UNIT-I

CONCEPTS OF MEASUREMENTS
METROLOGY :
Metrology is a “Science of measurement’ . The most important parameter in metrology is
the length. Metrology is divided into Industrial Metrology and Medical Metrology under
consideration of its application and may be divided into metrology of length and Metrology of time
under consideration of its quantity.
Metrology is mainly concerned with:
 Unit of measurement and their standards.
 Errors of measurement.
 Changing the units in the form of standards.
 Ensuring the uniformity of measurements.
 New methods of measurement developing.
 Analyzing this new methods and their accuracy.
 Establishing uncertainty of measurement.
 Gauges designing, manufacturing and testing.
 Researching the causes of measuring errors.
 Industrial Inspection.

FUNCTIONS OF METROLOGY:
The functions of metrology are
 To ensure conservation of national standards.
 Guarantee their accuracy by comparison with international standards.
 To organise training in this field.
 Take part in the work of other National Organization.
 To impart proper accuracy to the secondary standards.
 Carry out Scientific and Technical work in the field of measurement.
 Regulate, supervise and control the manufacturer.
 Giving advice to repair of measuring instruments.
 To inspect and to detect guilty of measurement.
APPLICATIONS:
 Industrial Measurement
 Commercial transactions
 Public health and human safety ensuring.

NEED OF INSPECTION
To determine the fitness of new made materials, products Or component part and to compare
the materials, products to the established standard.
It is summarised as
 To conforming the materials or products to the standard.
 To avoid faulty product coming out.
 To maintain the good relationship between customer and manufacturer.
 To meet the interchangeability of manufacturer.
 To maintain the good quality.
 To take decision on the defective parts.
 To purchase good quality raw materials.
 To reduce the scrap.

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 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEASUREMENTS:
1. Measurement is the outcome of an opinion formed by observers about some physical quantity.
2. Measurement is an essential part of the development of technology.
3. Measurement is a complex of operations carried out by means of measuring instruments.
The means of Measurement classified as:
Standards —Used to reproduce the values of given quantity.
Fixed gauges —Used to check the dimensions, form.
Measuring instruments —Used to determine the measured values.
The important elements of a measurement is
 Measurand
 Reference
 Comparator
1. Measurand:
It is a physical quantity or property (length, diameter, thickness, angle etc.).
2. Reference:
Reference is a physical quantity or property and comparisons are made by them.
3. Comparator:
Comparing measurand with some other reference.

NEED FOR MEASUREMENT

 To determine the true dimensions of a part.
 To increase our knowledge and understanding of the world.
 Needed for ensuring public health and human safety.
 To convert physical parameters into meaningful numbers.
 To test if the elements that constitute the system function as per the design.
 For evaluating the performance of a system.
 For studying some basic laws of nature.
 To ensure interchangeability with a view to promoting mass production.
 To evaluate the response of the system to a particular point.
 Check the limitations of theory in actual situation.
 To establish the validity of design and for finding new data and new designs.
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
1. Direct comparison with Primary or Secondary Standard.
2. Indirect comparison with a standard through calibration system.
3. Comparative method.
4. Coincidence method.
5. Fundamental method.
6. Contact method.
7. Transposition method.
8. Complementary method.
9. Deflection method.
1) Direct method:
The value to be measured is directly obtained. Examples: Vernier calipers, Scales.
2) Indirect method:
The value of quantity to be measured is obtained by measuring other quantities. Example:
Diameter measurement by using three wires.
3) Comparative method:

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 In this method, the quantity to be measured is compared with other known value. Example:
Comparators.
4) Coincidence method:
The value of the quantity to be measured and determined is coincide with certain lines and
signals.
5) Fundamental method:
Measuring a quantity directly in related with the definition of that quantity
6) Contact method
The sensor or measuring tip of the instrument touches the area (or) diameter (or) surface to
be measured. Example: Vernier caliper.
7) Transposition method:
In this method, the quantity to be measured is first balanced by a known value and then it is
balanced by other new known value. Example: Determination of mass by balancing methods.
8) Complementary method:
The value of quantity to be measured is combined with known value of the same quantity.
Example: Volume determination by liquid displacement.
9) Deflection method:
The value to be measured is directly indicated by a deflection of pointer. Example: Pr
measurement.
PRECISION AND ACCURACY
 Precision refers to the “repeatability of a measuring process”. It is connecting with
the performance of the instrument.

 Accuracy refers Closeness or conformity to the true value of the quantity under
measurement.
 Error refers the difference between true value and measured value is known as
measurement error.
.

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 The accuracy of measurement depends upon
 The ability of the operator.
 . Variation of temperature
 Method adopted for measurement
 Deformation of the instrument

ELEMENTS OF MEASURING SYSTEM :

1) Measuring Instruments
2) Calibration Standards
3) Work piece
4) Person who is carrying out the measurement
5) Environment
The above said five elements composed into the acronym “SWIPE”.
Where, S —Standard
W —Work piece
I —Instrument
P —Person
E —Environment
The factors affecting these five elements:
1. Standard: - Affected by Temperature, time, thermal expansion and elasticity.
2. Work piece: - Surface finish, cleanliness, supporting elements, and elastic properties.
3. Instrument: - Friction, error. mechanical parts.
4. Person: - Ability to measure, training, cost estimation.
5. Environment: - Light. Temperature, Humidity.

RELIABILITY:
Reliability is defined as the probability that a given system will perform its function
adequately for its specified period of lifetime under specified operating conditions.
(or)
The probability of successful performance of any machine or part. The most common
measures of reliability are
1. Failure rate
2. Mean time between failures (MTBF)
3. Survival percentage
1. Failure rate:
The rate which the components in a population fail and this is called failure rate (or) hazard
rate.
Mathematical Expression for Reliability R(t):

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If ‘ N’ components are tested in a test, out of which the number of components that survived during
time ‘ t’ is “N (1)”. The number of failures that occurred during the same time is “Nj

2. Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF):

The reciprocal of the failure rate (1/X)is called the “Mean time between failures”.

The failure rate for most components follows the BATHTUB CURVE
shown in fig.

There are three types of failure from this curve.

1. The quality rated failure.
2. The stress related failure.
3. The wear out failure.
The sum of these three failures gives the overall failure rate of component or system.
The failure of components in early age is called infant mortality”. The middle portion of the figure
represents design failure and mainly stress related and the third portion indicates old age failure i.e.
product grows old and it reaches a wear-out phase which increases the failure rate.

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT:
Error is the difference between the measured value and the true value.
Error in measurement = Measured Value —True value
The errors in measurement can be expressed either as an absolute error or on relative error.
TYPES OF ERRORS

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1. Static error:
It is from the physical nature of the various components of measuring system. The static
errors due to environmental effect and other properties which influence the apparatus also reason
for static errors.
a) Characteristic error:
 The deviation of the output of the measuring system from the nominal performance
specifications is called characteristic error.
 The linearity, repeatability, hysteresis and resolution are part of the characteristic error.
b) Reading errors:
 It is exclusively applied to the read out device. The reading error describes the factors
parallax error and interpolation error.
 The use of mirror behind the readout indicator eliminates the occurrence of parallax error.
 Interpolation error is a reading error resulting from the inexact evaluation of the position ‘ of
index.
(c) Environmental errors:
 Every instrument is manufactured and calibrated at one place and it is used in some other
place where the environmental conditions such as temperature, pressure, and humidity are
changes.
2. Loading errors:
Loading means the measuring instrument always takes input from the signal source. Due to
this, the signal source will always be altered by the act of measurement known loading.
Example: If steam flow through the nozzle, it is very difficult to find the perfect flow rate.
This is called loading error.
3. Dynamic error:
This is due to time variations in the measurand. The dynamic errors are caused by inertia,
friction and clamping action. The dynamic errors are mainly classified into
a) Systematic errors or Controllable errors.
b) Random errors.
a) Systematic errors:
 The systematic are constant and similar in form. These are controllable in both their sense
and magnitude. The systematic errors are easily determined and reduced, hence these are
also called as controllable errors.
Systematic errors includes
1. Calibration errors.
2. Ambient or Atmospheric conditions
3. Avoidable errors.
4. Stylus pressure;
1. Calibration errors:
Calibration is a process of giving a known input to the measurement system and also taking
necessary actions to see that the out of the measurement system matches with its input.
If the instrument is not calibrated, the instrument will show very high degree of error.

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2. Ambient errors:
This is due to variation in atmospheric conditions (Example: Pressure. Temperature and
moisture) normally the instruments are calibrated at particular pressure and temperatures.
Temperature will not be equal at all places. If the temperature and pressure varies, the ambient error
will be formed. Standard temperature of 20°C and pressure of 760mm Hg is taken as ambient
condition.
3. Avoidable errors:
This type of error due to parallax, non-alignment of work piece centers, and improper
location of measuring instrument. For example placing a thermometer in sunlight for measuring air
temperature will cause the Instrument location error.
4. Stylus pressure:
Whenever a component measured under pressure the deformation of the work piece and
surface deflection will occur. The pressure involved is generally small but this is sufficient to cause
appreciable deformation on stylus and the work piece
b) Random errors:
These types of errors occurs Randomly and reason for this type of errors cannot be
specified.
The source for this type of errors are
1. Displacement of level joints in the measuring instrument.
2. Small variation in the position of settings.
3. Reading scale error due to operator.
CAUSES OF ERRORS
1. Calibration error:
These are caused due to the variation in the calibrated scale from its normal value.
2. Environment errors:
These errors are caused due to humidity condition, temperature, and altitude.
3. Assembly errors:
The assembly errors are due to 1.. Displaced scale i.e. incorrect fitting of the scale. 2. Non-
uniform division of the scale. 3. Due to heni or distorted pointer.
4. Random errors:
There is no specific reason for causing of Random errors. It may naturally occur.
5. Systematic errors (or) Bias errors:
These type of errors caused due to repeated readings.
6. Chaotic errors:
Chaotic errors are caused due to vibrations, noises, and shocks.
IMPORTANT TERMS IN MEASUREMENT
 Calibration: If a known input is given to the measurement system the output deviates from
the given input, the corrections are niade in the instrument and then the output is measured.
This process is called calibration.
 Sensitivity:

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 True size and Actual size: True size mean theoretical size of a dimension which is free from
errors.
Actual size mean size obtained through measurement with permissible error.
 Range: The physical variables that are measured between two values. On is the higher
calibration value H, and the other is Lower value L.The difference between H and L, is called
range.
 Span: The algebraic difference between higher calibration values to lower calibration value.
Example: In a measurement of temperature higher value is 200°t and lower value is 150°C
means span = 200 —150 = 50°C
 Resolution: The minimum value of the input signal is required to cause appreciable change in
the output known as resolution.
 Threshold: The minimum value of input signal that is required to make a change or start from
zero.
 Back lash: The maximum distance through which one part of the instrument is moved without
disturbing the other part.
 Uncertainty: The range about the measured value within the true value of the measured
quantity is likely to lie at the stated level of confidence
 Repeatability: - Imperfections in mechanical systems can mean that during a Mechanical cycle,
a process does not stop at the same location, or move through the same spot each time. The
variation range is referred to as repeatability.

PART-A
1. Define –Metrology
2. State any two need for measurement.
3. Define error. How is it related to accuracy?
4. Differentiate precision and accuracy.
5. Define the form “reliability”.
6. Define the form “calibration”.
7. What is meant by precision?
8. What are the different types of errors?
9. Define the form “backlash”.
10. Define the form “resolution”.
11. Define the form “sensitivity”.
12. Define the form “uncertainty”.
13. Define the form “repeatability”.
14.Name the elements of measurement?
15.Give any five methods of measurements?
16. Define the form “Precision”.
17. Define the form “Accuracy
18.Name the elements of measuring system?
PART-B
1.Explain the needs for measurements in Metrology?
2.(a) What are the objectives of measurements.
(b) Explain briefly various types static errors involved in measurements.
3.(i) Describe with a good example precision and accuracy.
(ii) How does the reliability play the important role in quality?
4. Mention the various types of error and explain instrument loading errors and dynamic errors.
5.(a) State and explain the five basic elements of measuring system.
(b) Describe the following types of errors

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(i) Environmental error
(ii) Parallax error
(iii) Cosine error.
6. Differentiate between(i) Absolute error and relative error and (ii) Repeatability and
reproducibility of measurement.
7. Explain the following terms.
(i) Calibration (ii) Reproducibility (iii) Sensitivity (iv) Magnification.
8.Define –Error. Explain about the errors in measurements and its causes in detail

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 UNIT-II
LINEAR AND ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

MEASUREMENT OF ENGINEERING COMPONENTS:

 Measurement systems are mainly used in industries for quality control
management.
 Often quality control engineers are applying some the measuring systems such as
linear and angular measurements.
 These measurements are very much useful to compare the actual measurements
with already existing standard measurements.
 The linear measurement includes the measurement of lengths, diameters, heights
and thickness.
 The basic principle of linear measurement is that of comparison with standard
dimensions on a suitably engraved instrument or device.
 The various devices used for measuring the linear measurements are
 Vernier calipers
 Micrometers
 Slip gauge or gauge blocks
 Comparators
 Angular measurement is another important element in measuring.
 This involves the measurement of angles of tapers and similar surfaces. In angular
measurements t types of angle measuring devices are used.
 They are angle gauges corresponding to slip gauges and divided scales
corresponding to line standards. The most common instrument is sine bar.
 The main difference between linear and angular measurement is that no absolute
standard is required for angular measurement.

SCALES:
 The most common tool for crude measurements is the scale (also known as rules, or
rulers)
 Although plastic, wood and other materials are used for common scales, precision scales
use tempered steel alloys, with graduations scribed onto the surface.
 These are limited by the human eye. Basically they are used to compare two dimensions.
 The metric scales use decimal divisions, and the imperial scales use fractional divisions.

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  Some scales only use the fine scale divisions at one end of the scale.
 It is advised that the end of the scale not be used for measurement. This is because as
they become worn with use, the end of the scale will no longer be at a `zero' position.
Instead the internal divisions of the scale should be used.
 Parallax error can be a factor when making measurements with a scale.

CALIPERS:

 A tool used to transfer measurements from a part to a scale, or other instrument.

 Calipers may be difficult to use, and they require that the operator follow a few basic
rules, do not force them, they will bend easily, and invalidate measurements made.
 If measurements are made using calipers for comparison, one operator should make all
of the measurements (this keeps the feel factor a minimal error source).
 These instruments are very useful when dealing with hard to reach locations that normal
measuring instruments cannot reach.
 Obviously the added step in the measurement will significantly decrease the accuracy

(A)Vernier Calipers
 Vernier calipers have two scales namely, the main scale and vernier scale. The vernier scale
moves along the main scale. Verifiers are used to measure both internal and external
dimensions.
 The caliper is placed on the object to be measured and the fine adjustment screw is rotated
until the jaws fit tightly against the work piece. The readings from the main and vernier
scales are taken.
MICROMETERS

There are two types in it.

(i) Outside micrometer — To measure external dimensions.
(ii) Inside micrometer — To measure internal dimensions.
An outside micrometer is shown in Fig.1. It consists of two scales, main scale and
thimble scale. While the pitch of barrel screw is 0.5 mm the thimble has graduation of 0.01 mm.
The least count of this micrometer is 0.01 mm.

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COMPARATORS:
 Comparators are one form of linear measurement device which is quick and more
convenient for checking large number of identical dimensions.
 Comparators normally will not show the actual dimensions of the work piece. They
will be shown only the deviation in size. i.e. During the measurement a comparator is
able to give the deviation of the dimension from the set dimension.
 This cannot be used as an absolute measuring device but can only compare two
dimensions.
 Comparators are designed in several types to meet various conditions. Comparators of
every type incorporate some kind of magnifying device.
 The magnifying device magnifies how much dimension deviates, plus or minus, from
the standard size.
 The comparators are classified according to the principles used for obtaining
magnification.
 The common types are:
1) Mechanical comparators.
2) Electrical comparators.
3) Optical comparators.
4) Pneumatic comparators.

1. MECHANICAL COMPARATORS:
 Mechanical comparator employs mechanical means for magnifying small deviations.
 The method of magnifying small movement of the indicator in all mechanical
comparators are effected by means of levers, gear trains or a combination of these
elements.
 Mechanical comparators are available having magnifications from 300 to 5000 to 1.
These are mostly used for inspection of small parts machined to close limits.
1. Dial indicator:
 A dial indicator or dial gauge is used as a mechanical comparator. The essential
parts of the instrument are like a small clock with a plunger projecting at the
bottom as shown in fig.
 Very slight upward movement on the plunger moves it upward and the movement
is indicated by the dial pointer.
 The dial is graduated into 100 divisions. A full revolution of the pointer about this
scale corresponds to 1mm travel of the plunger.
 Thus, a turn of the pointer b one scale division represents a plunger travel of 0.01
mm.
Experimental setup:
 The whole setup consists of worktable, dial indicator and vertical post.
 The dial indicator is fitted to vertical post by on adjusting screw as shown
in fig.
 The vertical post is fitted on the worktable, The top surface of the
worktable is finely finished.
 The dial gauge can be adjusted vertically and locked in position by a
screw.
How to use?
 Let us assume that the required height of the component is 32.5mm. Initially this
height is built up with slip gauges.
 The slip gauge blocks are placed under the stem of the dial gauge.

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  The pointer in the dial gauge is adjusted to zero. The slip gauges are removed.
 Now the component to be checked is introduced under the stem of the dial gauge.
If there is any deviation in the height of the component, it will be indicated by the
pointer.

Mechanism:
 The mechanism of such an instrument is. illustrated in figure.
 The stem has rack teeth. A set of gears engage with the rack.
 The pointer is connected to a small pinion.
 The small pinion is independently hinged. i.e. it is not connected to the stern.
 The vertical movement of the stem is transmitted to the pointer through a set of
gears. A spring gives a constant downward pressure to the stem.

2. Read type mechanical comparator:

 In this type of comparator, the linear movement of the plunger is specified by
means of read mechanism. The mechanism of this type is illustrated in fig.
 A spring-loaded pointer is pivoted. Initially, the comparator is set with the help of
a known dimension eg. set of slip gauges as shown in fig.

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  Then the indicator reading is adjusted to zero. When the part to be measured is
kept under the pointer, then the comparator displays the deviation of this
dimension either in ± or —side of the set dimension.

Advantages:
1) It is usually robust, compact and easy to handle.
2) There is no external supply such as electricity, air required.
3) It has very simple mechanism and is cheaper when compared to other types.
4) It is suitable for ordinary workshop and also easily portable.
Disadvantages:
1) Accuracy of the comparator mainly depends on the accuracy of the rack and pinion
arrangement. Any slackness will reduce accuracy.
2) (ii) It has more moving parts and hence friction is more and accuracy is less.
3) (iii) The range of the instrument is limited since pointer is moving over a fixed scale.

2. ELECTRICAL COMPARATOR:

An electrical comparator consists of the following three major part such as

1) Transducer
2) Display device as meter
3) Amplifier

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Transducer:
 An iron armature is provided in between two coils held by a lea spring at one end.
The other end is supported against a plunger.
 The two coils act as two arms of an A.C. wheat stone bridge circuit.
Amplifier:
 The amplifier is nothing but a device which amplifies the give input signal
frequency into magnified output
Display device or meter:
 The amplified input signal is displayed on some terminal stage instruments. Here,
the terminal instrument is a meter.
Working principle:
 If the armature is centrally located between the coils. the inductance of both coils
will be equal but in opposite direction with the sign change.
 Due to this, the bridge circuit of A.C. wheatstone bridge is balanced. Therefore,
the meter will read zero value. But practically, it is not possible. In real cases, the
armature may be lifted up or lowered down by the plunger during the
measurement.
 This would upset the balance of the wheatstone bridge circuit. Due to this effect,
the change in current or potential will be induced correspondingly.
 On that time, the meter will indicate some value as displacement. This indicated
value may be either for larger or smaller components.
 As this induced current is too small, it should be suitably amplified before being
displayed in the meter.
Checking of accuracy:
 To check the accuracy of a given specimen or work, first a standard specimen is
placed under the plunger.
 After this, the resistance of wheatstone bridge is adjusted so that the scale reading
shows zero. Then the specimen is removed.
 Now, the work is introduced under the plunger. If height variation of work
presents, it will move the plunger up or down.
 The corresponding movement of the plunger is first amplified by the amplifier
then it is transmitted to the meter to show the variations.
 The least count of this electrical comparator is 0.001mm (one microns).

3.ELECTRONIC COMPARATOR:
 In electronic comparator, transducer induction or the principle of
application of frequency modulation or radio oscillation is followed.

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Construction details:
In the electronic comparator, the following components are set as follows:
i. Transducer
ii. Oscillator
iii. Amplifier
iv. Demodulator
v. Meter
(i) Transducer: -
It converts the movement of the plunger into an electrical signal. It is connected with
oscillator.
(ii) Oscillator: -
The oscillator which receives electrical signal from the transducer and raises the
amplitude of frequency wave by adding carrier frequency called as modulation.
(iii) Amplifier: -
An amplifier is connected in between oscillator and demodulator. The signal coming out
of the oscillator is amplified into a required level.
(iv) Demodulator: -
Demodulator is nothing but a device which cuts off external carrier wave frequency. i.e.
It converts the modulated wave into original wave as electrical signal.
(v) Meter:
This is nothing but a display device from which the output can be obtained as a linear
measurement.
Principle of operation:
 The work to be measured is placed under the plunger of the electronic
comparator. Both work and comparator are made to rest on the surface plate.
 The linear movement of the plunger is converted into electrical signal by a
suitable transducer. Then it sent to an oscillator to modulate the electrical signal
by adding carrier frequency of wave.
 After that the amplified signal is sent to demodulator in which the carrier waves
are cut off.
 Finally, the demodulated signal is passed to the meter to convert the probe tip
movement into linear measurement as an output signal.
 A separate electrical supply of D.C. is already given to actuate the meter.
Advantages of Electrical and Electronic comparator:
1) It has less number of moving parts.
2) Magnification obtained is very high.
3) Two or more magnifications are provided in the same instrument to use various ranges.
4) The pointer is made very light so that it is more sensitive to vibration.
5) The instrument is very compact.
Disadvantages of Electrical and Electronic comparator:
1) External agency is required to meter for actuation.
2) Variation of voltage or frequency may affect the accuracy of output.
3) Due to heating coils, the accuracy decreases.
4) It is more expensive than mechanical comparator.

