3

This chapter on basic concept introduces:

• Structural design for:

• Strength
• Stiffness
• Stability
• Synergy

Basic Concepts • Rupture length (material properties, i.e., structural efficiency)

• Basic structure systems

• Horizontal structures
• Vertical / lateral structures for:
o Gravity load
o Lateral load

3-1 BACKGROUND Basic Concepts

Strength, Stiffness, Stability, Synergy
Structures must be designed to satisfy three Ss and should satisfy all four Ss of structural
design – as demonstrated on the following examples, illustrated at left.
1 Strength to prevent breaking
2 Stiffness to prevent excessive deformation
3 Stability to prevent collapse
4 Synergy to reinforce architectural design, described on two examples:
Pragmatic example: Beam composed of wooden boards
Philosophical example: Auditorium design

Comparing beams of wooden boards, b = 12” wide and d = 1”deep, each. Stiffness is
defined by the Moment of Inertia, I = b d3/12
1 board, I = 12x13/12 I=1
10 boards I = 10 (12x13/12) I = 10
10 boards glued, I = 12x103/12 I = 1000
Strength is defined by the Section modulus, S = I/(d/2)
1 board, S = 1/o.5 S=2
10 boards, S = 10/0.5 S = 20
10 boards, glued, S =1000/5 S = 200
Note:
The same amount of material is 100 times stiffer and 10 times stronger when glued
together to transfer shear and thereby engage top and bottom fibers in compression and
tension (a system, greater than the sum of its parts). On a philosophical level, structures
can strengthen architectural design as shown on the example of an auditorium:
• Architecturally, columns define the circulation
• Structurally, column location reduces bending in roof beams over 500% !

3-2 BACKGROUND Basic Concepts

Rupture length
Rupture length is the maximum length a bar of constant cross section area can be
suspended without rupture under its weight in tension (compression for concrete &
masonry).

Rapture length defines material efficiency as strength / weight ratio:

R=F/λ
R = rupture length
F = breaking strength
λ = specific gravity (self weight)

Rupture length, is of particular importance for long-span structures. The depth of

horizontal span members increases with span. Consequently the weight also increases
with span. Therefore the capacity of material to span depends on both its strength and
weight. This is why lightweight material, such as glass fiber fabrics are good for long-
span structures. For some material, a thin line extends the rupture length to account for
different material grades.

The graph data is partly based on a study of the Light weight Structures Institute,
University Stuttgart, Germany

3-3 BACKGROUND Basic Concepts

Horizontal structures
Horizontal systems come in two types: one way and two way. Two way systems are only
efficient for spaces with about equal span in both directions; as described below. The
diagrams here show one way systems at left and two way systems at right
1 Plywood deck on wood joists
2 Concrete slab on metal deck and steel joists
3 One way concrete slab
4 One way beams
5 One way rib slab
6 Two way concrete plate
7 Two way concrete slab on drop panels
8 Two way concrete slab on edge beams
9 Two way beams
10 Two way waffle slab
11 Deflection ∆ for span length L1
12 Deflection ∆=16 due to double span L2 = 2 L1
Note:
Deflection increases with the fourth power of span. Hence for double span deflection
increase 16-fold.. Therefore two way systems over rectangular plan are ineffective
because elements that span the short way control deflection and consequently have to
resist most load and elements that span the long way are very ineffective.

11 12

3-4 BACKGROUND Basic Concepts

Trusses
Trusses support load much like beams, but for longer spans. As the depth and thus
dead weight of beams increases with span they become increasingly inefficient, requiring
most capacity to support their own weight rather than imposed live load. Trusses replace
bulk by triangulation to reduce dead weight.
1 Unstable square panel deforms under load.
Only triangles are intrinsically stable polygons
2 Truss of triangular panels with inward sloping diagonal bars
that elongate in tension under load (preferred configuration)
3 Outward sloping diagonal bars compress (disadvantage)
4 Top chords shorten in compression
Bottom chords elongate in tension under gravity load
5 Gable truss with top compression and bottom tension

3-5 BACKGROUND Basic Concepts

Warren trusses
Pompidou Center, Paris by Piano and Rogers

Prismatic trusses
IBM Sport Center by Michael Hopkins
(Prismatic trusses of triangular cross section provide rotational resistance)

Space trusses
square and triangular plan
Note:
Two way space trusses are most effective if the spans in the principle directions are
about equal, as described for two-way slabs above. The base modules of trusses should
be compatible with plan configuration (square, triangular, etc.)

