BCHEE202

MODULE-3
CORROSION SCIENCE AND E-WASTE
MANAGEMENT
 INTRODUCTION

Corrosion chemistry: Introduction, electrochemical theory of corrosion, types-differential metal,

differential aeration, corrosion control-galvanization, anodization and sacrificial anode method.
Corrosion penetration rate (CPR) - introduction and numerical problem.
E-waste management: Introduction, sources, types of, effects of e-waste on environment and
human health, methods of disposal, advantages of recycling, extraction of copper and gold from e-
waste.
 Introduction

Metals and alloys are used as fabrication or construction materials in engineering. If the metals or alloy structures are not properly
maintained, they deteriorate slowly by the action of atmospheric gases, moisture and other chemicals. This phenomenon of
destruction of metals and alloys is known as corrosion.
Corrosion
Ill effects of Corrosion:
1. It is estimated that 20% of iron produced annually is used replace damaged iron
objects which indicates a huge loss of metal due to corrosion.
2. Corrosion causes poor appearance of the object.
3. Increase of maintenance and operating cost of the metallic structure.
4. Severe corrosion of the machinery and tools leads to shutdown of production
plants.
5. Loss of valuable of products due to leakage.
6. Effects on safety and reliability in handling hazardous materials.
 Electrochemical theory of corrosion taking iron as an example

According to electrochemical theory, when a metal such as iron is exposed to corrosive

environment, following changes occur. A large number of tiny galvanic cells with anodic
and cathodic regions are formed as shown in fig:

O2
Fe2+Fe2+ OHOH H2O

Anodic region Cathodic region

Electrons

Iron Metal

Reaction at anodic region Fe  Fe2+ + 2e

 Reactions at cathodic region

At cathode, the reaction is either

(a) Liberation of hydrogen or (b) Absorption of oxygen

Liberation of hydrogen (in the absence of Absorption of oxygen (in the presence of
oxygen) oxygen)
In acidic medium the reaction is In acidic medium, the reaction is
2H+ + 2e  H2 4H+ + O2 + 4e  2H2O
In neutral or alkaline medium, the In neutral or alkaline medium, the
reaction is reaction is
2H2O + 2e  2OH + H2 2H2O + O2 + 4e  4OH

2Fe2+ + 4OH- 2Fe(OH)2

4Fe (OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O 2(Fe2O3 . 3H2O) + H2
yellow rust

3Fe(OH)2 + ½ O2  Fe3O4.3H2O (Black rust-magnetic oxide)

 2.4 TppCorrosion
Types of

Differential metal corrosion Differential aeration corrosion

or
Galvanic Corrosion

Waterline Corrosion Pitting Corrosion

Differential metal corrosion or Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two metals having different composition are electrically
coupled in the presence of electrolyte. The more reactive metal will experience severe
corrosion while the noble metal will be protected from corrosion.
 Galvanic Corrosion

Medium
Iron Highly Copper,
reactive e- noble,
Anode Cathode

Corrosion product
Factors affecting rate of galvanic
corrosion:
 Metal with low electrode potential---- Anode( Iron)
 Higher the potential difference
 Metal with high electrode potential----Cathode( Copper)
between the anodic and cathodic
The anodic metal undergoes oxidation and gets corroded as
metals, higher is the rate of corrosion.
shown in fig. A reduction reaction occurs at the cathodic
 Smaller anodic area and larger
metal. The cathodic metal does not undergo corrosion.
cathodic area increases the rate of
The reactions may be represented as follows:
galvanic corrosion.
At anode: M  Mn+ + ne
At cathode: 2H2O + O2 + 4e  4OH
 Differential aeration corrosion

This type of corrosion occurs when two different parts of the same metal are exposed to
different oxygen concentrations. (e.g. An iron rod partially dipped in water.) The part of
the metal which is exposed to less oxygen concentration acts as anode as shown in Fig:.
The part which is exposed to more oxygen concentration acts as cathode. The anodic
region undergoes corrosion and the cathodic region is unaffected.
Metal in contact with less oxygen- Anode
Iron
Metal in contact with more oxygen- Cathode
Anode- Oxidation Cathode- Reduction
More O2, (Cathode)

The reactions may be represented as follows:

At anode: M Mn+ + ne (Oxidation of M)
At cathode: 2H2O + O2 + 4e-  4OH-
Less O2, (Anode) (Reduction of O2)

Water
 (a) Water line corrosion
When a steel tank is partially filled with water for a long time, the inner
portion of the tank below the water line is exposed only to DO, whereas,
the portion above the water line is exposed to more oxygen. Thus the
portion below the water line acts as anode and undergoes corrosion. The
upper portion acts as cathode and is unaffected. A distinct brown line is
formed just below the water line due to the deposition of rust as shown in
Fig 3.6.