4.SIGMA MECHANICAL COMPARATOR

 The Sigma Mechanical Comparator uses a partially wrapped band wrapped about a
driving drum to turn a pointer needle.

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5. MECHANICAL AND OPTICAL COMPARATORS
 The Eden-Rolt Reed system uses a pointer attached to the end of two reeds.
 One reed is pushed by a plunger, while the other is fixed.
 As one reed moves relative to the other, the pointer that they are commonly attached to
will deflect.

6. PNEUMATIC COMPARATORS:
 The term pneumatic associates with pressurised air.
 The pressurized air is used as the working medium in pneumatic
comparator.

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  Based on the physical phenomena, the pneumatic comparators are
classified into two types.
1) Flow or Velocity type.
2) Back pressure type.

1. Flow type
 - the float height is essentially proportional to the air that escapes from the gauge
head
 - master gauges are used to find calibration points on the scales
 - the input pressure is regulated to allow magnification adjustment
 - a pressure bleed off valve allows changes to the base level for offset
 - The pressure is similar to that shown in the graph below,

2.Back pressure type

 The Soloflex Back Pressure System uses an orifice with the venturi effect to measure air
flow. If the gas is not moving, the pressure on both sides of the orifice will be equal.

 If the flow is moving quickly, the air pressure on the downstream side of the orifice will
be at a lower pressure.

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  A Differential Back Pressure system uses a split flow channel, one flow goes to the gauge
head, the other goes to a zero offset valve.
 A meter measures the difference in pressures, and thus gives the differences in pressure.

SLIP GAUGES
 Slip gauges are used as measuring blocks.
 It is also called as precision gauge blocks.
 They are made of hardened alloy steel of rectangular cross-section.
 The surfaces of slip gauges are made to a high degree of accuracy.
 The distance between the two opposite faces indicates the size of the gauge. But all slip
gauges are made to same thickness to perform wringing.
 Wringing or Sliding is nothing but combining the faces of slip gauges one over the
other. Due to adhesion property of slip gauges, they will stick together. This is because of
very high degree of surface finish of the measuring faces.
 They are used in comparators and sin bars. They are mainly used as testing and
calibrating instruments in metrology.
 Different sets of slip gauges are manufactured in standard sets of
 32 pieces, 45 pieces, 88 pieces etc.

A normal set of slip gauges has 45 pieces as shown in fig.

 The slip gauges should be stored carefully in a box. For obtaining higher accuracy.
They are stored in a temperature-controlled room.
 For example, a slip gauge set of 56 slips is made up as follows:
9 slips 1.001 to 1.009 in steps of 0.001mm
9 slips 1.01 to 1.09 in steps of 0.01mm
9 slips 1.1 to 1.9 in steps of 0.1mm
25 slips I to 25 in steps of 1mm
3 slips 25 to 75 in steps of 25mm
One slip of 1.0005mm

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CLASSIFICATION OF SLIP GAUGES:
Slip gauges are classified into various types according to their use as follows:
1) Grade 2
2) Grade 1
3) Grade 0
4) Grade 00
5) Calibration grade.
1) Grade 2:
It is a workshop grade slip gauges used for setting tools, cutters and checking dimensions
roughly.
2) Grade 1:
The grade I is used for precise work in tool rooms.
3) Grade 0:
It is used as inspection grade of slip gauges mainly by inspection department.
4) Grade 00:
Grade 00 mainly used in high precision works in the form of error detection in instruments.
5) Calibration grade:
The actual size of the slip gauge is calibrated on a chart supplied by the manufactures.
MANUFACTURE OF SLIP GAUGES:
The following additional operations are carried out to obtain the necessary qualities in slip
gauges during manufacture.
i. First the approximate size of slip gauges is done by preliminary
operations.
ii. The blocks are hardened and wear resistant by a special heat treatment
process.
iii. To stabilize the whole life of blocks, seasoning process is done.
iv. The approximate required dimension is done by a final grinding process.
v. To get the exact size of slip gauges, lapping operation is done.
vi. Comparison is made with grand master sets.
Calibration of slip gauges
Comparators are used to calibrate the slip gauges.
SLIP GAUGES ACCESSORIES:
The application slip gauges can be increased by providing accessories to the slip gauges. The
various accessories are
 Measuring jaw
 Scriber and Centre point.
 Holder and base.
1. Measuring jaw:
It is available in two designs specially made for internal and external features.
2. Scriber and Centre point:
It is mainly formed for marking purpose.
3. Holder and base:
 Holder is nothing but a holding device used to hold combination of slip gauges.
 Base in designed for mounting the holder rigidly on its top surface.

ODD TOPICS
 There are also a number of angular gauge blocks for the measurement of angles. The two
common sets are,

11
  The selection of angular gauge blocks is similar to the selection of linear gauge blocks,
except that subtraction may also be required. (When the blocks are stacked, then
angles are simply reversed.)

ROLLERS:
 Rollers are precisely manufactured with high accuracy for metrological
applications.
 It is used to determine both linear and angular dimensions in conjunction with
gauge blocks.
 These are made of good quality steel and are hardened and tapered. The length of
the roller is equal to the diameter.
 The use of precision rollers for determining both linear and angular dimensions is
explained with the help of following examples.

12
1. Measurement of angle by using rollers:
 Angle of the right-tapered piece can be measured by using two rollers of different
sizes, slip gauges and a dial indicator.
 The two rollers whose diameters are known and slip gauges are placed on a
surface plate as shown in fig.
 The rollers may be clamped in position against an angle plate by C-clamps. The
work is then placed on top of rollers and clamped against the angle plate C-clamp.
 If the angle of the piece is all right, then the top edge will be parallel to surface
plate. The dial indicator will show no variation when traversed along its surface.

 Thus, initially the length of the slip gauges is calculated by the above equation
and the rollers are placed in contact with the slip gauges.
2. Checking the angle of taper using rollers:
 Method of checking the angle of a taper plug gauge using rollers.
 Micrometer and slip gauges are illustrated by fig.
 Taper plug is placed on a surface plate. First two rollers of equal diameters are
placed touching on the opposite sides of the lower surface of the plug on the slip
gauge combinations of equal heights (H) The distance (M) between the ends of
the roller is measured with a micrometer.
 Then the rollers are placed on slip .gauge combinations of height touching on the
opposite sides of the top portion of the plug.
 The distance between the ends of the rollers in this new position is again
measured by means of micrometer.
 The half of the taper angle of the plug is then calculated as follows:
 If d= diameter of rollers, then

13
3. Measuring of included tingle o/an internal dovetail:
 Dovetail slides are widely used in machine tools as a guide ways.
 The sloping side of the dovetail slide act as guide and prevent the lifting of the
female mating part during sliding operation.
 This angle can be measured by using two rollers of equal size, slip gauges and a
micrometer.
 The two rollers of equal diameters are placed. One each at the two corners and
distance i is measured across the rollers with a micrometer.
 Then the rollers equal size slip gauge blocks and the distance is measured. It
should be noted that the rollers do not extend above the top surface of’ dovetail.
 Let the height of slip gauges be h, then

4. Measuring external dovetail slide:

 Figures shows an external dovetail slide with angle of dovetail 0.
 To check the width of opening b as shown in fig., two rollers of equal diameter d
are placed one each in the two corners.

14
  Then the length L is obtained by trial and error with the help of slip gauges or end
bars if L is greater than 250mm.
 Then the width ‘ b’ can he calculated by the relation

LIMIT GAUGES:
 A limit gauge is not a measuring gauge. Just they are used as inspecting gauges.
 The limit gauges are used in inspection by methods of attributes.
 This gives the information about the products which may be either within the
prescribed limit or not.
 By using limit gauges report, the control charts of P and C charts are drawn to
control invariance of the products.
 This procedure is mostly performed by the quality control department of each and
every industry.
 Limit gauge are mainly used for checking for cylindrical holes of identical
components with a large numbers in mass production.
Purpose of using limit gauges:
 Components are manufactured as per the specified tolerance limits, upper limit
and lower limit. The dimension of each component should be within this upper
and lower limit.
 If the dimensions are outside these limits, the components will be rejected.
 If we use any measuring instruments to check these dimensions, the process will
consume more time. Still we are not interested in knowing the amount of error in
dimensions.
 It is just enough whether the size of the component is within the prescribed limits
or not. For this purpose, we can make use of gauges known as limit gauges.
The common types are as follows:
1) Plug gauges.
2) Ring gauges.
3) Snap gauges.
PLUG GAUGES:
 The ends are hardened and accurately finished by grinding. One end is the GO
end and the other end is NOGO end.
 Usually, the GO end will be equal to the lower limit size of the hole and the
NOGO end will be equal to the upper limit size of the hole.

15
  If the size of the hole is within the limits, the GO end should go inside the hole
and NOGO end should not go.
 If the GO end and does not go, the hole is under size and also if NOGO end goes,
the hole is over size. Hence, the components are rejected in both the cases.
Now, we are having two chances to make plug gauges.
1. Double ended plug gauges:
In this type, the GO end and NOGO end are arranged on both the ends of the plug. This
type has the advantage of easy handling.
2. Progressive type of plug gauges:
In this type both the GO end and NOGO end are arranged in the same side of the plug.
We can use the plug gauge ends progressively one after the other while checking the hole. It
saves time. Generally, the GO end is made larger than the NOGO end in plug gauges.
TAPER PLUG GAUGE:
 Taper plug gauges are used to check tapered holes. It has two check lines. One is
a GO line and another is a NOGO line.
 During the checking of work, NOGO line remains outside the hole and GO line
remains inside the hole.
They are various types taper plug gauges are available as shown in fig. Such as
1) Taper plug gauge —plain
2) Taper plug gauge —tanged.
3) Taper ring gauge plain
4) Taper ring gauge —tanged.

16
RING GAUGES:
 Ring gauges are mainly used for checking the diameter of shafts having a central
hole. The hole is accurately finished by grinding and lapping after taking
hardening process.
 The periphery of the ring is knurled to give more grips while handling the gauges.
We have to make two ring gauges separately to check the shaft such as GO ring
gauge and NOGO ring gauge.
 But the hole of GO ring gauge is made to the upper limit size of the shaft and
NOGO for the lower limit.
 While checking the shaft, the GO ring gauge will pass through the shaft and
NOGO will not pass.
 To identify the NOGO ring gauges easily, a red mark or a small groove cut on its
periphery.

17
.
SNAP GAUGE:
 Snap gauges are used for checking external dimensions. They are also called as gap
gauges. The different types of snap gauges are:
1. DOUBLE ENDED SNAP GAUGE:
 This gauge is having two ends in the form of anvils.
 Here also, the GO anvil is made to lower limit and NOGO anvil is made to upper
limit of the shaft.
 It is also known as solid snap gauges

2. PROGRESSIVE SNAP GAUGE:

 This type of snap gauge is also called caliper gauge.
 It is mainly used for checking large diameters up to 100mm. Both GO and NOGO anvils
at the same end. The GO anvil should be at the front and NOGO anvil at the rear.
 So, the diameter of the shaft is checked progressively by these two ends.
 This type of gauge is made of horse shoe shaped frame with I section to reduce the
weight of the snap gauges

.
.
3. ADJUSTABLE SNAP GAUGE:
 Adjustable snap gauges are used for checking large size shafts made with
horseshoe shaped frame of I section.

18
  It has one fixed anvil and two small adjustable anvils. The distance between the
two anvils is adjusted by adjusting the adjustable anvils by means of setscrews.
 This adjustment can be made with the help of slip gauges for specified limits of
size.

4. PLATE TYPE DOUBLE ENDED SNAP GAUGE:

This type is used for sizes from 2mm to 100mm as shown in fig

.
5. PLATE TYPE SINGLE ENDED PROGRESSIVE SNAP GAUGE:
This type is used for sizes from 100mm to 250mm as shown in fig.

6. COMBINED LIMIT GAUGES:

 A spherical projection is provided with GO and NOGO dimension marked in a
single gauge.
 While using GO gauge the handle is parallel to axes of the hole and normal to
axes for NOGO gauge.

19
7. POSITION GAUGE:
 It is designed for checking the position of features in relation to another surface.
 Other types of gauges are also available such as contour gauges, receiver gauges,
profile gauges etc.

TAYLOR’ S PRINCIPLE:
 It states that GO gauge should check all related dimensions. Simultaneously whereas
NOGO gauge should check only one dimension at a time.
Maximum metal condition:
It refers to the condition of hole or shaft when maximum material is left on i.e. high limit
of shaft and low limit of hole.
Minimum metal condition:
If refers to the condition of hole or shaft when minimum material is left on such as low
limit of shaft and high limit of hole.
APPLICATIONS OF LIMIT GAUGES:
1.Thread gauges
2.Form gauges
3.Serew pitch gauges
4. Radius and fillet gauges
5. Feeler gauges
6. Plate gauge and Wire gauge
1. THREAD GAUGES
 Threads are checked with the help of thread gauges.
 For checking internal threads, (nuts, bushes) plug thread gauges are used. Similarly, ring
thread gauges are used for checking external threads (bolts, screw s).

20
2. FORM GAUGES:
 Form gauges may be used to check the contour of a profile of a work piece.
 Form gauges are nothing but template gauges made of sheet steel.
 A profile gauges may contain two outlines which indicates the limits of a profile.

3. SCREW PITCH GAUGES:

 Screw pitch gauges are used to check the pitch of the thread immediately. It is
very much in everyday tool used to pick out a required screw.
 The number of flat blades with different pitches is pivoted in a holder. The pitch
value is marked on each blade.

4. RADIUS AND FILLET GAUGES:

 The radius of curvature can he measure by using these gauges. The radius may be
either outer or inner radius.
 According to the type of radius to be measured, the end of the blade is made to
either concave or convex profile.

5. FEELER GAUGES:
 Feeler gauges are used for checking the clearance between mating surfaces.
 They are mainly used in adjusting the valve clearance in automobiles.
 They are made from 0.03to 1.0mm thick of 100mm long. The blades are pivoted
in a holder.

21
6. PLATE GAUGE AND WIRE GAUGE:

AUTO- COLLIMATOR :
 Auto-collimator is an optical instrument used for the measurement of small
angular differences, changes or deflection, plane surface inspection etc.
 For small angular measurements, autocollimator provides a very sensitive and
accurate approach.
 An auto-collimator is essentially an infinity telescope and a collimator combined
into one instrument.

Basic principle:
 If a light source is placed in the flows of a collimating lens, it is
projected as a parallel beam of light.
 If this beam is made to strike a plane reflector, kept normal to the
optical axis, it is reflected back along its own path and is brought to
the same focus.
 If the reflector is tilted through a small angle ‘ 0’ . Then the parallel
beam is deflected twice the angle and is brought to focus in the same
plane as the light source.
 The distance of focus from the object is given by

Note:
 The position of the final image does not depend upon the distance of reflector
from the lens. i.e. distance x is independent of the position of reflection from the
lens.
 But if the reflector is moved too much back then reflected rays would completely
miss the lens and no image will be formed.
 Thus for full range of reading of instrument to be used, the maximum remoteness
of the reflector is limited.
 For high sensitivity, i.e. for large range of reading of x for a small angular
deviation 0, a long focal length is required.

22
WORKING OF AUTO-COLLIMATOR:
There are three main parts in auto-collimator.
1. Micrometer microscope.
2. Lighting unit and
3. Collimating lens.
 Fig. Shows a line diagram of a modern auto-collimator. A target graticule is
positioned perpendicular to the optical axis.
 When the target graticule is illuminated by a lamp, rays of light diverging
from the intersection point reach the objective lens via beam splitter.
 From objective, the light rays are projected as a parallel rays to the reflector.

 A flat reflector placed in front of the objective and exactly normal to the optical
axis reflects the parallel rays of light back along their original paths.
 They are then brought to the target graticule and exactly coincide with its
intersection.
 A portion of the returned light passes through the beam splitter and is visible
through the eyepiece.
 If the reflector is tilted through a small angle ( ), the reflected beam will be
changed its path at twice the angle.
 It can also be brought to target graticule but linearly displaced from the actual
target by the amount 2 x f.
 Linear displacement of the graticule image in the plane tilted angle of eyepiece is
directly proportional to the reflector. This can be measured by optical micrometer.
 The photoelectric auto- collimator is particularly suitable for calibrating polygons,
for checking angular indexing and for checking small linear displacements.
. APPLICATIONS OF AUTO-COLLIMATOR
Auto-collimators are used for
 Measuring the difference in height of length standards.
 Checking the flatness and straightness of surfaces.
 Checking squareness of two surfaces.
 Precise angular indexing in conjunction with polygons.
 Checking alignment or parallelism.
 Comparative measurement using master angles.

23
  Measurement of small linear dimensions.
 For machine tool adjustment testing.

ANGLE DEKKOR
 This is also a type of auto-collimator.
 There is an illuminated scale in the focal plane of the collimating lens.
 This illuminated scale is projected as a parallel beam by the collimating lens
which after striking a reflector below the instrument is refocused by the lens in the
filed of view of the eyepiece.
 In the field of view of microscope, there is another datum scale fixed across the
center of screen.
 The reflected image of the illuminated scale is received at right angle to the fixed
scale as shown in fig.
 Thus the changes in angular position of the reflector in two planes are indicated
by changes in the point of intersection of the two scales.
 One division on the scale is calibrated to read 1 minute.

 The whole optical system is enclosed in a tube which is mounted on an adjustable

bracket.
 The adjustable bracket is attached to a flat lapped reflective base as shown in fig.
USES OF ANGLE DEKKOR:
(i) Measuring angle of a component:
 Angle dekkor is capable of measuring small variations in angular setting i.e.
determining angular tilt.
 Angle dekkor is used in combination with angle gauge. First the angle gauge
combination is set up to the nearest known angle of the component.
 Now the angle dekkor is set to zero reading on the illuminated scale. The angle
gauge build up is then removed and replaced by the component under test.
 Usually a straight edge being used to ensure that there is no change in lateral
positions. The new position of the reflected scale with respect to the fixed scale
gives the angular tilt of the component from the set angle.
(ii) Checking the slope angle of a V-block:
 Fig. shows the set up for checking the sloping angle of V block.
 Initially, a polished reflector or slip gauge is attached in close contact with the work
surface. By using angle gauge zero reading is obtained in the angle dekkor.

24
  Then the angle may be calculated by comparing the reading obtained from the angle
dekkor and angle gauge.

(iii) To measure the angle of cone or Taper gauge:

 Fig. shows the set up for this purpose. Initially, the angle dekkor is set for the
nominal angle of cone by using angle gauge or sine bar.
 The cone is then placed in position with its base resting on the surface plate.

 A slip gauge or reflector is attached on the cone since no reflection can be

obtained from the curved surface.
 Any deviation from the set angle will be noted by the angle dekkor in the
eyepiece and indicated by the shifting of the image of illuminated scale.

ALIGNMENT TELESCOPE
 Alignment telescope is used for aligning of bores, surfaces and check squareness,
straightness, flatness, parallelism, vertically and level.
 One of the important type of alignment telescope is Taylor-Hobson alignment
telescope.
 This instrument can be used to measure angular alignment as well as lateral
displacement and for this purpose the sighting target is mounted in a collimating unit.
 The telescope has an internal-focusing optical system, similar in principle to that of
the surveyor’ s level built into a robust unit having a precisely ground external
diameter.
 The focusing knob can be clearly seen in the optical system is shown in fig.
 The collimating unit consists of another steel tube, ground to the same diameter as the
telescope and containing an illuminating system, a graticule G a collimating lens and
another graticule G.
 The graticule G is graduated with central cross lines, surrounded with scales and
concentric circles and lies exactly at the principal focus of the collimating lenses.
 The graticule G contains a central pattern of converging V and several graduated
scales lying in two directions at right angles.

25
 The use of telescope with the collimator is given in fig.
 If the telescope is aligned with the collimator and sighted on it with its focus
adjusted to infinity target graticule G will appear in the field of view, since rays
from this target will emerge parallel beams from the collimating lens.
 Purely lateral displacements of telescope and target will therefore not register, but
any angular misalignment will show as a displacement of the image of the target.
 If the telescope is now refocused until the target G appears in the field, only
lateral displacements of the collimator will be indicated, the parallel beams from
the target G being out of focus.

 Lateral displacements of the collimator unit will therefore be measured in the

telescope by means of the scales on graticule G
 The ground bores of the telescope and collimator make the instrument particularly
suitable for the alignment of two or more bores, such as bearings of a large
engines.
 The two units can be located centrally in each bore, using ground bushes where
necessary. and both lateral and angular alignment can be measured.
 Accurate optical alignment of the telescope with its ground diameter is ensured by
careful centering of the lenses and accuracy of the draw table of the focusing lens.
 The use of the optical micrometer and the accuracy obtainable by rotation of the
telescope are only available for the measurement of lateral displacement of the
target.
 The instrument is not equipped for a similar accuracy or angular measurement
without any reason; a micrometer eyepiece would provide the means of doing
this.

26
SINE BAR
 Sine bars are always used along with slip gauges as a device for the measurement
of angles very precisely.
 They are used to
1) Measure angles very accurately.
2) Locate the work piece to a given angle with very high precision.
 Generally, sine bars are made from high carbon, high chromium, and corrosion
resistant steel. These materials are highly hardened, ground and stablished.
 In sine bars, two cylinders of equal diameter are attached at lie ends with its axes
are mutually parallel to each other.
 They are also at equal distance from the upper surface of the sine bar mostly the
distance between the axes of two cylinders is 100mm, 200mm or 300mm.
 The working surfaces of the rollers are finished to 0.2 m R value.
 The cylindrical holes are provided to reduce the weight of the sine bar.