3-6 BACKGROUND Basic Concepts

Funicular structures
The funicular concept can be best described and visualized with cables or chains,
suspended from two points, that adjust their form for any load in tension. But funicular
structures may also be compressed like arches. Yet, although funicular tension
structures adjust their form for pure tension under any load, funicular compression
structures may be subject to bending in addition to compression since their form is rigid
and not adaptable. The funicular line for tension and compression are inversely identical;
the form of a cable becomes the form of an arch upside-down. Thus funicular forms may
be found on tensile elements.
1 Funicular tension triangle under single load
2 Funicular compression triangle under single load
3 Funicular tension trapezoid under twin loads
4 Funicular compression trapezoid under twin loads
5 Funicular tension polygon under point loads
6 Funicular compression polygon under point load
7 Funicular tension parabola under uniform load
8 Funicular compression parabola under uniform load

3-7 BACKGROUND Basic Concepts

Vault
IBM traveling exhibit by Renzo Piano
A series of trussed arches in linear extrusion form a vault space The trussed arches
consist of wood bars with metal connectors for quick assembly and disassembly as
required for the traveling exhibit. Plastic panels form the enclosing skin, The trussed
arches provide depth and rigidity to accommodate various load conditions

Suspension roof
Exhibit hall Hanover by Thomas Herzog

3-8 BACKGROUND Basic Concepts

Vertical structures
Vertical elements
Vertical elements transfer load from roof to foundation, carrying gravity and/or lateral
load. Although elements may resist only gravity or only lateral load, most are designed to
resist both. Shear walls designed for both gravity and lateral load may use gravity dead
load to resist overturning which is most important for short walls. Four basic elements
are used individually or in combination to resist gravity and lateral loads
1 Wall under gravity load
2 Wall under lateral load (shear wall)
3 Cantilever under gravity load
4 Cantilever under lateral load
5 Moment frame under gravity load
6 Moment frame under lateral load
7 Braced frame under gravity load
9 Braced frame under lateral load

3-9 BACKGROUND Basic Concepts

 Vertical systems
Vertical systems transfer the load of horizontal systems from roof to foundation, carrying
gravity and/or lateral load. Although they may resist gravity or lateral load only, most
resist both, gravity load in compression, lateral load in shear. Walls are usually designed
to define spaces and provide support, an appropriate solution for apartment and hotel
buildings. The four systems are:
1 Shear walls (apartments / hotels)
2 Cantilever (Johnson Wax tower by F L Wright)
3 Moment frame
4 Braced frame
A Concrete moment resistant joint
Column re-bars penetrate beam and beam re-bars penetrate column)
B Steel moment resistant joint
(stiffener plates between column flanges resist beam flange stress)

Vertical / lateral element selection criteria

Element Advantages Challenges
Shear wall Good for Inflexible for future changes
Architectural criteria apartments/hotels
Stiffness increases seismic
Structural criteria Very stiff, good for forces
wind resistance
Cantilever Flexible planning Must remain in future
Architectural criteria Around cantilever changes

Structural criteria Ductile, much like a tree Too flexible for tall
trunk structures
Moment frame Most flexible, good for Expensive, drift may cause
Architectural criteria office buildings problems

Structural criteria Ductile, absorbs seismic Tall structures need

force additional stiffening
Braced frame More flexible then Less flexible than moment
B Architectural criteria Shear walls frame

Structural criteria Very stiff, good for Stiffness increases seismic

Wind resistance forces

3-10 BACKGROUND Basic Concepts

Shear walls
As the name implies, shear walls resist lateral load in shear. Shear walls may be of
wood, concrete or masonry. In the US the most common material for low-rise
apartments is light-weight wood framing with plywood or particle board sheathing.
Framing studs, spaced 16 or 24 inches, support gravity load and sheathing resists lateral
shear. In seismic areas concrete and masonry shear walls must be reinforced with steel
bars to resist lateral shear.
1 Wood shear wall with plywood sheathing
2 Light gauge steel shear wall with plywood sheathing
3 Concrete shear wall with steel reinforcing
4 CMU shear wall with steel reinforcing
5 Un-reinforced brick masonry (not allowed in seismic areas)
8 Two-wythe brick shear wall with steel reinforcing

3-11 BACKGROUND Basic Concepts

Cantilevers
Cantilevers resist lateral load primarily in bending. They may consist of single towers or
multiple towers. Single towers act much like trees and require large footings like tree
roots to resist overturning. Bending in cantilevers increases from top down, justifying
tapered form in response.
1 Single tower cantilever
2 Single tower cantilever under lateral load
3 Twin tower cantilever
4 Twin tower cantilever under lateral load
5 Suspended tower with single cantilever
6 Suspended tower under lateral load

