, suppellectilis (f. furniture) Venus, Veneris (Venus) 117. Nouns Only Found in the Plural (Pluralia tantum) altaria (altar) angustiae (narrow pass) Athenae (Athens) Bacchanalia (Bacchanalia) brachae (trousers) divitine (riches) epuliae (feast) exuviae (spoils) fores (doors) biberna (winter quarters) dus (Ides) insidiee (ambush) kalendae (calends) maiores ancestors) moenia (walls) nonae (nonnes) nuptiae (wedding) spolia (spoils) viscera (entrails) 118. Nouns With Different Meanings in the Singular and Plural aedes, aedis (temple) aedes, aedium (house) agua (water) ‘aguae (mineral springs) aucciliuam (help) aucilia (reinforcements) balneum (bath) balneae (public baths) carcer (m. prison) carceres (barriers) ~ — castrum (fort) castra (camp) cera (wax) cerae (wax tablets) comitium (place of assembly) comiitia (assembly) copia (piety) copiae (troops) delicia (pleasure) i deliciae (pet, sweetheart) —————inis (end) fines (tervitory) ‘fortuna (forte) “fortunae (possessions) impedimentum (hindrince) impedimenta (baggage) Tittera (letter of the alphabet) listera (letter, epistle) locus, -i (place) Ioci, -orum (selections) Toca, -orum (places) ludus (school) Iudi (public games) ‘mos, moris (mi. custora) mores (character) nix, nivis (E. snow) riives (snowflakes) ‘opera (work) _ _ operae (workmen) rostrum (beak) rostra (speaker's platform) sal (m. wit) sales (witticisms) seala (ladder) sealae (stairs) tabella (tablet) tabellae (records) vas, vasis (0. vessal) vase, -orum (dishes) 119. Irregular Verbs a) Rirst Conjugation domo, domare, domui, (to subdue) fico, fricare, fricui, (te rab) ‘avo, iuvare, iuvi, iutum (to belp) avo, lavare, lavi, lautun (to wash) no, nare, navi (to swim) seco, secare, secui, sectum (to cut) veto, vetare, vetui, vetitum (to forbid) b) Second Conjugation ardeo, ardere, arsi, arsurus (to burn) caveo, cavere, cavi, cazutum (to beware) faveo, favere, favi, fautum (to favor) ‘mulceo, mulcere, musi, mulsum (to soothe) torqueo, forguere, torsi, tortum (to twist) yoveo, vovere, vovi, votum (to vow) c) Third Conjugation ‘carpo, carpere, carpsi, carprum (to pluck) cerno, cernere, revi, cretum (to decide, decree) cingo, cingere, cirxi, cinctum (to bind) coquo, coquere, coxi, coctum (to cook) ‘ereseo, crescere, crevi, cretum (to increase) emo, emi, emptum (to buy) tero, terere, trivi, tritum (to rab) vado, vadere, vasi, vasum (to £0)Same 8) Fourth Conjugation reperio, reperire, repepperi, repertum (1o find) sepelio, sepelire, sepelivi, sepuitum (to bury) 120. Reduplicative Verbs i cado, cadere, ceciai, casurus (to fall) cano, canere, cecini (to sing) credo, credere, credidi, creditum (torbelieve) disco, discere, didici, discum (to lear) do, dare, dedi, datum (to give) fallo, fallere, fefelli, falsum (to deceive) mordeo, mordere, momordi, morsum (to bite) pango, pangere, pepigi [panxi], pactum (to fasten) Parco, parcere, peperci, parsurus (to spare) Pario, parere, peperi, partum (to bring forth) ello, pellere, pepuli, pulsum (to drive) endeo, pendere, pependi, pensum (to bang) endo, pendere, pependi, pensum (to weigh) perdo, perdere, peperdi, perditum (to destroy) ‘posco, poscere, popasci, (to demand) reperio, repere, repperi, repertum (to find) Sto, stare, steti, statum (to stand) tango, tangere, tetigi, tactum (to touch) tendo, tendere, tetendi, tentum (to stretch) tondeo, tondere, totondi, tonsum (to cut, shave) undo, tundere, tutudi, tunsum [tusum] (to beat repeatedly)121. Trees The following is a list of many of the tres in the Roman era. They are all feminine ables, abletis (Ex) castanea, ae (chestaut) cyparissus, i (cypress) Fagus, i (ocech) “Ficus, i & us (Bg) ies, ilicis (holm oak) larix, laricis (larch) malus, i (apple tree) myrtus, i (sayztle) corms, i (manna ash) -pinus, i & us (pine) ‘populus, i (poplar) ‘salix, salicis (willow) recus, i (yew) ulmus, i (elm) No —60— anus, i (alder) cerasus, i (cherry tree) cypressus, i (cypress) farms, i (ask) fracinus, i (ash) iuglans, iuglandis (walnut) Jaurus, i (laurel) morus, i (goulberry) olea, ae (olive) palma, ae (palm, date) wpirus, i (peat) ‘quercus, us (oak) tamaris, tamaricis (tamarisk) tilla, ae (linden, lime) acer, aceris (maple) and robur, roburis (oak) are neuter.