Working principle of sine bar:

 The working of sine bar is based on trigonometry principle.

 To measure the angle of a given specimen, one roller of the sine bar is placed on
the surface plate and another one roller is placed over the surface of slip gauges.
 Now, ‘ h be the height of the slip gauges and ‘ L’ be the distance between roller
centers, then the angle is calculated as

27
 USE OF SINE BAR:
(1,) Locating any’ work to a given angle:

28
 1) Before checking the unknown angle of the specimen, first the angle (0) of given
specimen is found approximately by bevel protractor.
2) Then the sine bar is set at angle of 0 and clamped on the angle plate.
3) Now, the work is placed on the sine bar and the dial indicator set at one end of the
work is moved across the work piece and deviation is noted.
4) Slip gauges are adjusted so that the dial indicator reads zero throughout the work
surface.
Limitations of sine bars:
1) Sine bars are fairly reliable for angles than 15°.
2) It is physically difficult to hold in position.
3) Slight errors in sine bar cause larger angular errors.
4) A difference of deformation occurs at the point of roller contact with the surface
plate and to the gauge blocks.
5) The size of parts to be inspected by sine bar is limited.
Sources of error in sine bars:
The different sources of errors are listed below:
1) Error in distance between roller centers.
2) Error in slip gauge combination.
3) Error in checking of parallelism.
4) Error in equality of size of rollers and cylindricity.
5) Error in parallelism of roller axes with each other.
6) Error in flatness of the upper surface of sine bar.

BEVEL PROTRACTORS
Bevel protractors are nothing but angular measuring instruments.

Types of bevel protractors:

The different types of bevel protractors used are:
1) Vernier bevel protractor
2) Universal protractor
3) Optical protractor

29
1. VERNIER BEVEL PROTRACTOR:
Working principle:

 A vernier bevel protractor is attached with acute angle attachment.

 The body is designed its back is flat and no projections beyond its back. The base
plate is attached to the main body and an adjustable blade is attached to the
circular plate containing vernierscale.
 The main scale is graduated in degrees from 0° to 90° in both the directions. The
adjustable can be made to rotate freely about the center of the main scale and it
can be locked at any position.
 For measuring acute angle, a special attachment is provided. The base plate is
made fiat for measuring angles and can be moved throughout its length. The ends
of the blade are beveled at angles of 45° and 60°.
 The main scale is graduated as one main scale division is 1° and vernier is
graduated into 12 divisions on each side of zero. Therefore the least count is
calculated as

Thus, the bevel protractor can be used to measure to an accuracy of 5 minutes.

Applications of bevel protractor
The bevel protractor can be used in the following applications.
1. For checking a ‘ V’ block:

30
 PART-A

1. What is comparator?
2. Give the uses of comparators.
3. How are comparators classified?
4. Name important mechanical comparators.
5. State the advantages and disadvantages of mechanical comparators.
6. What are the various linear measuring devices?
7. What are the various angular measuring devices?
8. How levels are calibrated?
9. State the advantages of vernier caliper and micrometer?
10.How slip gauges are manufactured?
11.What is the other name for slip gauges?
12.Define-Rollers and its types?
13. Define-Limit gauges and its types?
14.State the applications of limit gauges?
15. Define-Feeler gauges?
16. Define-Auto collimator?
17. Define-Angle Dekkor?
18. Define-Alignment telescope ?
19. Define-Sine Bar?
20. Define-Bevel protractor ?

31
 PART-B

1. Describe a ‘ dial indicator’ with a neat sketch.

2. Explain about Comparators and its types in detail with neat sketch?
3. Explain about Mechanical Comparators and its types in detail with neat sketch?
4. Explain about Pneumatic Comparators in detail with neat sketch?
5. Explain about Optical Comparators and its types in detail with neat sketch?
6. Explain about Electrical Comparators and its types in detail with neat sketch?
7. Explain about Slip gauges and its classification in detail with neat sketch?
8. Explain about Rollers and its types in detail with neat sketch?
9. Explain about Limit gauges and its types in detail with neat sketch?
10. Explain about Auto collimator in detail with neat sketch?
11. Explain about Angle Dekkor in detail with neat sketch?
12. Explain about Alignment telescope in detail with neat sketch?
13. Explain about Sine Bar in detail with neat sketch and its applications?
14. Explain about Bevel protractor in detail with neat sketch and its applications?

32
 UNIT-III

FORM MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
Form measurement includes
 Screw thread measurement
 Gear measurement
 Radius measurement
 Surface Finish measurement
 Straightness measurement
 Flatness and roundness measurements.

SCREW THREAD MEASUREMENT

 Screw threads are used to transmit the power and motion, and also used to fasten
two components with the help of nuts, bolts and. studs.
 There is a large variety of screw threads varying in their form, by included angle,
head angle, helix angle etc.
 The screw threads are mainly classified into 1) External thread 2) Internal thread.

External thread
Internal thread

SCREW THREAD TERMINOLOGY

1
1) Screw thread:
It is a continuous helical groove of specified cross-section produced on the external or
internal surface.
2) Crest:
It is top surface joining the two sides of thread.
3) Flank:
Surface between crest and root.
4) Root:
The bottom of the groove between the two flanks of the thread
5 Lead:
Lead = number starts x pitch
6,) Pitch:
The distance measured parallel to the axis from a point on a thread to the corresponding
next point.
7) Helix angle:
The helix is the angle made by the helix of the thread at the pitch line with the axis.
8) Flank angle:
Angle made by the flank of a thread with the perpendicular to the thread axis.
9) Depth of thread:
The distance between the crest and root of the thread.
10) Included angle:
Angle included between the flanks of a thread measured in an axial plane.
11) Major diameter:
Diameter of an imaginary co-axial cylinder which would touch the crests of external or
internal thread.
12) Minor diameter (Root diameter or Core diameter):
Diameter of an imaginary co-axial cylinder which would touch the roots of an external
thread.
13).Addendum
 Radial distance between the major and pitch cylinders For external thread.
 Radial distance between the minor and pitch cylinder For internal thread.
14) Dedendum:
 Radial distance between the pitch and minor cylinder = For external thread.
 Radial distance between the major and pitch cylinders = For internal thread.
ERROR IN THREAD
The errors in screw thread may arise during the manufacturing or storage of threads. The
errors either may cause in following six main elements in the thread.
1) Major diameter error
2) Minor diameter error
3) Effective diameter error
4) Pitch error
5) Flank angles error
6) Crest and root error
1) Major diameter error:
It may cause reduction in the flank contact and interference with the matching threads.
2) Minor diameter error:
It may cause interference, reduction of flank contact.
3) Effective diameter error:

2
 If the effective diameter is small the threads will be thin on the external screw and thick
on an internal screw.
4) Pitch errors:
If error in pitch, the total length of thread engaged will be either too high or too small.
The various pitch errors may classified into
1. Progressive error.
2. Periodic error.
3. Drunken error.
4. Irregular error.

1) Progressive error:
The pitch of the thread is uniform but is longer or shorter its nominal value and this is called
progressive.
Causes of progressive error:
1. In correct linear and angular velocity ratio.
2. In correct gear train and lead screw.
3. Saddle fault.
4. Variation in length due to hardening.

2. Periodic error
These are repeats itself at regular intervals along the thread
Causes of periodic error:
1. Un uniform tool work velocity ratio.
2. Teeth error in gears.
3. Lead screw error.
4. Eccentric mounting of the gears.
3) Drunken error:
 Drunken errors are repeated once per turn of the thread in a Drunken thread.
 In Drunken thread the pitch measured parallel to the thread axis. If the thread is
not cut to the true helix the drunken thread error will form

3
4) Irregular errors:
It is vary irregular manner along the length of the thread.
Irregular error causes:
1. Machine fault.
2. Non-uniformity in the material.
3. Cutting action is not correct.
4. Machining disturbances.
Effect of pitch errors:
 Increase the effective diameter of the bolt and decreases the diameter of nut.
 The functional diameter of the nut will be less.
 Reduce the clearance.
 Increase the interference between mating threads.
MEASUREMENT OF VARIOUS ELEMENTS OF THREAD
To find out the accuracy of a screw thread it will be necessary to measure the following:
1) Major diameter.
2) Minor diameter.
3) Effective or Pitch diameter.
4) Pitch
5) Thread angle and form
1. Measurement of major diameter:
The instruments which are used to find the major diameter are by
 Ordinary micrometer
 Bench micrometer.
a) Ordinary micrometer:
 The ordinary micrometer is quite suitable for measuring the external major
diameter.
 It is first adjusted for appropriate cylindrical size (S) having the same diameter
(approximately).This process is known as ‘ gauge setting’ .
 After taking this reading ‘ R the micrometer is set on the major diameter of the
thread, and the new reading is ‘ R2

b) Bench micrometer:
 For getting the greater accuracy the bench micrometer is used for measuring the
major diameter.
 In this process the variation in measuring Pressure, pitch errors are being
neglected..
 The fiducial indicator is used to ensure all the measurements are made at same
pressure.
 The instrument has a micrometer head with a vernier scale to read the accuracy of
0.002mm. Calibrated setting cylinder having the same diameter as the major
diameter of the thread to be measured is used as setting standard.
 After setting the standard, the setting cylinder is held between the anvils and the
reading is taken.

4
  Then the cylinder is replaced by the threaded work piece and the new reading is
taken.

Measurement of the major diameter of an Internal thread:

 The Inter thread major diameter is usually measured by thread comparator fitted
with ball-ended styli.
 First the Instrument is setted for a cylindrical reference having the same diameter
of major diameter of internal thread and the reading is taken.
 Then the floating head is retracted to engage the tips of the styli at the root of
spring under pressure.
 For that the new reading is taken,

2) Measurement of Minor diameter:

 The minor diameter is measured by a comparative method by using floating carriage
diameter measuring machine and small ‘ V pieces which make contact with the root of the
thread.
 These V pieces are made in several sizes, having suitable radii at the edges.
 V pieces are made of hardened steel.
 The floating carriage diameter-measuring machine is a bench micrometer mounted on a
carriage.

5
Measurement process:
 The threaded work piece is mounted between the centers of the instrument and the
V pieces are placed on each side of the work piece and then the reading is noted.
 After taking this reading the work piece is then replaced by a standard reference
cylindrical setting gauge.

Measurement of Minor diameter of Internal threads:

The Minor diameter of Internal threads are measured by
1. Using taper parallels
2. Using Rollers.
1. Using taper parallels:
 For diameters less than 200mm the use of Taper parallels and micrometer is very
common.
 The taper parallels are pairs of wedges having reduced and parallel outer edges.
 The diameter across their outer edges can be changed by sliding them over each
other.

2. Using rollers:
 For more than 20mm diameter this method is used. Precision rollers are inserted
inside the thread and proper slip gauge is inserted between the rollers.
 The minor diameter is then the length of slip gauges plus twice the diameter of
roller.

6
3. Measurement of effective diameter
Effective diameter measurement is carried out by following methods.
1. One wire,
2. two wires, or
3. three wires method.
4. Micrometer method.
1. (a) One wire method:
 The only one wire is used in this method.
 The wire is placed between two threads at one side and on the other
side the anvil of the measuring micrometer contacts the crests.
 First the micrometer reading dl is noted on a standard gauge whose
dimension is approximately same to be obtained by this method.
 Now the setting gauge is replaced by thread and the new reading is

b) Two wire method:

 Two-wire method of measuring the effective diameter of a screw thread is given
below.
 In this method wires of suitable size are placed between the standard and the
micrometer anvils.
 First the micrometer reading is taken and let it be R
 Then the standard is replaced by’ the screw thread to be measured and the new
reading is taken.
 The new reading is R

7
8
c. Three Wire method:
 The three-wire method is the accurate method.
 In this method three wires of equal and precise diameter are placed in the groves
at opposite sides of the screw.
 In this one wire on one side and two on the other side are used. The wires either
may held in hand or hung from a stand.
 This method ensures the alignment of micrometer anvil faces parallel to the thread
axis.

9
BEST WIRE SIZE-DEVIATION:
 Best wire diameter is that may contact with the flanks of the thread on the pitch
line.
 The figure shows the wire makes contact with the flanks of the thread on the
pitch.
Hence best wire diameter,

4. Pitch measurement
The most commonly used methods for measuring the pitch are
1. Pitch measuring machine
2. Tool makers microscope
3. Screw pitch gauge
1. Pitch measuring machine:
 The principle of the method of measurement is to move the stylus along the
screen parallel to the axis from one space to the next.

 The pitch-measuring machine provides a relatively simple and accurate method of

measuring the pitch.
 Initially the micrometer reading is near the zero on the scale, the indicator is
moved along to bring the stylus, next the indicator adjusted radially until the
stylus engages between the thread flank and the pointer ‘ K’ is opposite in the line
L.
 To bring T in opposite in its index mark a small movement is necessary in the
micrometer and then the reading is taken next.
 The stylus is moved along into the next space by rotation of the micrometer and
the second reading is taken.
 The difference between these two-measured readings is known as the pitch of the
thread.

10
2.Tool makers microscope:

Working:
1. Worktable is placed on the base of the base of the instrument.
2. The optical head is mounted on a vertical column it can be moved up and
down.
3. Work piece is mounted on a glass plate.
4. A light source provides horizontal beam of light which is reflected from a
mirror by 900 upwards towards the table.
5. Image of the outline of contour of the work piece passes through the objective
of the optical head.
6. The image is projected by a system of three prisms to a ground glass screen.
7. The measurements are made by means of cross lines engraved on the ground
glass screen.
8. The screen can be rotated through 3 60°.
9. Different types of graduated screens and eyepieces are used.
Applications:
 Linear measurements.
 Measurement of pitch of the screw.
 Measurement of pitch diameter.
 Measurement of thread angle.
 Comparing thread forms.
 Centre to center distance measurement.
 Thread form and flank angle measurement
3.Thread form and flank angle measurement
 The optical projections are used to check the thread form and angles in the thread.
The projectors equipped with work holding fixtures, lamp, and lenses.
 The light rays from the lens are directed into the cabinet and prisons and mirrors.
 The enlarged image of thread is drawn. The ideal and actual forms are compared for
the measurement.

11
GEAR MEASUREMENT
Introduction
 Gears is a mechanical drive which transmits power through toothed wheel.
 In this gear drive, the driving wheel is in direct contact with driven wheel.
 The accuracy of gearing is the very important factor when gears are
manufactured.
 The transmission efficiency is almost 99 in gears. So it is very important to test
and measure the gears precisely.
 For proper inspection of gear, it is very important to concentrate on the raw
materials, which are used to manufacture the gears, also very important to check
the machining the blanks, heat treatment and the finishing of teeth.
 The gear blanks should be tested for dimensional accuracy and tooth thickness for
the forms of gears.
 The most commonly used forms of gear teeth are
1.. Involute
2. Cycloidal
 The involute gears also called as straight tooth or spur gears.
 The cycloidal gears are used in heavy and impact loads.
 The involute rack has straight teeth.
 The involute pressure angle is either 20° or 14.5°.
Types of gears
1. Spur gear: -
 Cylindrical gear whose tooth traces is straight line.
 These are used for transmitting power between parallel shafts.
2. Spiral gear: -
The tooth of the gear traces curved lines.
3. Helical gears: -
 These gears used to transmit the power between parallel shafts as well as non-
parallel and non-intersecting shafts.
 It is a cylindrical gear whose tooth traces is straight line.
4. Bevel gears:
 The tooth traces are straight-line generators of cone.
 The teeth are cut on the conical surface. It is used to connect the shafts at right
angles.
5. Worm and Worm wheel:
It is used to connect the shafts whose axes are non-parallel and non-intersecting.
6. Rack and Pinion:
Rack gears are straight spur gears with infinite radius.

Gear terminology
1. Tooth profile:
It is the shape of any side of gear tooth in its cross section.
2. Base circle:
 It is the circle of gear from which the involute profile is derived.
 Base circle diameter Pitch circle diameter x Cosine of pressure angle of gear
3. Pitch circle diameter (PCD):
The diameter of a circle which will produce the same motion as the toothed gear wheel.

12
4. Pitch circle:
It is the imaginary circle of gear that rolls without slipping over the circle of its matiug
gear.
5. Addendum circle:
The circle coincides with the crests (or) tops of teeth.
6. Dedendum circle (or) Root circle:
This circle coincides with the roots (or) bottom on teeth.
7.Pressure angle (a):
It is the angle making by the line of action with the common tangent to the pitch circles
of mating gears.

8.Module(m):
`It is the ratio of pitch circle diameter to the total number of teeth.

Where, d = Pitch circle diameter.

n = Number f teeth.
9. Circular pitch:
It is the distance along the pitch circle between corresponding points of adjacent teeth.

10. Addendum:
Radial distance between tip circle and pitch circle. Addendum value = 1 module.
11 Dedendum:
Radial distance between itch circle and root circle, Dedendum value = 1 .25module.
12,. Clearance (C):
A mount of distance made by the tip of one gear with the root of mating gear.
Clearance = Difference between Dedendum and addendum values.
13 Blank diameter:
The diameter of the blank from which gear is out. Blank diameter = PCD + 2m
14. Face:
Part of the tooth in the axial plane lying between tip circle and pitch circle.
15. Flank:
Part of the tooth lying between pitch circle and root circle.
16. Top land:
Top surface of a tooth.
17. Helix angle: .

13
18. Lead angle:
The angle between the tangent to the helix and plane perpendicular to the axis of
cylinder.
19. Backlash:
 The difference between the tooth thickness and the space into which it meshes.
 If we assume the tooth thickness as t and width ‘ t then

Gear errors
1. Profile error: - The maximum distance of any point on the tooth profile form to the
design profile.
2. Pitch error: - Difference between actual and design pitch
3. Cyclic error: - Error occurs in each revolution of gear
4. Run out: - Total range of reading of a fixed indicator with the contact points applied to
a surface rotated, without axial movement, about a fixed axis.
5. Eccentricity: - Half the radial run out
6. Wobble: - Run out measured parallel to. the axis of rotation at a specified distance
from the axis
7. Radial run out: - Run out measured along a perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
8. Undulation: - Periodical departure of the actual tooth surface from the design surface.
9. Axial run out: - Run out measured parallel to the axis of rotation at a speed.
10. Periodic error: -Error occurring at regular intervals.
GEAR MEASUREMENT
The Inspection of the gears consists of determine the following elements in which
manufacturing error may be present.
1. Runout.
2. Pitch
3. Profile
4. Lead
5. Back lash
6. Tooth thickness
7. Concentricity
8. Alignment
1. Runout:
 It means eccentricity in the pitch circle.
 It will give periodic vibration during each revolution of the gear.
 This will give the tooth failure in gears.
The run out is measured by means of eccentricity testers.

14
  In the testing the gears are placed in the mandrel and the dial indicator of the
tester possesses special tip depending upon the module of the gear and the tips
inserted between the tooth spaces and the gears are rotated tooth by tooth and the
variation is noted from the dial! indicator.
2. Pitch measurement:
There are two ways for measuring the pitch.
1. Point to point measurement (i.e. One tooth point to next toot point)
2. Direct angular measurement.
1. Tooth to Tooth measurement:

 The instrument has three tips.

 One is fixed measuring tip and the second is sensitive tip, whose position can be
adjusted by a screw and the third tip is adjustable or guide stop.
 The distance between the fixed and sensitive tip is equivalent to base pitch of the
gear.
 All the three tips are contact the tooth by setting the instrument and the reading on
the dial indicator is the error in the base pitch.
2. Direct Angular Measurement:
 Simplest method for measuring the error by using set dial gauge against a tooth.
in this method the position of a suitable point on a tooth is measured after the gear
has been indexed by a suitable angle
 If the gear is not indexed through the angular pitch the reading differs from the
original reading.
 The difference between these is the cumulative pitch error.
3. Profile checking:
The methods used for profile checking is
1. Optical projection method.
2. Involute measuring machine.
1. Optical projection method:
The profile of the gear projected on the screen by optical lens and then projected value is
compared with master profile.
2. Involute measuring machine:

15
  In this method the gear is held on a mandrel and circular disc of same diameter as
the base circle of gear for the measurement is fixed on the mandrel.
 After fixing the gear in the mandrel. The straight edge of the instrument is
brought in contact with the base circle of he disc.
 Now, the gear and disc are rotated and the edge moves over the disc without
sleep. The stylus moves over the tooth profile and the error is indicated on the dial
gauge.
3.. Lead checking:
 It is checked by lead checking instruments.
 Actually lead is the axial advance of a helix for one complete turn.
 The lead checking instruments are advances a probe along a tooth surface, parallel
to the axis when the gear rotates.
4. Backlash checking:
 Backlash is the distance through which a gear can be rotated to bring its non-
working flank in contact with the teeth of mating gear.
 Numerical values of backlash are measured at the tightest point of mesh on the
pitch circle.
 There are two types of backlash
1. Circumferential backlash
2. Normal backlash
 The determination of backlash is, first one of the two gears of the pair is locked,
while other is rotated forward and backward and by the comparator the maximum
displacement i-s measured.
 The stylus of comparator is locked near the reference cylinder and a tangent to
this is called circular backlash.
5. Tooth thickness measurement:
 Tooth thickness are generally measured at pitch circle and also in most cases the
chordal thickness measurement is carried out i.e. the chord joining the intersection
of the tooth profile with the pitch circle.
 The methods which are used for measuring the gear tooth thickness is
a) Gear tooth vernier caliper method (Chordal thickness method)
b) Base tangent method.
c) Constant chord method.
d) Measurement over pins or balls.
a) Gear tooth vernier method
 In gear tooth vernier method the thickness is measured at the pitch line.
 Gear tooth thickness varies from the tip of the base circle of the tooth, and the
instrument is capable of measuring the thickness at a specified position on the
tooth.
 The tooth vernier caliper consists of vernier scale and two perpendicular arms.

