MODERN OPERATING SYSTEMS

Third Edition
ANDREW S. TANENBAUM

Chapter 5
Input/Output

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 I/O Devices

Figure 5-1. Some typical

device, network, and
bus data rates.

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 Memory-Mapped I/O (1)

Figure 5-2. (a) Separate I/O and memory space.

(b) Memory-mapped I/O. (c) Hybrid.
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 Memory-Mapped I/O (2)

Figure 5-3. (a) A single-bus architecture.

(b) A dual-bus memory architecture.
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Direct Memory Access (DMA)

Figure 5-4. Operation of a DMA transfer.

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 Interrupts Revisited

Figure 5-5. How an interrupt happens. The connections between

the devices and the interrupt controller actually use interrupt
lines on the bus rather than dedicated wires.
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Precise and Imprecise Interrupts (1)
Properties of a precise interrupt

1.  PC (Program Counter) is saved in a known

place.
2.  All instructions before the one pointed to by
the PC have fully executed.
3.  No instruction beyond the one pointed to by
the PC has been executed.
4.  Execution state of the instruction pointed to
by the PC is known.

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Precise and Imprecise Interrupts (2)

Figure 5-6. (a) A precise interrupt. (b) An imprecise interrupt.

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 Programmed I/O (1)

Figure 5-7. Steps in printing a string.

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 Programmed I/O (2)

Figure 5-8. Writing a string to the printer using programmed I/O.

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 Interrupt-Driven I/O

Figure 5-9. Writing a string to the printer using interrupt-driven I/O.

(a) Code executed at the time the print system call is made.
(b) Interrupt service procedure for the printer.

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 I/O Using DMA

Figure 5-10. Printing a string using DMA. (a) Code executed when
the print system call is made. (b) Interrupt service procedure.
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 I/O Software Layers

Figure 5-11. Layers of the I/O software system.

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 Interrupt Handlers (1)
1.  Save registers not already been saved by
interrupt hardware.
2.  Set up a context for the interrupt service
procedure.
3.  Set up a stack for the interrupt service
procedure.
4.  Acknowledge the interrupt controller. If there is
no centralized interrupt controller, reenable
interrupts.
5.  Copy the registers from where they were
saved to the process table.
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 Interrupt Handlers (2)
6.  Run the interrupt service procedure.
7.  Choose which process to run next.
8.  Set up the MMU context for the process to run
next.
9.  Load the new process’ registers, including its
PSW.
10.  Start running the new process.

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 Device
Drivers

Figure 5-12. Logical

positioning of
device drivers. In
reality all
communication
between drivers and
device controllers
goes over the bus.

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Device-Independent I/O Software

Figure 5-13. Functions of the device-independent I/O software.

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Uniform Interfacing for Device Drivers

Figure 5-14. (a) Without a standard driver interface.

(b) With a standard driver interface.
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 Buffering (1)

Figure 5-15. (a) Unbuffered input. (b) Buffering in user space.

(c) Buffering in the kernel followed by copying to user space.
(d) Double buffering in the kernel.

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 Buffering (2)

Figure 5-16. Networking may involve many copies of a packet.

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 User-Space I/O Software

Figure 5-17. Layers of the I/O system and the

main functions of each layer.
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 Magnetic Disks (1)

Figure 5-18. Disk parameters for the original IBM PC 360-KB

floppy disk and a Western Digital WD 18300 hard disk.
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 Magnetic Disks (2)

Figure 5-19. (a) Physical geometry of a disk with two zones.

(b) A possible virtual geometry for this disk.
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 RAID (1)

Figure 5-20. RAID levels 0 through 5.

Backup and parity drives are shown shaded.
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RAID (2)

Figure 5-20. RAID levels 0 through 5.

Backup and parity drives are shown shaded.
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 CD-ROMs (1)

Figure 5-21. Recording structure of a compact disc or CD-ROM.

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 CD-ROMs (2)

Figure 5-22. Logical data layout on a CD-ROM.

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 CD-Recordables (1)

Figure 5-23. Cross section of a CD-R disk and laser. A silver

CD-ROM has similar structure, except without dye layer and
with pitted aluminum layer instead of gold layer.
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 DVD (1)

DVD Improvements on CDs

1.  Smaller pits

(0.4 microns versus 0.8 microns for CDs).
2.  A tighter spiral
(0.74 microns between tracks versus 1.6
microns for CDs).
3.  A red laser
(at 0.65 microns versus 0.78 microns for CDs).