The reactions may be represented as follows:

At anode: M  Mn+ + ne (Oxidation of metal, M)
At cathode: 2H2O + O2 + 4e  4OH (Reduction of oxygen)
Other example: Ships which remain partially immersed in sea water for a long time undergo water line
corrosion.
 b) Pitting Corrosion
When a small dust particle gets deposited on a
steel surface, the region below the dust particle
is exposed to less oxygen compared to the
remaining part. As a result, the region below

The reactions may be the dust particle acts as anode undergoes

represented as follows:
corrosion and forms a pit as shown in Fig: 3.7.
At anode: M  Mn+ + ne The remaining region of the metal acts as
At cathode: 2H2O + O2 + 4e  4OH
cathode and is unaffected. Formation of a small
anodic area and a large cathodic area results in
intense corrosion below the dust particle.
Corrosion control – Introduction (Definition, Principle and application) galvanization,
Anodization and sacrificial anode method (explain with neat diagrams and reactions
wherever applicable)
Galvanizing
Galvanizing is the process of coating a metal surface such as iron with zinc metal.
Galvanizing of iron is an example of anodic metal coating on the surface of a cathodic
metal.
Galvanization is carried out by hot dipping method as shown in Fig.2.6. It involves the
following steps
1. Solvent Cleaning: The metal surface is washed with organic solvents to remove organic
impurities on the surface.
2. Alkali Cleaning: Residual organic impurities are removed by treating the object with
alkali such as NaOH.
3. Picking: Rust and Scale is removed by washing the object with dilute sulphuric acid
H2SO4
4. Finally, the article is washed with water and air-dried.
5. The article is then dipped in a bath of molten zinc at 430˚C to 470˚C (Molten zinc is
covered with a flux of ammonium chloride to prevent the oxidation of molten zinc.)
6. The excess zinc on the surface is removed by passing through a pair of hot rollers.
Application
Galvanization of iron is carried out to produce roofing sheets, fencing wire, buckets, bolts,
nuts, pipes etc.
Applications of galvanized Iron and steel
Anodizing A type of inorganic coating, in which top layer of the metal is converted to
its oxide, which acts as a protective barrier and reduces corrosion is called
as anodizing.

Conditions
Anode Aluminium
Cathode Steel or Copper
Electrolyte 5-10% Chromic acid
Temperature 35 0C
Applied potential 0-50V
The aluminum structure is cleaned, polished and connected to the anode and steel or copper is
made as cathode. The electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte consisting of 5-10% Chromic acid.
The temperature of the plating bath is maintained at 35oC. Potential is applied and gradually
increased from 0-40V during first 30 minutes; under this condition anodizing starts and slowly the
surface of Al oxidizes to form Al2O3. After 30 minutes the potential is increased to 50V and held at
this potential for five minutes, results opaque oxide layer of thickness 2-8µm thickness is formed
on the surface of aluminum article. Finally, the aluminum structure is treated with nickel acetate
solution followed by boiling water.

At Anode: (Al  Al3+ + 3e)  2

2Al3+ + 3H2O  Al2O3 + 6H+ 
At Cathode: 6H+ + 6e  3H2
2Al + 3H2O  Al2O3 + 3H2 
Other metals such as Mg, Ti etc. can also be
anodized.
 Applications:

(i) Anodization is used for aluminium pressure cookers and cooking pots.
(ii) Aluminium window frames are anodized.
(iii) Sliding doors of office cabins.
(iv) Commercial and residential building products.
(v) Furniture.
 Cathodic protection
The metal to be protected is completely converted into a cathode by supplying electrons
from external source.

a) Sacrificial anode technique

b) Impressed current technique

 In sacrificial anode method, the metal to
be protected is electrically connected to a
more active metal using insulated copper
wire. For example, when steel is to be
protected, it may be connected to a block
of Mg or Zn. In such a situation, steel
acts as cathode (high electrode
potential) and is unaffected as shown
Fig.3.10. Mg and Zn act as anode (low
electrode potential) and undergo
sacrificial corrosion. When the sacrificial
Advantages: (i) The method is simple. anode gets exhausted, it is replaced with
(ii) Low installation cost and low maintenance. new ones.
(iii) Does not require power supply.