16
 In the two perpendicular arms one arm is used to measure the thickness and other
arm is used to measure the depth.
 Horizontal vernier scale reading gives chordal thickness (W) and vertical vernier
scale gives the chordal addendum. Finally the two values e compared.
 The theoretical values of ‘ W’ and ‘ d’ can be found out by considering one tooth
in the gear and it can be verified.
 In fig noted that w is a chord ADB and tooth thickness is specified by AEB.
 The distance d is noted and adjusted on instrument and it is slightly greater than
addendum CE.

 Vernier method like the chordal thickness and chordal addendum are dependent
upon the number of teeth.
 Due to this for measuring large number of gears different calculations are to be
made for each gear.
 So these difficulties are avoided by this constant chord method.

17
b) Measurement over Rolls or balls:
 A very good and convenient method for measuring thickness of gear.
 In this method two or three different size rollers are used for checkup the
vibrations at several places on the tooth.
6. Measurement of concentricity:
 In setting of gears the centre about which the gear is mounded should be
coincident with the centre from which the gear is generated.
 It is easy to check the concentricity of the gear by mounting the gear between
centres and measuring the variation in height of a roller placed between the
successive teeth.
 Finally the variation in reading will be a function of the eccentricity present.
7. Alignment checking:
 It is done by placing a parallel bar between the gear teeth and the gear being
mounted between centres.
 Finally the readings are taken at the two ends of the bar and difference in reading
is the misalignment.
. PARKINSON GEAR TESTER
Working principle:
 The master gear is fixed on vertical spindle and the gear to be tested is fixed on
similar spindle which is mounted on a carriage.
 The carriage which can slide either side and these gears are maintained in mesh
by spring pressure.
 When the gears are rotated, the movement of sliding carriage is indicated by a dial
indicator and these variations arc is measure of any irregularities in the car under
test. Fig
 The variation is recorded in a recorder which is fitted in the form of a waxed
circular chart.
 In the gears are fitted on the mandrels and are free to rotate without clearance and
the left mandrel move along the table and the right mandrel move along the
spring-loaded carriage.

 The two spindles can be adjusted so that the axial distance is equal and a scale is
attached to one side and vernier to the other, this enables center distance to be
measured to with in 0.025mm.

18
  If any errors in the tooth form when gears are in close mesh, pitch or concentricity
of pitch line will cause a variation in center distance from this movement of
carriage as indicated to the dial gauge will show the errors in the gear test.
 The recorder also fitted in the form of circular or rectangular chart and the errors
are recorded.
 Limitations of Parkinson gear tester:
1. Accuracy±0.001mm
2. Maximum gear diameter is 300mm
3. Errors are not clearly identified:
4. Measurement dependent upon the master gear.
5. Low friction in the movement of the floating carriage.

RADIUS MEASUREMENT
In radius measurement we are going see about two methods namely.
1 Radius of circle and
2. Radius of concave surface
1. Radius of circle:

 This radius measurement requires the use of vernier caliper, C- Clamp, surface
plate and two pins.
 This method is very much use in measuring the cap of bearing. Initially the job is
fixed on surface plate with the help of C-clamp.
 So that the central position of the circular part is touch with the surface plate.
 Next the two balls are placed on both side of the work and using the vernier
caliper readings are taken.
Let, R = Radius of job
I = The reading between two balls
0 = Center of the circle.

19
2) Radius of a concave surface:
Here there are two methods
1. Edges are well defined.
2. Edges are rounded up
1. Edges are well defined:
 In this method radius is calculated by using surface plate, height gauge, angle
plate,C-clamp and slip gauges.

 First the Job placed on the surface plate and then by using depth micrometer the depth is
measured and it is h
 Next in such a way that cavity is resting against an angle plate and the part is clamped in
this position.
 By using a height gauge edge to edge size of hole is measured and this is diameter of the
ftbl ‘ d’ .

20
2) Edges

 When cavities are rounded up the radius is measured by depth micrometer and
slip gauges.
 First the width of the micrometer is measured by slip gauges and it is let ‘ d’ .
 Then it is placed in the cavity and measuring tip is lowered down to touches the
base.
 From this condition the reading is noted and it be h and the radius is measured by
using the formula

SURFACE FINISH MEASUREMENT

Introduction:
 When we are producing components by various methods of manufacturing
process it is not possible to produce perfectly smooth surface and some
irregularities are formed.
 These irregularities are causes some serious difficulties in using the components.
So it is very important to correct the surfaces before use.
 The factors which are affecting surface roughness are
1. Work piece material
2. Vibrations
3. Machining type
4. Tool, and fixtures
The geometrical irregularities can be classified as
1. First order
2.Second order
3 Third order
4.Fourth order
1. First order irregularities:
These are caused by lack of straightness of guide ways on which tool must move.
2. Second order irregularities:
These are caused by vibrations
3. Third order irregularities:
These are caused by machining.
4. Fourth order irregularities:
These are caused by improper handling machines and equipments.

21
Elements of surface texture:
1.Profile: - Contour of any section through a surface.
2.Lay: - Direction of the ‘ predominate surface pattern’ .
3. Flaws: - Surface irregularities or imperfection, which occur at infrequent
intervals.
4.Actual surface: - Surface of a part which is actually obtained,
5. Roughness: - Finely spaced irregularities. It is also called primary texture.
6.Sampling lengths: - Length of profile necessary for the evaluation of the
irregularities.

7. Waviness: - Surface irregularities which are of greater spacing than roughness.

8. Roughness height: - Rated as the arithmetical average deviation.
9. Roughness width: - Distance parallel to the normal surface between successive
peaks.
10. Mean line of profile: - Line dividing the effective profile such that within the
sampling length.
11. Centre line of profile: - Line dividing the effectiveness profile such that the
areas embraced b profile above and below the line are equal.
Analysis of surface finish
The analysis of surface finish being carried out by
1. The average roughness method.
2. Peak to valley height method
3. From factor
1. Average roughness measurement:
The assessment of average roughness is carried out by
a Centre line average (CLA).
b Root mean square (RMS)
c Ten point method
a. C.L.A. method:
The surface roughness is measured as the average deviation from the nominal surface.

22
b. R.M.S. method:
The roughness is measured as the average deviation from the nominal surface.
Let, h1,h2, ... are the heights of the ordinates and L is the sampling length

3) Ten point height method:

The average difference between five highest peaks and five lowest valleys of surface is taken
and irregularities are calculated by

Peak to valley height method:

 Peak to valley height measures the maximum depth of the surface irregularities
over a given sample length and largest value of the depth is accepted for the
measurement.
 Here, = Maximum peak to valley height in one sampling lengths.
R, = Maximum peak to valley height
V=Valley
P = Peak
 Here, R is the maximum peak to valley height within the assessment length and
the disadvantages of R, and is only a single peak or valley which gives the value
is not a true picture of the actual profile of the surface

23
.
3. Form factor:
It is obtained by measuring the area of material above the arbitrarily chosen base line in the
section and the area of the enveloping rectangle.

Methods of measuring surface finish

The methods used for measuring the surface finish is classified into
1. Inspection by comparison
2. Direct Instrument Measurements
1. Inspection by comparison methods:
 In these methods the surface texture is assessed by observation of the surface.
 The surface to be tested is compared with known value of roughness specimen
and finished by similar machining process.
 The various methods which are used for comparison are
1. Touch Inspection.
2. Visual Inspection.
3. Microscopic Inspection.
4. Scratch Inspection.
5. Micro Interferometer.
6. Surface photographs.
7. Reflected Light Intensity.
8. Wallace surface Dynamometer.

24
1. Touch Inspection
It is used when surface roughness is very high and in this method the fingertip is
moved along the surface at a speed of 25mm/second and the irregularities as up to 0.0
125mm can be detected.
2. Visual Inspection:
In this method the surface is inspected by naked eye and this measurement is limited to
rough surfaces.
3. Microscopic Inspection:
In this method finished surface is placed under the microscopic and compared with the
surface under inspection. The light beam also used to check the finished surface by
projecting the light about 60° to the work.
4. Scratch Inspection:
The materials like lead, plastics rubbed on surface is inspected by this method. The
impression of this scratches on the surface produced is then visualized.
5. Micro-Interferometer:
Optical flat is placed on the surface to be inspected and illuminated by a monochromatic
source of light.
6. Surface Photographs:
Magnified photographs of the surface are taken with different types of illumination. The
defects like irregularities are appear as dark spots and flat portion of the surface appears as
bright.
7. Reflected light Intensity:
A beam of light is projected on the surface to be inspected and the light intensity
variation on the surface is measured by a photocell and this measured value is calibrated
8. Wallace surface Dynamometer:
It consists of a pendulum in which the testing shoes are clamped to a bearing surface and
a pre determined spring pressure can be applied and then,
The pendulum is lifted to its initial starting position and allowed to swing over the
surface to be tested.
Direct instrument measurements
 Direct methods enable to determine a numerical value of the surface finish of any
surface.
 These methods are quantitative analysis methods and the output is used to operate
recording or indicating instrument.
 Direct Instruments are operated by electrical principles. These instruments are
classified into two types according to the operating principle.
 In this is operated by carrier-modulating principle and the other is operated by
voltage-generating principle, and in the both types the output is amplified.
 Some of the direct measurement instruments are
1. Stylus probe instruments.
2. Tomlinson surface meter.
3. Profilometer.
4. Taylor-Hobson Talysurf
1. Stylus probe type instrument

25
Principle:
When the stylus be moved over the surface which is to be measured, the irregularities in
the surface texture is measured and it is used to assess the surface finish of the work piece.
Working:
 The stylus type instruments consist of skid, stylus, amplifying device and
recording device.
 The skid is slowly moved over the surface by hand or by motor drive.
The skid follows the irregularities of the surface and the stylus moves along with
skid.
 When the stylus moves vertically up and down and the stylus movements are
magnified, amplified and recorded to produce a trace.
 Then it is analyzed by automatic device.
Advantage:
Any desired roughness parameter can be recorded.
Disadvantages:
1. Fragile material cannot be measured.
2. High Initial cost.
3. Skilled operators are needed to operate.
2. Tomlinson Surface meter:
This instrument uses mechanical-cum-optical means for magnification.
Construction:
 In this the diamond stylus on the surface finish recorder is held by spring pressure
against the surface of a lapped cylinder.
 The lapped cylinder is supported one side by probe and other side by rollers.
 The stylus is also attached to the body of the instrument by a leaf spring and its
height is adjustable to enable the diamond to be positioned and the light spring
steel arm is attached to the lapped cylinder.
 The spring arm has a diamond scriber at the end and smoked glass is rest on the
arm.

Working:
 When measuring surface finish the body of the instrument is moved across the
surface by a screw rotation.

26
  The vertical movement of the probe caused by the surface irregularities makes the
horizontal lapped cylinder to roll.
 This rolling of lapped cylinder causes the movement of the arm. So this
movement is induces the diamond scriber on smoked glass.
 Finally the movement of scriber together with horizontal movement produces a
trace on the smoked glass plate and this trace is magnified by an optical projector.
3 Profilometer
 It is an indicating and recording instrument to measure roughness in microns. The
main parts of the instrument are tracer and an amplifier.
 The stylus is mounted in the pick up and it Consists of induction oil located in the
magnet. When he stylus is moved on the surface to be tested, it is displaced up
and own due to irregularities in the surface.
 This movement induces the induction coil to move in the direction of permanent
magnet and produces a voltage. This is amplified and recorded.

4.Talyor-Hobson-Talysurf
 It is working an carrier modulating principle and it is an accurate method
comparing with the other methods.
 The main parts of this instrument is diamond stylus (0.002mm radius) and skid
Principle:
The irregularities of the surface are traced by the stylus and the movement of the stylus is
converted into changes in electric current.

27
Working:
 On two legs of the E-shaped stamping there are coils is their for carrying an a.c.
current and these coils form an oscillator.
 As the armature is pivoted about the central leg the movement of the stylus causes
the air gap to vary and thus the amplitude is modulated.
 This modulation is again demodulated for the vertical displacement of the stylus.
 So this demodulated output is move the pen recorder to produce a numerical
record and to make a direct numerical assessment.
. Other methods for measuring surface roughness
1. Profilograph

..
 The surface finish to be checked work piece is placed on the table.
 The table can move either side by lead screw and the stylus is pivoted over the
tested surface, so the oscillation in the stylus due to surface irregularities are
transmitted to the mirror.
 A light source sends a beam of light through lens and a precision slit to the mirror,
and the reflected beam is directed to revolving drum.
 Upon the revolving drum a sensitive film is attached. The revolving drum can be
rotated by two bevel gears and the gears are attached to the same lead screw.
 Finally, the profilogram will be obtained from the sensitive film and it is
analysed.

28
2. Double microscope:
 It is an optical method for measuring the surface roughness, working principle is a
thin film of light strikes the surface to be tested by an angle of 45° through the
condenser and precision slit and the observing microscope is also inclined at an
angle. of 45° to the tested surface.
 The surface is illuminated by a projection tube and it is observed by an eyepiece
through the microscope.
 The eyepiece contains a eyepiece micrometer and it is used to measure the
irregularities.

STRAIGHTNESS MEASUREMENT
 Definition of straightness of a line in two planes.
 A line is said to be straight over a given length, if the variation of the distance of
its from two planes perpendicular to each other and parallel to the general
direction of the line remains within the specified tolerance limits.
 The tolerance on the straightness of a line is defined as the maximum deviation in
relation to the reference straight line joining the two extremities of the line to be
checked..

Straight edge:
 A straight edge is a measuring tool which consists of a length of a length of a steel
of narrow and deep section in order to provide resistance to bending in the plane
of measurement without excessive weight.
 For checking the straightness of any surface, the straight edge is placed over the
surface and two are viewed against the light, which clearly indicate the
straightness..
 The gap between the straight edge and surface will be negligibly small for perfect
surfaces. Straightness is measured by observing the colour of light by diffraction
while passing through the small gap.
 If the colour of light be red, it indicates a gap of 0.0012 to 0.0075mm.

29
  A more accurate method of finding the straightness by straight edges is to place it
n equal slip gauges at the correct point for minimum deflection and to measure the
uniformity of space under the straight edge with slip gauges.
Test for straightness by using spirit level and Autocollimator
 The straightness of any surface could be determined by either of these instruments
by measuring the relative angular positions of number of adjacent sections of the
surface to be tested.
 First straight line is drawn on the surface then it is divided into a number of
sections the length of each section being equal to the length of sprit level base or
the plane reflector’ s base in case of auto collimator.
 The bases of the spirit level block or reflector are fitted with two feet so that only
feet have line contact with the surface and the surface of base does not touch the
surface to he tested.
 The angular division obtained is between the specified two points. Length of each
section must be equal to distance between the centerlines of two feet.
 The special level can be used only for the measurement of straightness of
horizontal surfaces while auto-collimator can be used on surfaces are any plane.
 In case of spirit level, the block is moved along the line equal to the pitch distance
between the centerline of the feet and the angular variation of the direction of
block.
 Angular variation can be determined in terms of the difference of height between
two points by knowing the least count of level and length of the base.

 In case of autocollimator the instrument is placed at a distance of 0.5 to 0.75m

from the surface to be tested.
 The parallel beam from the instrument is projected along the length of the surface
to be tested.
 A block fixed on two feet and fitted with a plane vertical reflector is placed on the
surface and the reflector face is facing the instrument.
 The image of the cross wires of the collimator appears nearer the center of the
field and for the complete movement of reflector along the surface straight line
the image of cross wires will appear in the field of eyepiece.
 The reflector is then moved to the other end of the surface in steps equal to. the
center distance between the feet and the tilt of the reflector is noted down in
second from the eyepiece.

FLATNESS TESTING
 Flatness testing is possible by comparing the surface with an accurate surface.
 This method is suitable for small plates and not for large surfaces.
 Mathematically flatness error of a surface states that the departure from flatness is the
minimum separation of a pair of parallel planes which will contain all points on the
Surface.

30
 The figure which shows that a surface can be considered to be composed of an infinitely
large number of lines.
 The surface will be flat only if all the lines are straight and they lie in the same plane.
 In the case of rectangular table arc the lines are straight and parallel to the sides of the
rectangle in both the perpendicular direction.
 Even it is not plat, but concave and convex along two diagonals. For verification, it is
essential to measure the straightness of diagonals in addition to the lines parallel to the
sides
 Thus the whole of the surface is divided by straight line. The fig, shows the surface is
divided by straight line.
 The end line AB and AD etc are drawn away from the edges as the edges of the surface
are not flat but get worn out by use and can fall off little in accuracy.
 The straightness of all these lines is determined and then those lines are related with each
other in order to verify whether they lie in the same plane or not.

Procedure for determining flatness:

The fig. shows the flatness testing procedure.
(i) Carry out the straightness test and tabulate the reading up to the cumulative
error column.
(ii) Ends of lines AB, AD and BD are corrected to zero and thus the height of the
points A, B and D are zero.

 The height of the point I is determined relative to the arbitrary plane ABD = 000
 Point C is now fixed relative to the arbitrary plane and points B and D are set at zero, all
intermediate points on BC and DC can be corrected accordingly.

31
 The positions of H and G, E and F are known, so it is now possible to fit in lines HG and
EF. This also provides a check on previous evaluations since the mid-point of these lines
should coincide with the position of mid-point I.
In this way, the height of all the points on the surface relative to the arbitrary plane ABD
are known.

ROUNDNESS MEASUREMENTS
 Roundness is defined as a condition of a surface of revolution. Where all points of
the surface intersected by any plane perpendicular to a common axis in case of
cylinder and cone.
Devices used for measurement of roundness
1) Diametral gauge.
2) Circumferential conferring gauge => a shaft is confined in a ring gauge
and rotated against a set indicator probe.
3) Rotating on center
4) V-Block
5) Three-point probe.
6) Accurate spindle.
1. Diametral method:
 The measuring plungers are located 180° a part and the diameter is measured at
several places.
 This method is suitable only when the specimen is elliptical or has an even
number of lobes.
 Diametral check does not necessarily disclose effective size or roundness.
 This method is unreliable in determining roundness.
2. Circumferential confining gauge:
 Fig. shows the principle of this method. It is useful for inspection of roundness in
 production.
 This method requires highly accurate master for each size part to be measured.
The clearance between part and gauge is critical to reliability.
 This technique does not allow for the measurement of other related geometric
characteristics, such as concentricity, flatness of shoulders etc.

3. Rotating on centers:
 The shaft is inspected for roundness while mounted on center.
 In this case, reliability is dependent on many factors like angle of centers,
alignment of centres, roundness and surface condition of the centres and
centre holes and run out of piece.
 Out of straightness of the part will cause a doubling run out effect and appear
to be roundness error,

32
4. V-Block:
The set up employed for assessing the circularity error by using V Block is shown in fig.

 The V block is placed on surface plate and the work to be checked is placed upon
it.
 A diameter indicator is fixed in a stand and its feeler made to rest against the
surface of the work. The work is rotated to measure the rise on fall of the work
piece.
 For determining the number of lobes on the work piece, the work piece is first
tested in a 60° V-Block and then in a 90° V-Block.
 The number of lobes is then equal to the number of times the indicator pointer
deflects through 360° rotation of the work piece.
Limitations:
a) The circularity error is greatly by affected by the following factors.
(i) If the circularity error is i\e, then it is possible that the indicator shows no
variation.
(ii) Position of the instrument i.e. whether measured from top or bottom.
(iii) Number of lobes on the rotating part.
b) The instrument position should be in the same vertical plane as the point of
contact of the part with the V-block.
c) A leaf spring should always be kept below the indicator plunger and the surface
of the part.
.
. 5. Three point probe:
 The fig. shows three probes with 120° spacing is very, useful for determining
effective size they perform like a 60° V-block.
 60° V-block will show no error for 5 a 7 lobes magnify the error for 3-lobed parts
show partial error for randomly spaced lobes.

33
Roundness measuring spindle
There are following two types of spindles used.
1. Overhead spindle:
 Part is fixed in a staging plat form and the overhead spindle carrying the
comparator rotates separately from the part.
 It can determine roundness as well as camming (Circular flatness). Height of the
work piece is limited by the location of overhead spindle.
 The concentricity can be checked by extending the indicator from the spindle and
thus the range of this check is limited.
2. Rotating table:
Spindle is integral with the table and rotates along with it. The part is placed over the
spindle and rotates past a fixed comparator

Roundness measuring machine

 Roundness is the property of a surface of revolution, where all points on the
surface are equidistant from the axis.
 The roundness of any profile can be specified only when same center is found
from which to make the measurements.
 The diameter and roundness are measured by different method and instruments.
 For measurement of diameter it is done statically, for measuring roundness,
rotation is always necessary.
 Roundness measuring instruments are two types.
1. Rotating pick up type.
2. Turn table type.
 These are accurate, speed and reliable measurements.
 The rotating pick up type the work piece is stationary and the pick up revolved.
 In the turn table the work piece is rotated and pick up is stationery. On the
rotating type, spindle is designed to carry the light load of the pick up. The weight
of the work piece, being stationary and easy to make.
 In the turn table type the pick up is not associated with the spindle. This is more
easy to measure roundness. Reposition the pick up has no effects on the reference
axis.

34
  The pick up converts the circuit movement of the stylus into electrical signal,
which is processed and amplified and fed to a polar recorder.
 A microcomputer is incorporated with integral visual display unit and system is
controlled from a compact keyboards, which increases the system versatility,
scope and speed of analysis.
 System is programmed to access the roundness of work piece with respect to any
four of the internationality recognized reference circles.
 A visual display of work piece profile can be obtained. Work piece can be
assessed over a f circumference, and with undercut surface or an interrupted
surface with sufficient data the reference circle can be fitted to the profile.
 `The program also provides functions like auto centering, auto ranging, auto
calibration and concentricity. Figs. Show the effect on the graph of unequal
magnifications of same component using for magnification microprocessors are
used to assess out of roundness.
Modern Roundness Measuring Instruments
 This is based on use of microprocessor to provide measurements of roundness quickly
and in a simple way; there is no need of assessing out of roundness. Machine can do
centering automatically and calculate roundness and concentricity, straightness and
provide visual and digital displays.
 A computer is used to speed up calculations and provide the stand reference circle.
(i) Least square circle:
 The sum of the squares of a sufficient no. of equally spaced radial ordinates
measured from the circle to the profile has minimum value.
 The center of such circle is referred to as the least square center. Out of roundness
is defined as the radial distance of the maximum peak from the circle (P) plus the
distance of the maximum valley from this circle
(ii) Minimum zone or Minimum radial separation circle:
 These are two concentric circles. The value of the out of roundness is the radial
distance between the two circles.
 The center of such a circle is termed as the minimum zone center. These circles
can be found by using a template.