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 DVD (2)

DVD Formats

1.  Single-sided, single-layer (4.7 GB).

2.  Single-sided, dual-layer (8.5 GB).
3.  Double-sided, single-layer (9.4 GB).
4.  Double-sided, dual-layer (17 GB).

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 DVD (3)

Figure 5-24. A double-sided, dual-layer DVD disk.

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 Disk Formatting (1)

Figure 5-25. A disk sector.

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Disk Formatting
(2)

Figure 5-26. An
illustration of
cylinder skew.

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 Disk Formatting (3)

Figure 5-27. (a) No interleaving. (b) Single interleaving.

(c) Double interleaving.
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Disk Arm Scheduling Algorithms (1)

Read/write time factors

1.  Seek time (the time to move the arm to the
proper cylinder).
2.  Rotational delay (the time for the proper sector
to rotate under the head).
3.  Actual data transfer time.

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Disk Arm Scheduling Algorithms (2)

Figure 5-28. Shortest Seek First (SSF) disk scheduling algorithm.

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Disk Arm Scheduling Algorithms (3)

Figure 5-29. The elevator algorithm for scheduling disk requests.

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 Error Handling

Figure 5-30. (a) A disk track with a bad sector.

(b) Substituting a spare for the bad sector.
(c) Shifting all the sectors to bypass the bad one.
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 Stable Storage (1)
Operations for stable storage using
identical disks:
1.  Stable writes
2.  Stable reads
3.  Crash recovery

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 Stable Storage (2)

Figure 5-31. Analysis of the influence of crashes on stable writes.

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 Clock Hardware

Figure 5-32. A programmable clock.

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 Clock Software (1)
Typical duties of a clock driver
1.  Maintaining the time of day.
2.  Preventing processes from running longer than
they are allowed to.
3.  Accounting for CPU usage.
4.  Handling alarm system call made by user
processes.
5.  Providing watchdog timers for parts of the
system itself.
6.  Doing profiling, monitoring, statistics gathering.

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 Clock Software (2)

Figure 5-33. Three ways to maintain the time of day.

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 Clock Software (3)

Figure 5-34. Simulating multiple timers with a single clock.

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 Soft Timers

Soft timers succeed according to rate at which

kernel entries are made because of:
1.  System calls.
2.  TLB misses.
3.  Page faults.
4.  I/O interrupts.
5.  The CPU going idle.

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 Keyboard Software

Figure 5-35. Characters that are handled

specially in canonical mode.
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 The X Window System (1)

Figure 5-36. The ANSI escape sequences accepted by the

terminal driver on output. ESC denotes the ASCII escape
character (0x1B), and n, m, and s are optional
numeric parameters.
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 The X Window System (2)

Figure 5-37. Clients and servers in the M.I.T. X Window System.

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 The X Window System (3)

Types of messages between client and server:

1.  Drawing commands from the program to the
workstation.
2.  Replies by the workstation to program queries.
3.  Keyboard, mouse, and other event
announcements.
4.  Error messages.

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 Graphical User Interfaces (1)

...
Figure 5-38. A skeleton of an X Window application program.

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 Graphical User Interfaces (2)
...

Figure 5-38. A skeleton of an X Window application program.

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 Graphical User Interfaces (3)

Figure 5-39. A sample

window located at
(200, 100) on an
XGA display.

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Graphical User Interfaces (4)

...
Figure 5-40. A skeleton of a Windows main program.
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 Graphical User Interfaces (5)
...

Figure 5-40. A skeleton of a Windows main program.

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 Bitmaps (1)

Figure 5-41. An example rectangle drawn using Rectangle.

Each box represents one pixel.
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 Bitmaps (2)

Figure 5-42. Copying bitmaps using BitBlt. (a) Before. (b) After.

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 Fonts

Figure 5-43. Some examples of character outlines

at different point sizes.
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 Thin Clients

Figure 5-44. The THINC protocol display commands.

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 Power Management
Hardware Issues

Figure 5-45. Power consumption of various parts

of a notebook computer.
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 Power Management
The Display

Figure 5-46. The use of zones for backlighting the display.

(a) When window 2 is selected it is not moved.
(b) When window 1 is selected, it moves to reduce the
number of zones illuminated.
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 Power Management
The CPU

Figure 5-47. (a) Running at full clock speed. (b) Cutting voltage by
two cuts clock speed by two and power consumption by four.

Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639