Disadvantage: Replacement of consumed anodes

Corrosion Penetration Rate (CPR)

CPR the amount of weight loss per year in the thickness of metal or alloy due to corrosion.

The Corrosion penetration rate is calculated using the following formula;

CPR in mpy CPR mmpy

K 534 87.6
W(wt loss) Mg Mg
(D)ρ g/cm3 g/cm3
A inch2 cm2
hrs Hrs
Numerical Problems on CPR
1. A sheet of carbon steel one meter wide by three meters long has lost 40g to
corrosion over the past six months. Convert that mass loss to a penetration rate of
the steel in mm units and mpy units. What would be the corrosion rate? (Carbon
steel density=7.8g/ cm3) To calculate CPR in mmpy
Solution: Given CPR in mmpy
To calculate CPR in mmpy K 87.6
W(wt loss) 40 g 40 x1000 mg

(D)ρ 7.8g/cm3 7.8g/cm3

A 1mx3m=3m2 3x100x100cm2
T 6 months 6 x30x24 hrs

87.6 𝑋 40 𝑋 1000𝑚𝑔
CPR= g = 3.466 X10-3 mm/yr
7.8 𝑋3x100X100 𝑐𝑚 2 𝑋 6x30X24 hrs
cc
CPR= 0.003466mm/yr
To calculate CPR in mpy
Given CPR in mpy
K 534
W (wt loss) 40 g 40 x1000 mg
Ρ 7.8g/cm3 7.8g/cm3
A 1m x3m = 3m2 3 x1550 inch2
T 6 months 6 x30x24 hrs

𝐾𝑊 534 𝑋 40 𝑋 1000𝑚𝑔
CPR= CPR= g =
𝜌𝑋𝐴𝑋𝑡 7.8 𝑋3x1550 𝑖𝑛 2 𝑋 6x30X24 hrs
cc
0.1363mpy
2. A piece of corroded steel plate was found in a submerged ocean vessel, it was
estimated that the original area was 10inch2 that approximately 2.6kg had corroded away
during the submersion. Assuming a corrosion penetration rate of 200mpy for this alloy
in sea water, estimate the time in years, density of steel 7.9g/cc.
𝐾𝑊
Given CPR in mpy CPR=
𝜌𝑋𝐴𝑋𝑡
K 534
W 2.6kg 2.6 x 1000 x1000 mg
ρ 7.9g/cc 7.9 g/cc 𝐾𝑊
t=
A 10 inch2 10 inch2 𝜌𝑋𝐴𝑋𝑐𝑝𝑟

t X X hrs

534𝑋2.6𝑋106 𝑚𝑔
t= t= 87873.41hrs
7.9 𝑔/𝑐𝑐𝑋10𝑖𝑛2𝑋200𝑚𝑝𝑦

87873.41
t= = 10.03𝑦𝑟𝑠
365𝑋24
 the CPR in both mpy and mm/yr for a thick steel sheet of area 100 in2 which
3. Calculate
experiences a weight loss of 485g after one year. (density of steel=7.9g/cm3).

Given CPR in mpy 𝐾𝑊

CPR=
K 534 𝜌𝑋𝐴𝑋𝑡

W 485g 485 x1000 mg

Ρ 7.9g/cc 7.9 g/cc 534 𝑋 485 𝑋 1000𝑚𝑔
CPR= g
A 100 in2 100 inch2 7.9 𝑋100 𝑖𝑛2 𝑋 365 X 24 hrs
cc
T 1 yr 365 X 24 hrs
CPR=37.424mpy
 Given CPR in mm/y
K 87.6

W 485g 485 x1000 mg

Ρ 7.9g/cc 7.9 g/cc

A 100 in2 100 x 6.45cm2

T 1 yr 365 x 24 hrs

𝐾𝑊 87.6 𝑋 485 𝑋 1000𝑚𝑔

CPR= CPR= g =0.9518mm/y
𝜌𝑋𝐴𝑋𝑡 7.9 𝑋100X6.45 𝑐𝑚2 𝑋 365X24 hrs
cc
4.What is CPR? A thick brass sheet of area 400 inch2 is exposed to moist air. After 2
years of period, it was found to experience a weight loss 375 g due to corrosion. If the
density of brass is 8.73 g/cm3. Calculate CPR in mpy and mmpy.
It is also defined as the amount of weight loss per year in the thickness of metal or
alloy due to corrosion.