35
(iii) Maximum inscribed circle:
 This is the largest circle. Its center and radius can be found by trial and error by
compare or by template or computer. Since V = 0 there is no valleys inside the
circle.
(iv) Minimum circumscribed circles:
 This is the smallest circle. Its center and radius can be found by the previous
method since P = 0 there is no peak outside the circle.
 The radial distance between the minimum circumscribing circle and the maximum
inscribing circle is the measure of the error circularity. The fig shows the trace
produced by a recording instrument.
 This trace to draw concentric circles on the polar graph which pass through the
maximum and minimum points in such way that the radial distance be minimum
circumscribing circle containing the trace or the n inscribing circle which can
fitted into the trace is minimum.
 The radial distance between the outer and inner circle is minimum is considered
for determining the circularity error.
 Assessment of roundness can be done by templates.
 The out off roundness is defined as the radial distance of the maximum peak (P)
from the least square circle plus the distance of the maximum valley (V) from the
least square circle.
 All roundness analysis can be performed by harmonic and slope analysis.

36
 PART-A

1. Define -‘ Flatness’
2. Define Roundness
3.Name the various types of pitch errors found in screw?
4. Name the various types of measuring the minor diameter of the thread?
5. Name the various types of measuring the major diameter of the thread?
6. Name the various types of measuring the pitch diameter of the thread/
7. What is the best size of wire?
8. State any two methods for measuring eccentricity of any component?
9.Define –Periodic error
10 Define –Drunken thread
11. Define –Module
12. Define –Lead angle
13. Define –Constant chord
14. Define –Straightness
15 Name four Gear errors?
16.What are the factors affecting surface roughness?
17. What is meant by run-out?
18. State the various gauges used for radius measurement
19.Name the Gear types?
20. Define –Helix angle
21. Define –Backlash?
22. Define –Eccentricity?
23. Define –Surface finish?
24. Define –Lay?
25. Define: Actual error.
26. Define: Out off roundness
27. What is a straightedge?

PART-B

1. Explain the following screw thread effective diameter method?

a. One wire method
b. Two wire method
c. Three wire method
2. Describe the best size wire method in detail
3. Describe the following tooth thickness measurement
a. Constant chord method.
b. use tangent method
c. Gear tooth vernier caliper method
4. Describe the Parkinson’ s gear tester.
5. Describe the methods used for measuring the radius of a surface.
6. Describe an instrument for measuring surface finish.
7. Explain CLA, RMS, Ten point height methods for assessment of average roughness.
8. Describe the Direct instrument measurement methods in surface roughness.

37
 9. Describe a method to find out flatness of a surface plate. And explain the steps involved
for determining flatness?
10. Explain the straightness of surface is assessed.
11. How the flatness test is carried for testing milling machine table?
12. State the various methods of measurement of roundness and explain roundness measuring
machine in detail with a neat sketch
13. Explain the working of Tomlinson surface meter with a neat sketch and how it differs
from Talysurf surface meter
14. State the various methods of measuring surface finish and explain microscopic inspection
in detail
15. What are the methods to measure the major diameter of threads and explain any one in
detail
16. Explain the working of pitch measuring machine in detail.
17. Explain isometric viewing of surface defects with a line diagram
18.Explain the various elements of screw thread and its measurement?

38
 UNIT-IV

ADVANCES IN METROLOGY
PRECISION INSTRUMENT BASED ON LASER:
 Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
 Laser instrument is a device to produce powerful, monochromatic, collimated
beam of light in which the waves are coherent.
 Laser development is for production of clear coherent light. The advantage of
coherent light is that whole of the energy appears to be emanating from a very
small point.
 The beam can be focused easily into either a parallel beam or onto a very small
point by use of lenses A major impact on optical measurement has been made by
development in elector optics, providing automation, greater acuity of setting and
faster response time.
 Radiation sources have developed in a number of areas, the most important
developments are light emitting diodes and lasers.
 The laser is used extensively for interferometry particularly the He- Ne gas type.
The laser distance measuring interferometer has become an industry standard.
 This produces 1 to 2mm diameter beam of red light power of 1MW and focused
at a point of very high intensity. The beam begins to expand at a rate of 1mm/m.
The laser beam is visible and it can be observed easily.
 This is used for very accurate measurements of the order of 0.l m is 100m.
LASER METROLOGY
 Metrology lasers are low power instruments. Most are helium-neon type. Wave
output laser that emit visible or infrared light. He-Ne lasers produce light at a
wavelength of 0.6 m that is in phase, coherent and a thousand times more intense
than any other monochromatic source.
 Laser systems have wide dynamic range, low optical cross talk and high contrast.
 Laser fined application in dimensional measurements and surface inspection
because of the properties of laser light.
 These are useful where precision, accuracy, rapid non-contact gauging of soft,
delicate or hot moving points.

USE OF LASER
1. Laser Telemetric system:
 Laser telemetric system is a non-contact gauge that measures with a collimated
laser beam. It measures at the rate of 150 scans per second.
 It basically consists of three components, a transmitter, a receiver and processor
electronics. The transmitter module produces a collimated parallel scanning laser
beam moving at a high constant, linear speed.
 The scanning beam appears a red line. The receiver module collects and
photoelically senses the laser light transmitted past the object being measured.
 The processor electronics takes the received signals to convert them 10 a
convenient form and displays the dimension being gauged.
 The transmitter contains a low power helium-neon gas laser and its power supply,
a specially designed collimating lens, a synchronous motor, a multi faceted
 reflector prism, a synchronous pulse photo detector and a protective replaceable
window.
 The high speed of scanning permits on line gauging and thus it is possible to
detect changes in dimensions when components are moving on a continuous
product such as in rolling process moving at very high speed.
 There is no need of waiting or product to cool for taking measurements. This
system can also be applied on production machines and control then with closed
feed back loops.
 Since the output of this system is available in digital form, it can run a process
controller limit alarms can be provided and output can be taken on digital printer.

2. Laser and LED based distance measuring instruments

 These can measure distances from I to 2in with an accuracy of the order of 0. 1 to
1% of the measuring range When the light emitted by laser or LED hits an object,
scatter and same of this scattered light is seen by a position sensitive detector or
diode array.
 If the distance between the measuring head and the object changes. the angle at
which the light enters the detector will also change.
 The angle of deviation is calibrated in terms of distance and output is provided as
0-2OmA. Such instruments are very reliable because there are no moving parts
their response time is milliseconds.
 The measuring system uses two distance meters placed at equal distance on either
side of the object and a control unit to measure the thickness of an object. The
distance meter is focused at the centre of the object.
3. Scanning Laser gauge
 Fig shows a schematic diagram of a scanning laser gauge. It consist of transmitter,
receives and processor electronics.
 A thin band of scanning laser light is made to pass through a linear scanner lens to
render it parallel beam. ‘ The object placed in a parallel beam, casts a time
dependent shadow.
 Signal from the light entering the photocell (receiver) arc proc by a
microprocessor to provide display of the dimension represented by the time
difference between the shadow edges.
 It can provide results to an accuracy of0.25 for 10—5 0mm diameter objects. It
can be used for objects 0.05mm to 450mm diameter; and offers repeatability of
0.1 m

4. Photo diode away imaging

 The system comprises of laser source, imaging optics. photodiode array. signal
processor and display unit.
 For large parts, two arrays in which one for each edge are used. Accuracies as
high as 0.05 m have been achieved.
5. Diffraction pattern technique
 These are used to measure small gaps and small diameter parts. A parallel coherent laser
beam is diffracted by a small part and a lens on a linear diode array focuses the resultant
pattern.
 Its use is restricted to small wires. The measurement accuracy is more for smaller parts.
The distance between the alternating light and dark hands in the diffraction pattern is a
(tired function of the wile diameter, wavelength of laser beam and the focal length of the
lens.
6. Two- frequency laser interferometer
 Fig. shows schematic arrangement. This consists of two frequency laser head,
beam directing and splitting optics, measurement optics, receivers, and
wavelength compensators and electronics.
 It is ideally suited for measuring linear positioning straightness in two planes,
pitch and yaw.
  The two-frequency laser head provides one frequency with P polarisation and
another frequency with S-polarisation.
 The laser beam is split at the polarizing beam splitter into its two separate
frequencies.
 The measuring beam is directed through the interferometer to reflect off a target
mirror or retro reflector attached to the object to be measured.
 The reference beam is reflected from fixed retro reflector. The measurement beam
on its return path recombines with the reference beam and is directed to the
electronic receiver.
7. Gauging wide diameter from the diffraction pattern formed in a laser
 Fig.(1) shows a method of measuring the diameter of thin wire using the
interference fringes resulting from diffraction of the light by the wire in the laser
beam.
 A measure of the diameter can be obtained by moving the photo detector until the
output is restored to its original value.
 Changes in wire diameter as small as 0.2% over wire diameter from 0.005 to
0.2mm can be measured..

 Fig. (2) shows the length measurement by fringe counting. The laser output,
which may be incoherent illumines three slits at a time in the first plane which
form interference fringes.
 The movement can be determined by a detector. The total number of slits in the
first plane is governed by the length over which measurement is required

 The spacing between the slits and distance of the slit to the plane of the grating
depend on the wavelength of the light used.
PRINCIPLE OF LASER
 The photon emitted during stimulated emission has the same energy, phase and
frequency as the incident photon.
 This principle states that the photon comes in contact with another atom or
molecule in the higher energy level E2 then it will cause the atom to return to
ground state energy level E1 by releasing another photon.
 The sequence of triggered identical photon from stimulated atom is known as
stimulated emission. This multiplication of photon through stimulated emission
leads to coherent, powerful, monochromatic, collimated beam of light emission.
This light emission is called laser.

LASER INTERFEROMETRY
Brief Description of components
(i) Two frequency Laser source
 It is generally He-Ne type that generates stable coherent light beam of two frequencies.
one polarized vertically and another horizontally relative to the plane of the mounting
feet.
 Laser oscillates at two slightly different frequencies by a cylindrical permanent magnet
around the cavity. The two components of frequencies are distinguishable by their
opposite circular polarization
 Beam containing both frequencies passes through a quarter wave and half wave plates
which change the circular polarizations to linear perpendicular polarisations, one vertical
and other horizontal. Thus the laser can be rotated by 90°about the beam axis without
affecting transducer performance.
 If the laser source is deviated from one of the four optimum positions, the photo receiver
will decrease. At 45° deviation the signal will decrease to zero.
(ii) Optical elements:
(a) Beam splitter:
 Fig shows the beam splitters to divide laser output along different axes. These divide the
laser beam into separate beams.
 To avoid attenuation it is essential that the beam splitters must be oriented so that the
reflected beam forms a right angle with the transmitted beam.
 So that these two beams: are coplanar with one of the polarisation vectors of the input
form.
b) Beam benders:
 These are used to deflect the light beam around corners on its path from the laser to each
axis.
 These are actually just flat mirrors but having absolutely flat and very high reflectivity.
Normally these are restricted to 90° beam deflections to avoid disturbing the polarizing
vectors.
c) Retro reflectors:
 These can be plane mirrors, roof prism or cube corners. Cube corners are three mutually
perpendicular plane mirrors and the reflected beam is always parallel to the incidental
beam.,’
 Each ACLI transducers need two retro reflectors. All ACLI measurements are made by
sensing differential motion between two retro reflectors relative to an interferometer.
 Plane mirror used as retro reflectors with the plane mirror interferometer must be flat to
within 0.06 micron per cm.
(iii) Laser head’ s measurement receiver
 During a measurement the laser beam is directed through optics in the measurement
path and then returned to the laser head is measurement receiver which will detect
part of the returning beam and a doppler shifted frequency component.
(iv) Measurement display
 It contains a microcomputer to compute and display results. The signals from receiver
and measurement receiver located in the laser head are counted in two separate pulse
converter and subtracted.
 Calculations are made and the computed value is displayed. Other input signals for
correction are temperature, co-efficient of expansion, air velocity etc., which can be
displayed.
(v) Various version of ACLI
a) Standard Interferometer:
 Least expensive.
 Retro reflector for this instrument is a cube corner.
 Displacement is measured between the interferometer and cube corner.

b)Signal beams Interferometer:

 Beam traveling between the interferometer and the retro reflector.
 Its operation same as standard interferometer.
 The interferometer and retro reflector for this system are smaller than the
standard system.
 Long range optical path
 Easy installation
 Wear and tear.
LASER INTERFEROMETER
 It is possible to maintain the quality of interference fringes over longer distance when
lamp is replaced by a laser source:
 Laser interferometer uses AC laser as the light source and the measurements to be made
over longer distance.
 Laser is a monochromatic optical energy, which can be collimated into a directional beam
AC. Laser interferometer (ACLI) has the following advantages.
 High repeatability
 High accuracy
 Long range optical path
 Easy installations
 Wear and tear
 Schematic arrangement of laser interferometer is shown in fig. Two-frequency
zeeman laser generates light of two slightly different frequencies with opposite
circular polarisation.
 These beams get split up by beam splitter B One part travels towards B and from
there to external cube corner here the displacement is to he measured.

 This interferometer uses cube corner reflectors which reflect light parallel to its angle of
incidence. Beam splitter B2 optically separates the frequency J which alone is sent to the
movable cube corner reflector.
 The second frequency from B2 is sent to a fixed reflector which then rejoins f1 at the
beam splitter B2 to produce alternate light and dark interference flicker at about 2 Mega
cycles per second. Now if the movable reflector moves, then the returning beam
frequency Doppler-shifted slightly up or down by f
 Thus the light beams moving towards photo detector P2 have frequencies f2 and
(f1 ± f 1) and P2 changes these frequencies into electrical signal.
 Photo detector P2 receive signal from beam splitter B2 and changes the reference beam
frequencies f1 and f2 into electrical signal.
 An AC amplifier A separates frequency. difference signal f2 – f1 and A2 separates
frequency difference signal.
 The pulse converter extracts i. one cycle per half wavelength of motion. The up-down
pulses are counted electronically and displayed in analog or digital form.
MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER
 Michelson interferometer consist of a monochromatic light source a beam splitter and
two mirrors.
 The schematic arrangement of Michelson interferometer is shown in fig. The
monochromatic light falls on a beam splitter, which splits the light into two rays of equal
intensity at right angles. One ray is transmitted to mirror M1 and other is reflected
through beam splitter to mirror M2,.
 From both these mirrors, the rays are reflected back and these return at the semi-
reflecting surface from where they are transmitted to the eye.
 Mirror M2 is fixed and mirror M1 is movable. If both the mirrors are at same distance
from beam splitter, then light will arrive in phase and observer will see bright spot due to
constructive interference.
 If movable mirror shifts by quarter wavelength, then beam will return to observer 1800
out of phase and darkness will be observed due to destructive interference

.
 Each half-wave length of mirror travel produces a change in the measured optical path of
one wavelength and the reflected beam from the moving mirror shifts through 360° phase
change.
 When the reference beam reflected from the fixed mirror and the beam reflected from the
moving mirror rejoin at the beam splitter, they alternately reinforce and cancel each other
as the mirror moves Thus each cycle of intensity at the eye represents/2 of mirror
travel.
 When white light source is used then a compensator plate is introduced in each of the
path of mirror M1 So that exactly the same amount of glass is introduced in each of the
path.
 To improve the Michelson interferometer
(i) Use of laser the measurements can be made over longer distances and highly
accurate measurements when compared to other monochromatic sources.
(ii) Mirrors are replaced by cube-corner reflector which reflects light parallel to its
angle of incidence.
(iii) Photocells are employed which convert light intensity variation in voltage
pulses to give the amount and direction of position change.
DUAL FREQUENCY LASER INTERFEORMETER
 This instrument is used to measure displacement, high-precision measurements of length,
angle, speeds and refractive indices as well as derived static and dynamic quantities.
  This system can be used for both incremental displacement and angle measurements. Due
to large counting range it is possible to attain a resolution of 2mm in 10m measuring
range.
 Means are also provided to compensate for the influence of ambient temperature,
material temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity fluctuation.
TWYMAN-GREEN INTERFEROMETER
 The Twyman-Green interferometer is used as a polarizing interferometer with variable
amplitude balancing between sample and reference waves.
 For an exact measurement of the test surface, the instrument error can be determined by
an absolute measurement. This error is compensated by storing the same in
microprocessor system and subtracting from the measurement of the test surface.
 It has following advantages
1. It permits testing of surface with wide varying reflectivity.
2. It avoids undesirable feed back of light reflected of the tested surface
and the instrument optics.
3. It enables utilization of the maximum available energy.
4. Polarisation permits phase variation to be effected with the necessary
precision.
LASER VIEWERS
 The profile of complex components like turbine blades can be checked by the use
of optical techniques. It is based on use of laser and CCTV.
 A section of the blade, around its edge is delineated by two flat beam of laser
light. This part of the edge is viewed at a narrow angle by the TV camera or beam
splitter.

 Both blade and graticule are displayed as magnified images on the monitor, the
graticule position being adjustable so that its image can be superimposed on the
profile image.
 The graticule is effectively viewed at the same angle as the blade. So, distortion
due to viewing angle affects both blade and graticule. This means that the
graticule images are direct 1:1.
INTERFEROMETRIC MEASUREMENT OF ANGLE
 With laser interferometer it is possible to measure length to an accuracy of 1 part
in 106 on a routine basis.
 With the help of two retro reflectors placed at a fixed distance and a length
measuring laser interferometer the change in angle can be measured to an
accuracy of 0.1 second. The device uses sine Principle.
 The line joining the poles the retro-reflectors makes the hypotenuse of the right
triangle. The change in the path difference of the reflected beam represents the
side of the triangle opposite to the angle being measured.
 Such laser interferometer can be used to measure an angle up to ± 10 degrees with
a resolution of 0. 1 second. The principle of operation is shown in fig.

LASER EQUIPMENT FOR ALIGNMENT TESTING

 This testing is particularly suitable in aircraft production, shipbuilding etc. Where
a number of components, spaced long distance apart, have to be checked to a
predetermine straight line.
 Other uses of laser equipment are testing of flatness of machined surfaces,
checking square ness with the help of optical square etc.
 These consist of laser tube will produces a cylindrical beam of laser about 10mm
diameter and an auto reflector with a high degree of accuracy.
 Laser tube consist of helium-neon plasma tube in a hea aluminum cylindrical
housing. The laser beam comes out of the housing from its centre and parallel to
the housing within 10” of arc and alignment stability is the order of 0.2” of arc per
hour.
 Auto reflector consists of detector head and read out unit. No. of photocell are
arranged to compare laser beam in each half horizontally and vertically.
 This is housed on a shard which has two adjustments to translate the detector in
its two orthogonal measuring directions perpendicular to the laser beam. The
devices detect the alignment of flat surfaces perpendicular to a reference line of
sight.
MACHINE TOOL TESTING
 The accuracy of manufactured parts depends on the accuracy of machine tools.
 The quality of work piece depends on Rigidity and stiffness of machine tool and its
components.
 Alignment of various components in relation to one another Quality and accuracy of
driving mechanism and control devices.
 It can be classified into
1. Static tests
2. Dynamic tests.
Static tests:
 If the alignment of the components of the machine tool are checked under static
conditions then the test are called static test.
Dynamic tests:
 If the alignment tests are carried out under dynamic loading condition. The
accuracy of machine tools which cut metal by removing chips is tested by two types
of test namely.
1. Geometrical tests
2. Practical tests.
Geometrical tests:
 In this test, dimensions of components, position of components and displacement
of component relative to one another is checked.
Practical tests:
 In these test, test pieces are machined in the machines. The test pieces must be
appropriate to the fundamental purpose for which the machine has been designed.

PURPOSE OF MACHINE TOOL TESTING

 The dimensions of any work piece, its surface finishes and geometry depends on
the accuracy of machine tool for its manufacture.
 In mass production the various components produced should be of high accuracy
to be assembled on a non-sensitive basis.
 The increasing demand for accurately machined components has led to
improvement of geometric accuracy of machine tools. For this purpose various
checks on different components of the machine tool are carried out.
TYPE OF GEOMETRICAL CHECKS ON MACHINE TOOLS.
Different types of geometrical tests conducted on machine tools are as follows:
1. Straightness.
2. Flatness.
3. Parallelism, equi-distance and coincidence.
4. Rectilinear movements or squareness of straight line and plane.
5. Rotations.
Main spindle is to be tested for
1) Out of round.
2) Eccentricity
3) Radial throw of an axis.
4) Run out
5) Periodical axial slip
6) Camming

VARIOUS TESTS CONDUCTED ON ANY MACHINE TOOLS

1) Test for level of installation of machine tool in horizontal and vertical planes.
2) Test for flatness of machine bed and for straightness and parallelism of bed
ways on bearing surface.
3) Test for perpendicularity of guide ways to other guide ways.
4) Test for true running of the main spindle and its axial movements.
5) Test for parallelism of spindle axis to guide ways or bearing surfaces.
6) Test for line of movement of various members like spindle and table cross
slides etc.
USE OF LASER FOR ALIGNMENT TESTING
 The alignment tests can be carried out over greater distances and to a greater
degree of accuracy using laser equipment.
  Laser equipment produces real straight line, whereas an alignment telescope
provides an imaginary line that cannot be seen in space.
 This is important when it is necessary to check number of components to a
predetermined straight ‘ line. Particularly if they are spaced relatively long
distances apart, as in aircraft production and in shipbuilding.
 Laser equipment can also be used for checking flatness of machined surface
by direct displacement. By using are optical square in conjunction with laser
equipment squareness can be checked with reference to the laser base line.
INTRODUCTION
 Measuring machines are used for measurement of length over the outer surfaces
of a length bar or any other long member. The member may be either rounded or
flat and parallel.
 It is more useful and advantageous than vernier calipers, micrometer, screw
gauges etc. the measuring machines are generally universal character and can be
used for works of varied nature.
 The co-ordinate measuring machine is used for contact inspection of parts. When
used for computer-integrated manufacturing these machines are controlled by
computer numerical control.
 A general software is provided for reverse engineering complex shaped objects.
The component is digitized using CNC, CMM and it is then converted into a
computer model which gives the two surface of the component.
 These advances include for automatic work part alignment on the table. Savings
in inspection 5 to 10 percent of the time is required on a CMM compared to
manual inspection methods.