3-12 BACKGROUND Basic Concepts

Moment frames
Moment frames resist gravity and lateral load in bending and compression. They are
derived from post-and beam portals with moment resisting beam to column connections
(for convenience refered to as moment frames and moment joints). The effect of
moment joints is that load applied to the beam will rotate its ends and in turn rotate the
attached columns. Equally, load applied to columns will rotate their ends and in turn
rotate the beam. This mutual interaction makes moment frames effective to resist lateral
load with ductility. Ductility is the capacity to deform without breaking, a good property to
resist earthquakes, resulting in smaller seismic forces than in shear walls and braced
frames. However, in areas with prevailing wind load, the greater stiffness of shear walls
and braced frames is an advantage, The effect of moment joints to resist loads is
visualized through amplified deformation as follows:
1 Portal with pin joints collapses under lateral load
2 Portal with moment joints at base under lateral load
3 Portal with moment beam/column joints under gravity load
4 Portal with moment beam/column joints under lateral load
5 Portal with all moment joints under gravity load
6 Portal with all moment joints under lateral load
7 High-rise moment frame under gravity load
8 Moment frame building under lateral load
I Inflection points (zero bending between negative and positive bending

Note:
deformations reverse under reversed load

3-13 BACKGROUND Basic Concepts

Braced frames
Braced frames resist gravity load in bending and axial compression, and lateral load in
axial compression and tension by triangulation, much like trusses. The triangulation
results in greater stiffness, an advantage to resist wind load, but increases seismic
forces, a disadvantage to resist earthquakes. Triangulation may take several
configurations, single diagonals, A-bracing, V-bracing, X-bracing, etc., considering both
architectural and structural criteria. For example, location of doors may be effected by
bracing and impossible with X-bracing. Structurally, a single diagonal brace is the
longest, which increases buckling tendency under compression. Also the number of
costly joints varies: two for single diagonals, three for A- and V-braces, and five joints for
X-braces. The effect of bracing to resist load is visualized through amplified deformation
as follows:
1 Single diagonal portal under gravity and lateral loads
2 A-braced portal under gravity and lateral load
3 V-braced portal under gravity and lateral load
4 X-braced portal under gravity and lateral load
5 Braced frame building without and with lateral load

Note:
deformations and forces reverse under reversed load

3-14 BACKGROUND Basic Concepts

Part II 4
Mechanics Statics
Mechanics, as defined for the study of structures, is the behavior of physical systems Statics is the branch of mechanics that deals with forces and force systems that act on
under the action of forces; this includes both statics and dynamics. bodies in equilibrium. Since buildings are typically designed to be at rest (in equilibrium),
the subject of this book is primarily focused on statics. Even though loads like
Dynamics is the branch of mechanics that deals with the motion of a system of material earthquakes are dynamic they are usually treated as equivalent static forces.
particles under the influence of forces. Dynamic equilibrium, also known as kinetic
equilibrium, is the condition of a mechanical system when the kinetic reaction of all forces
acting on it are in dynamic equilibrium.

Statics is the branch of mechanics that deals with forces and force systems that act on
bodies in equilibrium as described in the following.

4-1 MECHANICS Statics

Force and Moment
Force is an action on a body that tends to:
• change the shape of an object or
• move an object or
• change the motion of an object
US units: # (pound), k (kip)
SI units: N (Newton), kN (kilo Newton)
Moment is a force acting about a point at a distance called lever arm
M =P L (Force x lever arm)
The lever arm is measured normal (perpendicular) to the force.
Moments tend to:
• rotate an object or
• bend an object (bending moment)
US units: #’ (pound-feet), k’ (kip-feet), #” (pound-inch), k” (kip-inch)
SI units: N-m (Newton-meter), kN-m (kilo-Newton-meter)

1 Gravity force (compresses the pyramid)

2 Pulling force (moves the boulder)
3 Moment = force times lever arm (M = P L)
A Point about which the force rotates
L Lever arm
M Moment
P Force

4-2 MECHANICS Statics

Static Equilibrium
For any body to be in static equilibrium, all forces and moments acting on it must be in
equilibrium, i.e. their sum must equal zero. This powerful concept is used for static
analysis and defined by the following three equation of statics:
ΣH=0 (all horizontal forces must equal zero)
ΣV=0 (all vertical forces must equal zero)
ΣM=0 (all moments must equal zero)
The equilibrium equations are illustrated as follows:
1 Horizontal equilibrium: pulling left and right with equal forces,
mathematically defined as
Σ H = 0 = + 100 – 100 = 0
2 Vertical equilibrium: pushing up with a force equal to a weight,
mathematically defined as:
Σ V = 0 = – 2 x 100 + 200 = 0
3 Moment equilibrium: balancing both sides of a balance board,
mathematically defined as:
Σ M = 0 = – 50# (8’) + 200# (2’) = - 400 + 400 = 0
Much of this book is based on the three equilibrium equations.

4-3 MECHANICS Statics