TYPES OF MEASURING MACHINES

1. Length bar measuring machine.
2. Newall measuring machine.
3. Universal measuring machine.
4. Co-ordinate measuring machine.
5. Computer controlled co-ordinate measuring machine.
CONSTRUCTIONS OF CMM
 Co-ordinate measuring machines are very useful for three dimensional measurements.
These machines have movements in X-Y-Z co-ordinate, controlled and measured easily
by using touch probes
 These measurements can be made by positioning the probe by hand, or automatically in
more expensive machines. Reasonable accuracies are 5 micro in. or 1 micrometer.
 The method these machines work on is measurement of the position of the probe using
linear position sensors.
 These are based on moiré fringe patterns (also used in other systems). Transducer is
provided in tilt directions for giving digital display and senses positive and negative
direction.

Types of CMM:
(1) Cantilever type: -
 The cantilever type is very easy to load and unload, but mechanical error takes place
because of sag or deflection in Y-axis.
(ii) Bridge type: -
 Bridge type is more difficult to load but less sensitive to mechanical errors.
(iii) Horizontal boring Mill type: -
 This is best suited for large heavy work pieces.
Working Principle:
 CMM is used for measuring the distance between two holes.
 The work piece is clamped to the worktable and aligned for three measuring slides x, y
and z.
 The measuring head provides a taper probe tip which is seated in first datum hole and the
position of probe digital read out is set to zero.
 The probe is then moved to successive holes, the read out represent the co-ordinate part
print hole location with respect to the datum hole.
 Automatic recording and data processing units are provided to carry out complex
geometric and statistical analysis.
 Special co-ordinate measuring machines are provided both linear and rotary axes. This
can measure various features of parts like cone, cylinder and hemisphere.

 The prime advantage of co-ordinate measuring machine is the quicker inspection and
accurate measurements.
CAUSES OF ERRORS IN CMM
1) The table and probes are in imperfect alignment. The probes may have a degree of
run out and move up and down in the Z-axis may occur perpendicularity errors. So
CMM should be calibrated with master plates before using the machine.
2) Dimensional errors of a CMM is influenced by
 Straightness and perpendicularity of the guide ways.
 Scale division and adjustment.
 Probe length.
 Probe system calibration, repeatability, zero point setting and reversal
error.
 Error due to digitization.
 Environment
3) Other errors can be controlled by the manufacture and minimized by the measuring
software. The length of the probe should be minimum to reduce deflection.
4) The weight of the work piece may change the geometry of the guide ways and
therefore, the work piece must not exceed maximum weight.
5) Variation in temperature of CMM, specimen and measuring lab influence the
uncertainly of measurements.
6) Translation errors occur from error in the scale division and error in straightness
perpendicular to the corresponding axis direction.
7) Perpendicularity error occurs if three axes are not orthogonal.

CALIBRATION OF THREE CO-ORDINATE MEASURING MACHINE

The optical set up for the V calibration is shown in fig

 The laser head is mounted on the tripod stand and its height is adjusted
corresponding to the working table of CMM.
 The interferometer contains a polarized beam splitter which reflects F1 component of
the laser beam and the F2 Component parts through.
  The retro reflector is a polished trihedral glass prism. It reflects the laser beam back
along a line parallel to the original beam by twice the distance.
 For distance measurement the F1 and F2 beams that leave the laser head are aimed at
the interferometer which splits F1 and F2 via polarizing beaming splitter. Component
F1 becomes the fixed distance path and F2 is sent to a target which reflects it back to
the interferometer.
 Relative motion between the interferometer and the remote retro reflector causes a
Dopper shift in the returned frequency. Therefore the laser head sees a frequency
difference given by F1-F2 ± F2
 The F1-F2 ± F2 signal that is returned from the external interferometer is compared
in the measurement display unit to the reference signal. The difference F2 is related
to the velocity.
 The longitudinal micrometer microscope of CMM is set at zero and the laser display
unit is also set at zero. The CMM microscope is then set at the following points and
the display units are noted.1 to 10mm, every mm and 10 to 200mm, in steps of
10mm.
 The accuracy of linear measurements is affected by changes in air temperature.
pressure and humidity.

PERFORMANCE OF CMM:
1) Geometrical accuracies such as positioning accuracy. Straightness and
squareness.
2) Total measuring accuracy in terms of axial length measuring accuracy.
Volumetric length measuring accuracy and length measuring repeatability.
i.e., Coordinated measuring machine has to be tested as complete system.
3) Since environmental effects have great influence for the accuracy testing,
including thermal parameters, vibrations and relative humidity are required.
APPLICATION, ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CMM
APPLICATIONS:
1) Co-ordinate measuring machines find applications in automobile, machine tool,
electronics, space and many other large companies.
2) These machines are best suited for the test and inspection of test equipment, gauges and
tools.
3) For aircraft and space vehicles, hundred percent inspections is carried out by using
CMM.
4) CMM can be used for determining dimensional accuracy of the components.
5) These are ideal for determination of shape and position, maximum metal condition,
linkage of results etc. which cannot do in conventional machines.
6) CMM can also be used for sorting tasks to achieve optimum pairing of components
within tolerance limits.
7) CMMs are also best for ensuring economic viability of NC machines by reducing their
downtime for inspection results. They also help in reducing cost, rework cost at the
appropriate time with a suitable CMM.
ADVANTAGES:
 The inspection rate is increased.
 Accuracy is more.
 Operators error can be minimized.
 Skill requirements of the operator is reduced.
 Reduced inspection fixturing and maintenance cost.
  Reduction in calculating and recording time.
 Reduction in set up time.
 No need of separate go / no go gauges for each feature.
 Reduction of scrap and good part rejection.
 Reduction in off line analysis time.
 Simplification of inspection procedures, possibility of reduction of total
inspection time through use of statistical and data analysis techniques.
DISADVANTAGES:
1) The lable and probe may not be in perfect alignment.
2) The probe may have run out.
3) The probe moving in Z-axis may have some perpendicular errors.
4) Probe while moving in X and Y direction may not be square to each other.
5) There may be errors in digital system.

COMPUTER CONTROLLED CO-ORDINATE MEASURING MACHINE

 The measurements, inspection of parts for dimension form, surface characteristics
and position of geometrical elements are done at the same time.
 Mechanical system can be divided into four basic types. The selection will be
depends on the application.
1. Column type.
2. Bridge type.
3. Cantilever type.
4. Gantry type.

5
  All these machines use probes which may be trigger type or measuring type. This
is connected to the spindle in Z direction. The main features of this system are shown
in figure
Trigger type probe system

 The buckling mechanism is a three point hearing the contacts which are arranged
at 1200 around the circumference. These contacts act as electrical micro switches.
 When being touched in any probing direction one or f contacts is lifted off and the
current is broken, thus generating a pulse, when the circuit is opened, the co-ordinate
positions are read and stored.
  After probing the spring ensures the perfect zero position of the three-point
bearing. The probing force is determined by the pre stressed force of the spring with
this probe system data acquisition is always dynamic and therefore the measuring
time is shorter than in static principle..
Measuring type probe system
 It is a very small co-ordinate measuring machine in which the buckling
mechanism consists of parallel guide ways when probing the spring parallelogram are
deflected from their initial position.
 Since the entire system is free from, torsion, friction, the displacement can be
measured easily.

 The mathematical model of the mechanical system is shown in figure If the

components of the CMM are assumed as rigid bodies, the deviations of a carriage can
be described by three displacement deviations.
 Parallel to the axes 1, 2 and 3 and by three rotational deviations about The axes 4,
5 and 6.Similarly deviations 7-12 occur for carriage and 13-18 occur for Z carriage
and the three squareness deviations 19, 20 and 21 are to be measured and to be treated
in the mathematical model.

 Moving the probe stylus in the Y direction the co-ordinate system L is not a
straight line but a curved one due to errors in the guide.
 If moving on measure line L further corrections are required in X, Y and Z co-
ordinates due to the offsets X and Z from curve L resulting from the pitch angle 5, the
roll angle 4 and the yaw angle 6.
  Similarly the deviations of all three carriages and the squareness errors can be
taken into account.
 The effect of error correction can be tested by means of calibrated step gauges.
The following test items are carried out for CMM.
(i)Measurement accuracy
a. Axial length measuring accuracy
b.Volumetric length measuring accuracy
(ii)Axial motion accuracy
a. Linear displacement accuracy
b. Straightness
c. Perpendicularity
d. Pitch, Yaw and roll.
 The axial length measuring accuracy is tested at the lowest position of the Z-axis.
The lengths tested are approximately 1/10, 1/5, 2/5, 3/5 and 4/5 of the measuring
range of each axis of CMM. Tile test is repeated five times for each measuring length
and results plotted and value of measuring accuracy is derived.

CNC-CMM
Construction:
The main features of CNC-CMM are shown in fig. has stationary granite measuring
table, Length measuring system. Air bearings; control unit and software are the important parts
of CNC & CMM.

Stationary granite measuring table:

 Granite table provides a stable reference plane for locating parts to be measured.
It is provided with a grid of threaded holes defining clamping locations and
facilitating part mounting.
 As the table has a high load carrying capacity and is accessible from three sides. It
can be easily integrated into the material flow system of CIM.
Length measuring system:
 A 3- axis CMM is provided with digital incremental length measuring system for
each axis.
Air Bearing:
 The Bridge cross beam and spindle of the CMM are supported on air bearings.
Control unit: -
 The control unit allows manual measurement and programme. It is
microprocessor control.
Software: -
 The CMM, the computer and the software represent one system, the efficiency
and cost effectiveness depend on the software.
Features of CMM Software:
(i) Measurement of diameter, center distance, length.
(ii) Measurement of plane and spatial carvers.
(iii) Minimum CNC programme.
(iv) Data communications.
(v) Digital input and output command.
(vi) Programme for the measurement of spur, helical, bevel’ and hypoid
gears.
(vii) Interface to CAD software.
 A new software for reverse engineering complex shaped objects. The component
is digitized using CNC CMM.
 The digitized data is converted into a computer model which is the true surface of
the component.
 Recent advances include the automatic work part alignment and to orient the co-
ordinate system. .
 Savings in inspection time by using CMM is 5 to 10% compared to manual
inspection method.

COMPUTER AIDED INSPECTION USING ROBOTS

 Robots can be used to carry out inspection or testing operation for mechanical
dimension physical characteristics and product performance.
 Checking robot, programmable robot, and co-ordinate robot are some of the types
given to a multi axis measuring machines. These machines automatically perform all
the basic routines of a CNC co ordinate measuring machine but at a faster rate than
that of CMM.
 They are not as accurate as p as CMM but they can check up to accuracies of 5
micrometers. The co-ordinate robot can take successive readings at high speed and
evaluate the results using a computer graphics based real time statistical analysis
system.
INTEGRATION OF CAD/CAM WITH INSPECTION SYSTEM
 A product is designed, manufactured and inspected in one automatic process. One
of the critical factors in manufacturing equality assurance. The co-ordinate measuring
machine assists in the equality assurance function.
 The productivity can be improved by interfacing with CAD/CAM system. This
eliminates the labour, reduces preparation time and increases availability of CMM for
inspection.
 Generally the CAD/CAM-CMM interface consists of a number of modules as
given
(1) CMM interface:
 This interface allows to interact with the CAD/CAM database to generate a source
file that can be converted to a CMM control data file.
  During source file creation, CMM probe path motions are simulated and
displayed on the CAD/CAM workstation for visual verification.
 A set of CMM command allow the CMM interface to take advantage of most of
the CMM functional capabilities. .
 These command statement include set up, part datum control, feature
construction, geometric relations, tolerance, output control and feature measurements
like measurements of lines, points, arcs, circles, splines, conics, planes, analytic
surfaces.
(ii) Pre- processor:
 The pre-CMM processor converts the language source file generated by CMM interface
into the language of the specified co ordinate measuring machine.
(iii) Post-CMM processor:
 This creates wire frame surface model from the CMM-ASCII output file commands are
inserted into the ASCJI-CMM output file to control the creation of CAD/CAM which include
points, lines, arcs, circles, conics, splines and analytic surfaces.

FLEXIBLE INSPECTION SYSTEM

 The block diagram of flexible inspection system is shown in fig This system has been
developed and the inspection done at several places in industry.
 This system helps product performance to improve inspection and increase productivity.
 Real time processor to handle part dimensional data and as a multi programming system
to perform manufacturing process control.
 The input devices used with this system are CMMs, Microprocessor based gauges and
other inspection devices.
  The terminal provides interactive communication with personal computers where
the programmes are stored.
 The data from CMMs and other terminals are fed into the main computer for
analysis and feed back control. The equality control data and inspection data from
each stations are fed through the terminals to the main computer. The data will be
communicated through telephone lines.
 Flexible inspection system involves more than one inspection station.
 The objective of the flexible inspection system is to have off time multi station
automated dimensional verification system to increase the production rate and less
inspection time and to maintain the inspection accuracy and data processing integrity.

MACHINE VISION
 A Vision system can be defined as a system for automatic acquisition and analysis of
images to obtain desired data for interpreting or controlling an activity.
 It is a technique which allows a sensor to view a scene and derive a numerical or logical
decision without further human intervention.
 Machine vision can be defined as a means of simulating the image recognition and
analysis capabilities of the human system with electronic and electro mechanical techniques.
 Machine vision system are now a days used to provide accurate and in expensive 100%
inspection of work pieces. These are used for functions like gauging of dimensions,
identification of shapes, measurement of distances, determining orientation of parts,
quantifying motion-detecting surface shading etc.
 It is best suited for high production. These systems function without fatigue.
 This is suited for inspecting the masks used in the production of micro electronic devices.
Stand off distance up to one meter is possible.
VISION SYSTEM
 The schematic diagram of a typical vision system is shown in fig This system
involves image acquisition, image processing Acquisition requires appropriate
lighting.
 The camera and store digital image processing involves manipulating the digital
image to simplify and reduce number of data points..
 Measurements can be carried out at any angle along the three reference axes x y
and z without contacting the part. The measured values are then compared with the
specified tolerance which stores in the memory of the computer.

 The main advantage of vision system is reduction of tooling and fixture costs,
elimination of need for precise part location for handling robots and integrated
automation of dimensional verification and defect detection.
Principle:
Four types of machine vision system and the schematic arrangement is shown in fig
(i) Image formation.
(ii) Processing of image in a form suitable for analysis by computer.
(iii) Defining and analyzing the characteristic of image.
(iv) Interpretation of image and decision-making.
  For formation of image suitable light source is required. It consists of
incandescent light, fluorescent tube, fiber optic bundle, and arc lamp.
 Laser beam is used for triangulation system for measuring distance. Ultraviolet
light is used to reduce glare or increase contrast. Proper illumination back lighting,
front lighting, structured light is required.
 Back lighting is used to obtain maximum image contrast. The surface of the
object is to be inspected by using front lighting. For inspecting three-dimensional
feature structured lighting is required.
 An image sensor vidicon camera, CCD camera is used to generate the electronic
signal representing the image. The image sensor collects light from the scene through
a lens, using photosensitive target, converts into electronic signal.
Vidicon camera:
 Image is formed by focusing the incoming light through a series of lenses onto the
photoconductive faceplate of the vidicon tube.
 The electron beam scans the photoconductive surface and produces an analog
voltage proportional to the variation in light intensity for each scan line of the original
scene.
Solid-state camera:
 The image sensors change coupled device (CCD) contain matrix of small array,
photosensitive elements accurately spaced and fabricated on silicon chips using integrated
circuit technology.
 Each detector converts in to analog signal corresponding to light intensity through the
camera lens.
Image processor:
 A camera may form an image 30 times per sec at 33 m sec intervals. At each time
interval the entire image frozen for processing by an image processor.
 An analog to digital converter is used to convert analog voltage of each detector
in to digital value.
 If voltage level for each pixel is given by either 0 or I depending on threshold
value. It is called binary system on the other hand grey scale system assigns upto 256
different values depending on intensity to each pixel.
 Grey scale system requires higher degree of image refinement, huge storage
processing capability. For analysis 256 x 256 pixels image array up to 256 different
pixel values will require 65000-8 bit storage locations at a speed of 30 images per
second.
  Techniques windowing and image restoration are involved.

Windowing:
 Processing is the desired area of interest and ignores non-interested part of image.
Image restoration:
 Preparation of image during the pre-processing by remove the degrade. Blurring
of lines, poor contrast between images, presence of noise are the degrading
The quality may be improved
1) By improving the contrast by brightness addition.
2) By increasing the relative contrast between high and low intensity elements.
3) By Fourier domain processing.
4) Other techniques to reduce edge detection and run length encoding.
Image Analysis:
 Digital image of the object formed is analyzed in the central processing Unit of
the system.
 Three important tasks performed by machine vision system are measuring the
distance of an object from a vision system camera, determining object orientation
and defining object position.
 The distance of an object from a vision system camera can be determined by
triangulation technique. The object orientation can he determined by the
methods of equivalent ellipse. The image can be interpreted by two-dimensional
image.
 For complex three-dimensional objects boundary locations are determined and the
image is segmented into distinct region.

Image Interpretation:
 This involves identification of on object. In binary system, the image is segmented on the
basis of while and black pixels.
 The complex images can he interpreted by grey scale technique and algorithms. The must
common image interpretation is template matching.

FUNCTION OF MACHINE VISION

 Lighting and presentation of object to evaluated.
 It has great compact on repeatability, reliability and accuracy.
 I.ighting source and projection should be chosen and give sharp contrast.
 Images sensor compressor TV camera may he vidicon or solid state.
 For simple processing, analog comparator and a computer controller to convert the video
information to a binary image is used.
 Data compactor employs a high speed away processor to provide high speed processing
of the input image data.
 System control computer communicates with the operator and make decision about the
part being inspected.
 The out put and peripheral devices operate the control of the system. The output enables
the vision system to either control a process or provide caution and orientation
information two a robot, etc.
 These operate under the control of the system control of computer.
Applications:
 Machine vision can he used to replace human vision fur welding. machining and
maintained relationship between tool and work piece. and assembly of parts to
analyze the parts.
 This is frequently used for printed circuit board inspection to ensure minimum
conduction width and spacing between conductors.
 These are used for weld seam tracking, robot guideness and control, inspection of
microelectronic devices and tooling, on line inspection in machining operation,
assemblies monitoring high-speed packaging equipment etc.
 It gives recognition of an object from its image. These are designed to have strong
geometric feature interpretation capabilities and pa handling equipment.
 PART-A

1. Define- CMM
2. What are the important features available in CMM software?
3. Define machine vision.
4. Name the four types of machine vision system.
5. Mention the advantages of CMM
6. Mention the disadvantages of CMM
7. Define –Position accuracy?
8. Name the types of CMM?
9. Define –CNC
10. Define –Machine Vision
11. Name the four types of machine vision system?
12. Define –Gray scale analysis?
13. Describe the features of a flexible inspection system?
14. State the constructions of CMM
15. Explain the principle of CMM

PART-B

1. Explain the method of part inspection using CMM.

2. Explain the constructions and principle of CMM.
3. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of CMM.
4. Explain briefly trigger type and measuring type probe system.
5. How is the post process metrology incorporated in CNC machine?
6. Describe about flexible inspection system in detail?
7. Discuss briefly the following
a. Image formation.
b. Image processing.
c.Defining and analyzing the characteristic of image.
d.Interpretation of image and decision-making.
8. Describe in details of the function and application of machine vision system.
 PART-A

1What is interferometer? And its types/

2.Name the common source of light used for interferometer?
3.Define-Crust and Rough?
4.Define- Wavelength
5. What is meant by alignment test on machine tools?
6. State the basic principle of Laser
7. State the use of Laser
8. What is the other name for alignment test on machine tools/
9. List the various geometrical checks made on machine tools.
10.Define-LASER?
11. Define-Beam splitters
12. Define-Beam benders
13. Define-Retro reflectors

PART-B
1. What is meant by alignment test on machine tools? Why they are necessary? Explain.
2. State the basic principle and use of Laser.
3. Distinguish between geometrical and practical test on machine
4.Sketch and explain the Michelson interferometer in detail.
5.Sketch and describe the optical system in any two of the following.
a. Laser interferometer.
b. N.P.L. Flatness interferometer.
6. Sketch and explain the Two frequency interferometer in detail.
7.State the applications of Lasers in Linear and Angular measurements
8. State the applications of Laser Interferometer in testing of machine tools?
 UNIT-V
MEASUREMENTOF POWER,
FLOWANDTEMPERATURERELATEDPRO
PERTIES

UNIT-V 5.1
 CONTENTS
5.1 MEASUREMENT OF FORCE
5.1.1 Devices to measure Force
5.1.2 Scaleandbalances
5.1.3 Elastic force meter(ProvingRing)
5.1.4 Loadcells
5.2 TORQUEMEASUREMENT
5.2.1 Measurementof InducedStrain
5.2.2 Optical TorqueMeasurement
5.2.3 ReactionForces in ShaftBearings
5.2.4 PronyBrake
5.3 MEASUREMENT OFPOWER
5.3.1 MechanicalDynamometers
5.3.2 EddyCurrent Dynamometer
5.3.3 Hydraulic orFluidFrictionDynamometer
5.4 FLOWMEASUREMENTS
5.4.1 OrificeFlow Meter
5.4.2 VenturiMeter
5.4.3 Flow Nozzle
5.4.4 Pitot tube
5.4.5 Rotameter
5.5 TEMPERATUREMEASUREMENT
5.6 MechanicalTemperature MeasuringDevices
5.6.1 Bimetallic strip thermometer
5.6.2 Pressurethermometer
5.7 THERMOCOUPLES(Thermo-junctivetemperature measuringdevices)
5.7.1 ThermocoupleMaterials
5.7.2 Laws of Thermocouple
5.8 THERMORESISTIVE TEMPERATURE MEASURINGDEVICES

UNIT-V 5.2
 5.8.1 Resistance temperaturedetectors

5.8.2 Thermistors

TechnicalTerms

 Force:The mechanicalquantitywhichchangesortendstochangethemotionorshape ofabodyto

which it is applied

 Load Cells:Loadcells aredevices fortheforcemeasurementthroughindirectmethods

 Torque:Torquecanbedefinedasameasure of thetendencyofaforcetorotatethe bodyon which

it acts about anaxis.

 Thermocouple:When two dissimilarmetals arejoinedtogether, it will createanemfit

isprimarilya function ofthejunction temperature.

 Flowmeter:Flowmeterisadevicethatmeasurestherateoffloworquantityofamovingfluid in an
openor closedconduit.

 Thermometry:Thermometryisthescienceandpracticeoftemperaturemeasurement.Anymeas
urablechangeinathermometricprobecanbeusedtomarktemperaturelevelsthat should later be
calibratedagainstan internationallyagreed unit if themeasure is to berelated to other
thermodynamic variables.

 ResistanceTemperatureDetectors:RTDasthenameimplies,aresensorsusedtomeasuretemp
eraturebycorrelatingtheresistanceof theRTD element with temperature.

UNIT-V 5.3
  Dynamometer:Adynamometeror"dyno"forshortisadeviceusedtomeasurepowerand
torqueproducedbyan engine.

UNIT-V 5.4
5.1 MEASUREMENT OF FORCE
The mechanicalquantity
whichchangesortendstochangethemotionorshapeofabodytowhichitisappliediscalledforce.F
orceisabasicengineeringparameter,themeasurement ofwhich can bedonein manywaysas
follows:
 Directmethods
 Indirectmethods

 Directmethods
Itinvolvesadirectcomparisonwithaknowngravitationalforceonastandardmass,
saybya balance.
 Indirectmethods
Itinvolvesthemeasurementofeffectofforceonabody,suchasaccelerationofabodyof
known masssubjected to force.

5.1.1 Devices tomeasureForce

 Scaleandbalances
a. Equalarm balance
b. Unequalarm balance
c. Pendulumscale
 Elastic force meter(Provingring)
 Loadcells
a. Straingauge load cell
b. Hydraulic load cell
c. Pneumaticloadcell

UNIT-V 5.5
5.1.2 Scale andbalances
a. Equal armbalance
Anequalarmbalanceworksontheprincipleofmomentcomparison.Thebeam of
the equalarm balanceis in equilibrium position when,
Clockwiserotatingmoment = Anti-clockwise rotatingmoment
M2L2= M1L1
That is, the unknownforce is balanced against the knowngravitational force.

Description
Themain parts ofthearrangement areafollows:
 Abeamwhosecentreispivotedandrestsonthefulcrumofaknifeedge.Eitherside
ofthe beam is equal in length with respect to the fulcrum
 A pointeris attachedtothe center of the beam. This pointerwill
pointverticallydownwards when the beam is in equilibrium.
 AProvisionto place masses at eitherendof thebeam.

Operation
 A known standardmass (m1) is placedatone endof the beamandanunknown
mass (m2) is placedat its otherend.
 Equilibrium conditionexistswhen, clockwiserotatingmoment=Anti-
clockwise rotatingmoment

UNIT-V 5.6
  Moreoveratagivenlocation,theearth’sattractionwillactequallyonboththemasses(
m1andm2)andhenceatequilibriumcondition.W1=W2.Thatis, theunknown force
(weight)will be equal to the known force(weight).
b. Unequal armbalance
Anunequalarmbalanceworksontheprincipleofmomentcomparison.
Thebeam of the unequalarmbalance is in equilibrium position
when,Clockwiserotatingmoment = Anti-clockwise rotatingmoment
FxL2= FxxL1

Description
Themain parts ofthearrangements are as follows:
 A graduatedbeam pivoted to a knife edge“Y”
 A levelingpointer is attached to thebeam
 Aknownmass“m”isattachedtotherightsideofthebeam.Thiscreatesanunknown
force “F”. Thismass “m” can slide on the right sideof thebeam.
 Provisionsaremadetoapplyanunknownforce“Fx”ontheleftsideofthe
beam.Operatio
n
 Anunknownforce“Fx”isappliedontheleftsideofthebeamthroughknifeedge “Z”as
shown

UNIT-V 5.7
  Nowthepositionofmass“m”ontherightsideofthebeamisadjusteduntiltheleveling
pointerreadsnullbalanceposition.Whenthelevelingpointerisin null balance
position, the beam is in equilibrium.
Clock wiserotatingmoment = Anti-clock wiserotatingmoment
Fx.L1= F.L2
Fx =Mg.L2/L1
 Thustheunknownforce“Fx”isproportionaltothedistance“L2”ofthemass“m”from
the knife edge“Y”
 The righthandsideofthebeamwhichisgraduatediscalibratedtogetadirect
measureof “Fx”

c. PendulumScale(Multi-lever Type)
Itisamomentcomparisondevice.Theunknownforceisconvertedtotorquewhic
h is then balancedbythetorque of a fixed standardmassarrangedasapendulum.

Description
 Thescale’sframescarrysupportribbons.Th
esesupportribbonsareattachedtothesectors
.Theloadingribbonsareattachedtothesector
sandtheloadrodashown.Theloadrodisintur
nattachedtotheweighingplatform.
 Thetwosectorsareconnectedoneithersideo
fanequalizerbeam.Thesectorscarrycounter
weighs.Tothecenterof
the equalizerbeam is attached a rackand pinion arrangement.
 Apointerisattachedtothepinionwhichsweepsoveraweight(force)calibratedscale.

UNIT-V 5.8
 Operation
 Theunknownforceisappliedtotheloadrod.Duetothisforce,theloadingtapes are
pulled downwards. Hence the loadingtapes rotate thesectors.
 Asthesectorsrotateaboutthepivots,itmovesthecounterweightsoutwards,Thismov
ementsincreasesthecounterweighteffectivemomentuntilthetorqueproducedbyth
e forceapplied totheload rod and the
momentproducedbythecounterweightbalanceeach other,
therebyestablishinganequilibrium.
 Duringtheprocessofestablishingequilibrium,theequalizerbeamwouldbedisplace
ddownwards.Astherackisattachedtotheequalizerbeam,therackalso is displaced
downwards rotatingthe pinion.
 Asthepointerisattachedtothepinion,therotationofthepinionmakesthepointertoass
umeanewpositiononthescale.Thescaleiscalibratedtoreadthe weightdirectly.
Thusthe forceapplied on the load rodis measured.

5.1.3 Elastic forcemeter (Proving Ring)

Whenasteelringissubjectedtoaforceacrossitsdiameter,itdeflects.
This deflection is proportional to the appliedforcewhencalibrated.

Description
Asteelringattachedwi
thexternalbosses
toapplyforce.Aprecisionmicr
ometerwithoneofitsendsmou
ntedonavibratingreed.

Operation

UNIT-V 5.9
  Theforcetobemeasuredisappliedtotheexternalbossesoftheprovingring.Duetothe
appliedforce,theringchangesindiameter.Thisdeflectionoftheringis proportional
to theappliedforce.
 Atthisstage,thereedispluckedtoobtainavibratingmotion.Whenthereedisvibrating
,themicrometerwheel is turneduntilthemicrometercontactmoves forwardand
makes a noticeable dampingof thevibratingreed.
 Nowthemicrometerreadingisnotedwhichisameasureofdeflectionofthering.Thed
eviceiscalibratedtogetameasureofforceintermsofdeflectionofthe provingring.

5.1.4 Load cells

a. Straingaugeloadcell

 Whenasteelcylinderissubjectedtoaforce,ittendstochangeindimension.Onthiscyli
nderifstraingaugesarebonded,thestraingaugealsoisstretchedor
compressed,causingachange in its length anddiameter.
 Thischangeindimensionofthestraingaugecausesitsresistancetochange.Thischan
geinresistance of thestraingaugebecomesameasureof theappliedforce.
Description
 A cylindermade ofsteelon whichfouridenticalstraingaugesaremounted.

UNIT-V 5.10
  Outofthefourstraingauges,twoofthem(R1andR4)aremountedalongthedirection
ofthe appliedload(Verticalgauges)
 Theothertowstraingauges(R2andR3horizontalgauges)aremountedcircumferenti
allyatrightangles to gauges R1 andR4.
 Thefourgauges areconnected to thefour limbs of wheat stone
bridge.Operation
 Whenthereisnoloadonthesteelcylinder,allthefourgaugeswillhavethesameresista
nce.AstheterminalsNandPareatthesamepotential,thewheatstone bridge is
balancedand hencethe outputvoltage will bezero.
 Nowtheforcetobemeasuredisappliedonthesteelcylinder.Duetothis,theverticalga
ugesR1andR4willundergocompressionandhencetherewillbeadecreaseinresistan
ce.Atthesametime,thehorizontalgaugesR2andR3willundergotensionandtherewi
llbeanincreaseinresistance.Thuswhenstrained, the resistance ofthe
variousgaugeschange.
 NowtheterminalsNandPwillbeatdifferentpotentialandthechangeinoutputvoltage
duetotheappliedloadbecomesameasureoftheappliedloadwhencalibrated.

b. HydraulicLoad Cell

 Whenaforceisappliedonliquidmediumcontainedinaconfinedspace,thepressureof
theliquidincreases.Thisincreaseinpressureoftheliquidisproportionaltotheapplied
force.Henceameasureoftheincreaseinpressureofthe liquid becomes a measureof
the appliedforce when calibrated.

UNIT-V 5.11
  Theforce to be measureisapplied to thepiston
 Theappliedforcemovest
hepistondown
wardsanddeflectsthediap
hragmandthisdeflection
ofthediaphragmincreaset
hepressureintheliquidme
dium.
 Thisincreaseinpressureoftheliquidmediumisproportionaltotheappliedforce.This
increaseinpressureismeasuredbythepressuregaugewhichisconnected to the
liquid medium.
 Thepressureiscalibratedinforceunitsandhencetheindicationinthepressuregauge
becomesa measure of theforceapplied on the piston.

c. Pneumatic loadcells
 Ifaforceisappliedtoonesideofadiaphragma
ndanairpressureisappliedtotheotherside,so
meparticularvalueofpressurewillbenecessa
rytoexactlybalancetheforce.Thispressureis
proportional to theapplied force.
 The
forcetobemeasuredisappliedtothetopsideof
thediaphragm. Dueto this
force,thediaphragmdeflectsandcausestheflappertoshut-offthenozzleopening.
 Airsupplyisprovidedatthebottomofthediaphragm.Astheflapperclosesthe nozzle
opening, aback pressureresultsunderneath the diaphragm.

UNIT-V 5.12
  Thisbackpressureactsonthediaphragmproducinganupwardforce.Airpressureisre
gulateduntilthediaphragmreturnstothepre-loadedpositionwhich is
indicatedbyairwhichcomes out of thenozzle.
 Atthisstage,thecorrespondingpressureindicatedbythepressuregaugebecomes
ameasureof the appliedforce when calibrated.

5.2 TORQUE MEASUREMENT

 Measurementofappliedtorquesisoffundamentalimportanceinallrotatingbodiesto
ensurethatthedesignoftherotatingelementisadequatetopreventfailure under
shearstresses.
 Torquemeasurementisalsoanecessarypartofmeasuringthepowertransmittedbyro
tatingshafts.
 Thefourmethods of measuringtorque consist of
 Measuringthestrainproducedinarotatingbodyduetoanappliedtorque
 An opticalmethod
 Measuringthe reactionforce in cradled shaft bearings
 Usingequipment knownas the Pronybrake.

UNIT-V 5.13
5.2.1 Measurement of InducedStrain
Measuringthestraininducedinashaftduetoanappliedtorque
hasbeenthemostcommonmethodusedfortorquemeasurementinrecentyears.Themethodinvol
vesbondingfourstraingaugesontoashaftasshowninFigure,wherethestraingaugesarearrangedi
nad.c.bridgecircuit.Theoutputfromthebridgecircuitisafunctionofthestrainintheshaftandhenc
eofthetorqueapplied.Itisveryimportantthatpositioningofthestraingaugesontheshaftisprecise,
andthedifficultyinachievingthismakestheinstrumentrelativelyexpensive.Thistechniqueiside
alformeasuringthestalledtorqueinashaftbeforerotationcommences.However,aproblemisenc
ounteredinthecaseofrotatingshaftsbecauseasuitablemethodthenhastobefoundformakingthe
electricalconnectionstothestraingauges.Onesolutiontothisproblemfoundinmany
commercialinstrumentsis to
useasystem
ofslipringsandbrus
hesforthis,althoug
h
this
increasesthecostoft
heinstrumentstill
further.

UNIT-V 5.14
5.2.2 OpticalTorque Measurement

Opticaltechniquesfortorquemeasur
ementhavebecomeavailablerecentlywithth
edevelopmentoflaserdiodesandfiber-
opticlighttransmissionsystems.Onesuchsys
temisshowninFigure.Twoblack-and-
whitestripedwheelsaremountedateitherend
oftherotatingshaftandareinalignmentwhen
notorqueis appliedtotheshaft.Light
fromalaserdiodelightsourceisdirectedbyapairoffiber-
opticcablesontothewheels.Therotationofthewheelscausespulsesofreflectedlight,whicharetr
ansmittedbacktoareceiverbyasecondpairoffiber-
opticcables.Underzerotorqueconditions,thetwopulsetrainsofreflectedlightareinphasewithea
chother.Iftorqueisnowappliedtotheshaft,thereflectedlightismodulated.Measurementbythere
ceiverofthephasedifferencebetweenthereflectedpulsetrainsthereforeallowsthemagnitudeoft
orqueintheshafttobecalculated.Thecostofsuchinstrumentsisrelativelylow,andanadditionala
dvantage inmanyapplications is their smallphysical size.

UNIT-V 5.15
5.2.3 ReactionForces inShaftBearings

Anysysteminvolvingtorquetransmi
ssionthroughashaft contains
bothapowersourceandapowerabsorberwhe
rethepowerisdissipated.Themagnitudeofth
etransmittedtorquecanbemeasuredbycradli
ngeitherthepowersourceorthepowerabsorb
erendoftheshaftinbearings,andthenmeasuri
ngthereactionforce,F,andthearmlength,L,a
sshowninFigure.Thetorqueisthencalculate
dasthesimpleproduct,FL.Pendulumscalesa
reusedverycommonlyformeasuringthereac
tionforce.Inherent
errorsinthemethodarebearing frictionandwindagetorques.Thistechniqueisnolongerin
common use.

UNIT-V 5.16
5.2.4 Prony Brake

ThePronybrakeisanothertorque-
measuringsystemthatisnowuncommon.Itisusedto
measurethetorqueinarotatingshaftandconsistsofar
opewoundroundtheshaft,asillustratedinFigure.One
endoftheropeisattachedtoaspringbalanceandtheoth
erendcarriesaloadintheformofastandardmass,m.Ift
hemeasuredforceinthespringbalanceisFs,thentheef
fectiveforce,Fe,exertedbytheropeon the shaft is
givenby
Fe =mg -Fs
IftheradiusoftheshaftisRsandthatoftheropeisRr,thentheeffectiveradius,Re, of
theropeanddrumwith respect to the axis of rotation of the shaft isgiven by
Re=Rs+Rr
Thetorquein theshaft, T, can then be calculated
asT= FeRe
Whilethisisawell-knownmethodofmeasuringshafttorque,alotofheatisgeneratedbecause of
frictionbetween the ropeandshaft, and watercoolingis usuallynecessary.

5.3 MEASUREMENT OF POWER

Torqueisexertedalong arotatingshaft.By measuringthistorque

whichisexertedalongarotatingshaft,theshaftpowercanbedetermined.Fortorquemeasurement
dynamometersare used.
T =F.r
P = 2πNT
Where, T – Torque,F–Force at a known radiusr, P– Power

UNIT-V 5.17
 Typesofdynamometers
 Absorptiondynamometers
 Drivingdynamometers
 Transmissiondynamometers

Absorptiondynamometers
Thedynamometerabsorbsthemechanicalenergywhentorqueismeasured.Itdissipates
mechanicalenergy(heatduetofriction)whentorqueismeasured.Therefore,dynamometersareu
sedtomeasuretorque/powerofpowersourceslikeengineandmotors.

5.3.1 MechanicalDynamometers

Inpronybrake,mecha
nicalenergyisconvertedintoh
eatthroughdryfrictionbetwee
nthewoodenbrakeblocksand
theflywheel(pulley)ofthema
chine.Oneblockcarriesa
leverarm. An
arrangementisprovidedtotightentheropewhichisconnectedtothearm.Ropeistightened so as
to increasethe frictionalresistancebetween the blocks and the pulley.
Powerdissipated, P = 2πNT/60
Thecapacityofproneybrakeislimitedduetowearofwoodenblocks,frictioncoefficientv
aries. So, it is unsuitablefor large powers when it is used for longperiods.

UNIT-V 5.18
5.6 Eddy CurrentDynamometer

Basicallyanelectricaldynamometerofabso
rptiontype,usedtomeasurepowerfromasourcesuch
asengineoramotor.Whenaconductingmaterialmo
vesthroughamagneticfluxfield,voltageisgenerate
d,whichcausescurrenttoflow.Iftheconductorisawi
reforming,apartofacompletecircuitcurrentwillbec
ausedtoflowthroughthatcircuitandwith
some form of commutatingdeviceaform of A.CorD.C generatormayresult.
Aneddycurrentdynamometerisshownabove.Itconsistsofametaldiscorwheelwhichisr
otatedinthefluxofamagneticfield.Thefieldifproducedbyfieldelementsorcoilsisexcitedbyane
xternalsourceandattachedtothedynamometerhousingwhichismountedintrunnionbearings.A
sthediscturns,eddycurrentsaregenerated.Itsreactionwiththemagneticfieldtendstorotatetheco
mpletehousinginthetrunnion bearings. Water coolingis employed.

5.6 Hydraulicor FluidFrictionDynamometer

Arotatingdiskthatis fixedtothedrivingshaft,Semi-
ellipticalgroovesareprovidedonthediscthroughwhichastreamofwaterflows.Thereisacasting
whichisstationary
andthediscrotatesinthiscasing.Whenthedrivingshaftrotates,waterflowisinahelicalpathinthec
hamber.Duetovorticesandeddy-
currentssetupinthewater,thecastingtendstorotateinthesamedirectionasthatofthedrivingshafts
.Byvaryingtheamountofwater,thebrakingactionisprovided.Brakingcanalsobeprovidedby
varyingthedistancebetweentherotatingdiskandthecasting.Theabsorbingelementisconstraine
dbyaforce-measuringdevice placedatthe end ofthe arm ofradius r.

UNIT-V 5.19
5.4 FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Theflowrateofafluidflowinginapipeunderpressureismeasuredforavarietyofapplicati
ons,suchasmonitoringofpipeflowrateandcontrolofindustrialprocesses.Differentialpressurefl
owmeters,consistingoforifice,flownozzle,andventurimeters,arewidelyusedforpipeflowmea
surementandarethetopicofthiscourse.Allthreeofthesemetersuseaconstrictioninthepathofthe
pipeflowandmeasurethedifferenceinpressurebetweentheundisturbedflowandtheflowthroug
htheconstriction.Thatpressuredifference can then beused to calculatethe flowrate.Flow
meteris a device thatmeasures therate of flowor quantityofamovingfluid in anopen or
closedconduit.
Flow measuringdevicesare generallyclassified into four groups. Theyare

1. Mechanicaltype flowmeters
Fixedrestrictionvariableheadtypeflowmetersusingdifferentsensorslikeorific
eplate,venturitube,flownozzle,pitottube,dalltube,quantitymeterslikepositivedis
placementmeters,massflowmetersetc.fallundermechanicaltypeflow meters.
2. Inferential type flowmeters

UNIT-V 5.20
 Variableareaflowmeters(Rotameters),turbineflowmeter,targetflowmeterset
c.
3. Electrical typeflowmeters
Electromagneticflow meter,Ultrasonicflow
meter,LaserdopplerAnemometers etc. fall under electrical typeflowmeter.
4. Otherflowmeters
Purgeflowregulators,FlowmetersforSolidsflowmeasurement,Cross-
correlation flow meter,Vortexsheddingflow meters, flowswitches etc.

5.4.1 OrificeFlowMeter

AnOrificeflowmeteristhemostcommonheadtypeflowmeasuringdevice.Anorificepla
teis inserted in thepipeline and the differential pressureacross itis measured.

Principle of Operation

Theorificeplateinsertedinthe
pipelinecausesanincreaseinflowvelocityan
dacorrespondingdecreaseinpressure.Theflo
wpatternshowsaneffectivedecreaseincrosss
ectionbeyondtheorificeplate,withamaximu
mvelocityandminimumpressureatthevenac
ontracta.

Theflowpatternandthesharpleadingedgeoftheorificeplatewhichproducesitareofmaj
orimportance.Thesharpedgeresultsinanalmostpurelinecontactbetween

UNIT-V 5.21
 theplateandtheeffectiveflow,withthenegligiblefluid-to-metalfrictiondragattheboundary.

Types ofOrificePlates

Thesimplestformoforificeplateconsistsofathinmetalsheet,havinginitasquare edged
orasharpedgedorround edged circularhole.
Therearethree typesof orificeplates namely
1. Concentric
2. Eccentric and
3. Segmentaltype.

Theconcentrictypeisusedforcleanfluids.Inmeteringdirtyfluids,slurriesandfluidscont
ainingsolids,eccentricorsegmentaltypeisusedinsuchawaythatitsloweredgecoincideswiththe
insidebottomofthepipe.Thisallowsthesolidstoflowthroughwithoutanyobstruction.Theorific
eplateisinsertedintothemainpipelinebetweenadjacentflanges,theoutsidediametersoftheplate
beingturnedtofitwithintheflangebolts. The flanges areeither screwedorwelded tothe pipes.
Applications
 Theconcentricorificeplateisusedtomeasureflowratesofpurefluidsandhasawideapplic
abilityas it hasbeenstandardized

UNIT-V 5.22
  The eccentricandsegmentalorifice platesareusedtomeasureflowrates of
fluidscontainingsuspendedmaterialssuchassolids,oilmixedwithwaterandwetsteam.
Advantages
 It is verycheapandeasymethod to measure flowrate
 It has predictable characteristics and occupies lessspace
 Can beusedto measure flow rates in large pipes
Limitations
 Thevena-
contractalengthdependsontheroughnessoftheinnerwallofthepipeandsharpnessofthe
orificeplate.Incertaincaseitbecomesdifficulttotaptheminimum pressureduethe
above factor
 Pressurerecoveryatdownstreamispoor,thatis,overalllossvariesfrom40to90%ofthe
differentialpressure.
 In the upstreamstraighteningvanes areamust to obtain laminar flow conditions.
 Theorificeplategetscorrodedandduetothisaftersometime,inaccuracyoccurs.Thecoef
ficient of dischargeis low.
5.4.2 VenturiMeter

Venturitubesaredifferentialpressureproducers,basedonBernoulli’sTheorem.General
performanceandcalculationsaresimilartothosefororificeplates.Inthesedevices,thereisaconti
nuouscontactbetweenthefluidflowandthesurfaceoftheprimarydevice.
Itconsistsofacylindricalinletsectionequaltothepipediameter,aconvergingconicalsecti
oninwhichthecrosssectionalareadecreasescausingthevelocitytoincreasewithacorresponding
increaseinthevelocity
headandadecreaseinthepressurehead;acylindricalthroatsectionwherethevelocityisconstants
othatthedecreasedpressureheadcanbemeasuredandadivergingrecoveryconewherethevelocit
ydecreasesandalmostalloftheoriginalpressureheadisrecovered.Theunrecovered
pressurehead is commonlycalledas head loss.

UNIT-V 5.23
 Limitations
This flowmeterislimitedtouseonclean,non-
corrosiveliquidsandgases,becauseitisimpossibletocleanoutorflushoutthepressuretaps if
theyclogup with dirt or debris.

UNIT-V 5.24
 ShortForm Venturi Tubes
Inanefforttoreducecostsandlayinglength,manufacturesdevelopedasecondgeneration
, orshort-formventuritubes shown in Figure 5.19.
Thereweretwomajordifferenc
esinthisdesign.Theinternalannularch
amberwasreplacedbyasinglepressuret
aporinsomecasesanexternalpressurea
veragingchamber,and
therecoveryconeanglewasincreasedfr
om7
degreesto21degrees.Theshortformventuretubescanbemanufacturedfromcastironor welded
from avarietyof materialscompatiblewith the application.
Thepressuretapsarelocatedone-quartertoone-
halfpipediameterupstreamoftheinletconeandatthemiddleofthethroatsection.Apiezometerrin
gissometimesusedfordifferentialpressuremeasurement.Thisconsistsofseveralholesinthepla
neofthetaplocations.Eachsetofholesisconnectedtogetherinanannularringtogiveanaveragepr
essure.Venturiswithpiezometerconnectionsareunsuitableforusewithpurgesystemsusedforsl
urriesanddirtyfluidssincethepurgingfluidtendstoshortcircuittothenearesttapholes.Piezomet
erconnectionsarenormallyusedonlyonverylargetubesorwherethemostaccurateaveragepress
ure isdesiredtocompensateforvariationsinthehydraulic profile of the flowingfluid.
Therefore,when it is
necessarytometerdirtyfluidsandusepiezometertaps,sealedsensorswhichmountflushwith
thepipeandthroatinsidewallshouldbeused.Singlepressuretapventuriscanbepurgedinthenorm
almannerwhenusedwithdirtyfluids.Becausetheventuritubehasnosuddenchangesincontour,n
osharpcorners,andnoprojections,itisoftenusedtomeasureslurriesanddirtyfluidswhich tend to
build up on or clog ofthe primarydevices.
5.4.3 FlowNozzle
Flange TypeFlowNozzle

UNIT-V 5.25
 TheFlownozzleisasmooth,convergentsectionthatdischargestheflowparalleltotheaxis
ofthedownstreampipe.The
downstreamendofanozzleapproximatesashorttubeandhasthediameterofthe
venacontractaofanorificeofequalca
pacity.Thusthediameterratioforan
ozzleissmalleroritsflowcoefficient
is
larger.Pressurerecoveryisbettertha
nthatofanorifice.Figureshowsaflo
wnozzle offlange type.

Fig5.20FlowNozzle

Advantages
1. Permanent pressureloss lowerthan that foranorificeplate.
2. It is suitable forfluids containingsolids that settle.
3. It is widelyaccepted for high pressure and temperature steam flow.
Disadvantages
1. Cost is higherthan orificeplate.
2. It is limited to moderate pipe sizes,it requires more maintenance.
5.4.4 Pitottube
Anobstructiontypeprimaryelementusedmainlyforfluidvelocitymeasurementis
thePitot tube.

Principle
ConsiderFigurewhichshowsflowaroundasolidbody.Whenasolidbodyisheld
centrallyandstationaryin apipelinewith afluid streamingdown,dueto
thepresenceofthebody,thefluidwhileapproachingtheobjectstartslosingitsvelocitytill

UNIT-V 5.26
 directlyinfrontofthebody,wherethevelocityiszero.Thispointisknownasthestagnationpoint.A
sthekineticheadislostbythefluid,itgainsastatichead.Bymeasuring the difference
of pressure betweenthatat
normalflow lineandthatat
the stagnation
point, the velocity is
found out. This principle
is used in pitot tube sensors.

Fig5.21Flowthroughsolidbody

Fig5.22Pitottube

Acommonindustrialtypeofpitottubeconsistsofacylindricalprobeinsertedintotheairstr
eam,asshowninFigure.Fluidflowvelocityattheupstreamfaceoftheprobeisreducedsubstantiall
ytozero.Velocityheadisconvertedtoimpactpressure,whichissensedthroughasmallholeintheu
pstreamfaceoftheprobe.Acorresponding

UNIT-V 5.27
 smallholeinthesideoftheprobesensesstaticpressure.Apressureinstrumentmeasuresthediffere
ntialpressure,whichisproportionaltothesquareofthestreamvelocityinthevicinityof theimpact
pressuresensinghole.
Thevelocityequation forthe pitot tube is given by,

Advantages
1. No pressureloss.
2. It is relativelysimple.
3. It is readilyadaptedfor flowmeasurements madein verylargepipes orducts
Disadvantages
1. Poor accuracy.
2. Not suitable for dirtyor stickyfluids andfluids containingsolid particles.
3. Sensitive to upstreamdisturbances.

5.4.5 Rotameter

Theorificemeter,Venturimeterandflownozzleworkontheprincipleofconstantareavari
ablepressuredrop.Heretheareaofobstructionisconstant,andthepressuredropchangeswithflow
rate.OntheotherhandRotameterworksasaconstantpressuredropvariableareameter.Itcanbeonl
ybeusedinaverticalpipeline.Itsaccuracyisalsoless(2%)comparedtoothertypesofflowmeters.
Butthemajoradvantagesofrotameterare,itissimplein
construction,readytoinstallandtheflowratecanbedirectlyseenonacalibratedscale,withouttheh
elpofanyotherdevice,e.g.differentialpressuresensoretc.Moreover, it is useful
forawiderangeofvariation of flowrates(10:1).
Thebasicconstructionofarotameterisshowninfigure.Itconsistsofaverticalpipe,tapere
ddownward.Theflowpassesfromthebottomtothetop.Thereiscylindricaltypemetallicfloatinsi
dethetube.Thefluidflowsupwardthroughthegapbetweenthetubeandthefloat.Asthefloatmove
supordownthereisachangeinthegap,asaresultchangingtheareaoftheorifice.Infact,thefloatsett
lesdownataposition,wherethe

UNIT-V 5.28
 pressuredropacrosstheorificewillcreateanupwardthrustthatwillbalancethedownwardforced
uetothegravity.Thepositionofthefloatiscalibratedwiththeflowrate.

Fig5.24Forceactingonfloat
Fig5.23Rotameter

γ1= Specificweight of the

floatγ2= specificweight of
thefluidν= volumeof thefloat
Af= Area ofthe float.
At= Area of thetubeat equilibrium (correspondingto the dottedline)

F= Downwardthrust onthe float

d

F = Upwardthrust on the float

u

Themajorsourceoferrorinrotameterisduetothevariationofdensityof
thefluid.Besides,thepresenceofviscousforcemayalsoprovideanadditionalforce to
thefloat.

Applications
 Can beusedto measure flow rates ofcorrosivefluids
 Particularlyuseful to measurelow flowrates

UNIT-V 5.29
 Advantages
 Flowconditionsare visible
 Flowrateis a linearfunction(uniform flow scales)
 Can beusedto measure flow rates ofliquids, gases and vapour
 Bychangingthefloat,taperedtubeorboth,thecapacityoftherotametercanbechanged.
Limitations
 Theyshould be installed vertically
 Theycannot be used for measurements in moving objects
 Thefloatwillnotbevisiblewhencolouredfluidsareused,thatis,whenopaquefluid
areused.
 For high pressureand temperature fluid flow measurements, theyareexpensive
 Theycannot be used for fluids containinghigh percentageof solids in suspension.
5.5 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Temperatureisoneofthemostmeasuredphysicalparametersinscienceandtechnology;t
ypicallyforprocessthermalmonitoringandcontrol.Therearemanywaysto
measuretemperature,usingvarious principles.
Fourof themost common are:
 Mechanical(liquid-in-glassthermometers, bimetallic strips, etc.)
 Thermojunctive (thermocouples)
 Thermoresistive(RTDs and thermistors)
 Radiative(infraredand optical pyrometers)

5.6 MechanicalTemperatureMeasuring Devices

Achangeintemperaturecausessomekindofmechanicalmotion,typicallyduetothefactt
hatmostmaterialsexpandwithariseintemperature.Mechanicalthermometers

UNIT-V 5.30
 canbeconstructedthatuseliquids,solids,orevengasesasthetemperature-sensitivematerial.
The mechanical motion is read on a physicalscale to infer thetemperature.

5.6.1 Bimetallic stripthermometer

 Twodissimilarmetalsarebondedtogetherintowhatiscalledabimetallicstrip,assketched to
the right.
 SupposemetalAhasasmallercoefficientofthermalexpansionthandoesmetalB.Astemperat
ureincreases,metalBexpandsmorethandoesmetalA,causingthebimetallic strip to
curlupwardsas sketched.
 Onecommonapplicationofbimetallicstripsisinhomethermostats,whereabimetallic strip
is used as the arm ofaswitch betweenelectricalcontacts.As the
roomtemperaturechanges,thebimetallicstripbendsasdiscussedabove.Whenthebimetallic
stripbendsfarenough,itmakescontactwithelectricalleadsthatturntheheat or
airconditioningon or off.
 AnotherapplicationisincircuitbreakersHightemperatureindicatesover-current,which
shuts offthe circuit.
 Anothercommonapplicationisforuseasoven,
wood burner,orgas grill
thermometers.Thesethermometersconsistofabi
metallicstripwoundupinaspiral,attachedtoadial
that is calibrated into a temperaturescale.

5.6.2 Pressure thermometer

 Apressurethermometer,whilestillconsideredmechanical,operates
bytheexpansionofagasinsteadofaliquidorsolid.Therearealsopressurethermometersthatu
sealiquid instead of agas
 Supposethegas inside thebulb and tubecan beconsideredanidealgas. The
idealgaslawisPV=mRT,wherePisthepressure,Visthevolumeofthegas,misthemass

UNIT-V 5.31
 ofthegas,Risthegasconstantforthespecificgas(nottheuniversalgasconstant),and Tis the
absolutetemperature of the gas.
 SpecificgasconstantRisaconstant.Thebulbandtubear
eofconstantvolume,soVisaconstant.Also,themassmo
fgasinthesealedbulbandtubemust be
constant(conservation of mass).
 A pressure thermometer therefore
measurestemperature
indirectlybymeasuringpressure.
 The gageis a pressure gage,but is typicallycalibrated
in units of temperature instead.
 Acommonapplicationofthistypeofthermometeris
measurementof outside
temperaturefromtheinsideofabuilding.Thebulbisplace
doutside,with thetube runningthrough the wall into
the inside.
 Thegaugeisontheinside.AsTincreasesoutside,thebulbtemperaturecausesacorresponding
increaseinpressure,whichisreadasatemperatureincreaseonthegauge.

5.7 THERMOCOUPLES(Thermo-junctive temperaturemeasuring devices)

ThomasJohanSeebackdiscoveredin1821thatthermalenergycanproduceelectriccurre
nt.Whentwoconductorsmadefromdissimilarmetalsareconnectedformingtwocommonjunctio
nsandthetwojunctionsare exposedto
twodifferenttemperatures,anetthermalemfisproduced,theactualvaluebeingdependentonthe
materialsusedandthetemperaturedifferencebetweenhotandcoldjunctions.Thethermoelectric
emfgenerated,infactisduetothecombinationoftwoeffects:PeltiereffectandThomsoneffect.At
ypicalthermocouplejunctionisshowninfig.5.Theemf

UNIT-V 5.32
 generatedcanbeapproximatelyexpressed bytherelationship:

UNIT-V 5.33
 Where,T andT arehot and
1 2

coldjunctiontemperaturesinK.C and
1

C areconstantsdepending upon the

2

materials. For Copper/

Constantanthermocouple,
C=62.1 and C=0.045.
1 2

Thermocouplesareextensivelyusedformeasurementoftemperatureinindustrialsituati
ons. Themajor reasons behind their popularityare:
(i) Theyare ruggedandreadings are consistent
(ii) Theycan measureoverawide range oftemperature
(iii) Theircharacteristicsarealmostlinearwithanaccuracyofabout0.05%.However,
themajorshortcomingofthermocouplesislowsensitivitycompared to other
temperaturemeasuringdevices(e.g. RTD, Thermistor).

UNIT-V 5.34
5.7.1 ThermocoupleMaterials

Theoretically,anypairofdissimilarmaterialscanbeusedasathermocouple.Butinpractic
e,onlyfewmaterialshavefoundapplicationsfortemperaturemeasurement.Thechoiceofmateria
lsisinfluencedbyseveralfactors,namely,sensitivity,stabilityincalibration,inertnessintheopera
tingatmosphereandreproducibility(i.e.thethermocouplecanbereplacedbyasimilaronewithou
tanyrecalibration).Table-
Ishowsthecommontypesofthermocouples,theirtypes,composition,range,sensitivityetc.Theu
pperrangeofthethermocoupleisnormallydependentontheatmospherewhereithasbeenput.
Forexample,the upper rangeofChromel/ Alumel thermocouplecan be

UNIT-V 5.35
 increasedinoxidizingatmosphere,whiletheupperrangeofIron/Constantanthermocouple can
beincreased in reducingatmosphere.

5.7.2 Laws ofThermocouple

ThePeltierandThompsoneffectsexplainthebasicprinciplesofthermoelectricemfgener
ation.Buttheyarenotsufficientforprovidingasuitablemeasuringtechniqueatactualmeasurings
ituations.Forthispurpose,wehavethreelawsofthermoelectriccircuitsthatprovideususefulpract
icaltipsformeasurementoftemperature.Theselawsareknownaslawofhomogeneouscircuit,la
wofintermediatemetalsandlawofintermediate temperatures.These laws can beexplained
using figure
Thefirstlawcanbe
explainedusingfigure(a).I
tsaysthatthenetthermo-
emfgenerated
isdependentonthematerial
sandthetemperaturesoftw
ojunctionsonly,not onany
intermediate
temperature.
Accordingtothese
condlaw,ifathirdmateriali
sintroducedatanypoint(th
usformingtwoadditionalj
unctions)
itwillnothaveanyeffect,ifthesetwoadditionaljunctionsremainatthesametemperatures(figure
b).Thislawmakesitpossibletoinsertameasuringdevicewithoutalteringthe thermo-emf.

UNIT-V 5.36
 Thethirdlawis relatedtothecalibrationof thethermocouple.It says,if a
thermocoupleproducesemfe,whenitsjunctionsareatT andT,ande whenits
1 1 2 2

junctionsareatT andT;thenitwillgenerateemfe+e whenthejunctiontemperatures

2 3 1 2

areat T and T (figurec).

1 3

The third law is particularly important fromthe point of view of

referencejunctioncompensation.Thecalibrationchartofathermocoupleispreparedtakingthe
o
coldorreferencejunctiontemperatureas0C.Butinactualmeasuringsituation,seldom
thereferencejunctiontemperatureiskeptatthattemperature,itisnormallykeptatambienttemper
ature.Thethirdlawhelpsustocomputetheactualtemperatureusingthecalibration chart.

5.8 THERMORESISTIVETEMPERATURE
MEASURINGDEVICESPrinciple of operation
 A change in temperaturecauses theelectricalresistance ofa material to change.
 Theresistance change ismeasured to infer thetemperature change.
 Therearetwotypesofthermoresistivemeasuringdevices:resistancetemperaturedetectorsa
nd thermistors, both of whichare describedhere.

5.8.1 Resistancetemperaturedetectors

Aresistancetemperaturedetector(
abbreviatedRTD)isbasicallyeither a
long, small diametermetal
wire(usuallyplatinum)woundinacoilora
netchedgridonasubstrate,muchlike

UNIT-V 5.37
 a straingauge.
The
resistanceofanRTDincreaseswithincreasingtemperat
ure,justastheresistanceofastraingageincreaseswithin
creasingstrain.TheresistanceofthemostcommonRTD
is100Ωat0ºC.

Ifthetemperaturechangesarelarge,orifprecisionisnotcritical,theRTDresistancecanbe
measureddirectlytoobtainthetemperature.Ifthetemperaturechangesaresmall,and/orhighprec
isionisneeded,anelectricalcircuitisbuilttomeasureachangeinresistanceoftheRTD,whichisthe
nusedtocalculateachangeintemperature.OnesimplecircuitisthequarterbridgeWheatstonebri
dgecircuit,herecalledatwo-wireRTD bridgecircuit
Rleadrepresentstheresistanceofoneofthewires(calledleadwires)thatrunfromthebridget
otheRTDitself.LeadresistanceisoflittleconcerninstraingagecircuitsbecauseRleadremainscons
tantatalltimes,andwecansimplyadjustoneoftheotherresistors to zero thebridge.

ForRTDcircuits,however,someportionsoftheleadwiresareexposedtochanging
temperatures.Since
theresistanceofmetalwirechangeswithtemperature,RleadchangeswithTandthiscancauseerrors
inthemeasurement.Thiserrorcanbenon-
trivialchangesinleadresistancemaybemisinterpretedaschangesinRTDresistance,andtherefor
egiveafalsetemperature measurement.

UNIT-V 5.38
5.8.2 Thermistors

AthermistorissimilartoanRTD,butasemiconductormaterialisusedinsteadofametal.A
thermistorisasolidstatedevice.Resistancethermometrymaybeperformedusingthermistors.T
hermistorsaremanytimesmoresensitivethanRTD’sandhenceareusefuloverlimitedrangesofte
mperature.Theyaresmallpiecesofceramicmaterialmade bysintering mixturesof
metallicoxides of
Manganese,Nickel, Cobalt, CopperandIronetc.

Resistanceofathermistordecreasesnon-
linearlywithtemperature.Thermistorsareextremelysens
itivebutoveranarrowrangeoftemperatures.A
thermistorhaslargersensitivity
thandoesanRTD,buttheresistancechangewithtemperatureisnonlinear,andthereforetemperat
uremustbecalibratedwithrespecttoresistance.UnlikeRTDs,theresistanceofathermistordecrea
seswithincreasingtemperature.Theuppertemperaturelimitofthermistorsistypicallylowerthan
thatofRTD.However,thermistorshavegreatersensitivityandaretypicallymoreaccuratethanR
TDsorthermocouples.Asimplevoltagedivider,whereVsisthesupply
voltageandRsisafixed(supply)resistor.RsandVscanbeadjustedtoobtainadesiredrangeofoutpu
tvoltageVoutforagivenrangeoftemperature.IfthepropervalueofRsisused,theoutputvoltageisn
early(butnotexactly)linearwithtemperature.Somethermistorshave3or4leadwiresforconveni
enceinwiring–twowiresareconnectedtoonesideandtwototheotherside ofthe thermistor
(labeled 1, 2and 3, 4 above).

UNIT-V 5.39
 QUESTION BANK

Part-A(2 Marks)

1. What are load cells?

2. Givethe principle ofhotwireanemometer
3. Stateanyfourinferentialtypes offlow meters
4. What is thermopile?
5. Mention the principle involved in bimetallic strip.
6. What is thermocouple?
7. What is a Kentometer?
8. What is the principle involved in fluid expansion thermometer?
9. What is the need of inspection?
10. What are the important elements of measurements?
11. What is the basic Principle ofmeasurement?

Part – B (16 Marks)

1. Brieflyexplain various methods of measuringtorque

2. Brieflyexplain various methods of measuringtemperature
3. Brieflyexplain various methods ofmeasuringflow
4. Brieflyexplain various methods of measuringpower
5. Brieflyexplain various methods of measuringforce
6. Explain workingof Pressure thermometerandresistance thermometer.
7. Explain the constructionand workingof Venturimeterand Rotameter
8. Explain the constructionand workingofBimetallic strip and Thermocouple

UNIT-V 5.40