To calculate CPR in mmpy

 Given CPR in mmpy kxW
CPR 
K 87.6 D ρ  x A x T
W 375 g 375 x1000 mg
ρ 87.6x 375 x1000
8.73g/cm3 8.73g/ cm3 
A 400 inch2 400 x6.45cm2 8.73 x 400 x 6.45 x 365 x 2 x 24
t 2year 2 x365x24 hrs  0.083 mmpy
1 inch2=6.45 cm2
1cm2=0.155 inch2
To calculate CPR in mpy

Given CPR in mpy kxW

CPR 
k 534 D ρ  x A x T
W 375 g 375 x1000 mg 534 x375 x1000
Ρ 8.73g/cm3 8.73g/ cm3

8.73 x 400 x 365 x2 x 24
A 400 inch2 400 inch2  3.27 mpy
T 2year 2 x365x24 hrs
E-WASTE MANAGEMENT
E-WASTE
E-waste is any electrical or electronic equipment that’s been discarded”.

Major Sources of E-Waste is comprised of

a) Large Household appliances such as Refrigerator, Freezers, Microwaves, Electric heating

appliances, Electric radiators and conditioning equipment. CD players, TVs, radios, drillers. , air-
conditioner, grinder, iron, heater, military and laboratory electronic equipment’s, etc.

a) Informal communications and technology equipment such as Computers, Laptops, Computer

accessories, Printers, Copying equipment. Fax machines, photocopiers, printers, toners, ink
cartridges, batteries, re-chargeable batteries, digital calculators and clocks, CRT monitors, electric
solders, computer mother boards, key board. Televisions, Mobiles, Ipods etc

a) Consumer electronics include Toasters, Coffee machines, Clocks, Watches, Hair dryer, Sharvers.
Constituents of e-waste

COMPONENTS CONSTITUENTS
Printed circuit boards Lead & cadmium
Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) Lead oxide & Cadmium
Switches & flat screen monitors Mercury
Computer batteries Cadmium
Capacitors and transformers Poly Chlorinated Bi-phenyls
(PCB)
Printed circuit boards, plastic Brominated Flame Retardant
casings cable
Cable insulation/coating Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC)
Sl No Substance Occurance in e-waste

Halogenated Compounds
1 PCB( Poly Chlorinated Biphenyls) Condensers, Transformers
2 PBB(Poly Brominated Biphenyls) Fire retardants for Plastics, cable insulation), Printed wiring boards
and casings
3 CFCs Cooling units and insulation foam
Heavy Metals and other metals
4 Arsenic LEDs
5 Barioum CRT
6 Beryllium Power Supply boxes
7 Cadmium Ni-Cd batteries, CRTs, Printer inks and toners, Photo copying
machines (toner drum)
8 Chromium VI Data tapes, Floppy disc, Corrosion protectors
11 Lead CRT Screen, Printed Writing board, batteries, Solder
12 Mercury Fluorescent lamp to provide back lighting in LCDs, alkaline
batteries, mercury wetted switches, PCB, Switches, Relays
13 Nickel Ni-Cd, NiMH batteries, electron gun in CRT
Printed circuit boards -Lead & cadmium
Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) Lead oxide & Cadmium
Switches & flat screen monitors Mercury
Computer batteries Cadmium
Characteristics of e-waste
E-waste contains both hazardous and non-hazardous substances in their components.

a) Partly hazardous: e-waste contains different substances, some of which can pose serious risk
due to wrong handling. Substances like plastic, lead, cadmium, bismuth and arsenic pose health
hazards on humankind. The people engaged in the recycling and recovery from the e-waste is
severely affected with chronic and acute diseases like cancer etc.

The presence of heavy metals in e-waste made it indifferent to the municipal biodegradable
waste as they not only hamper the bio-degradation process but harms the human health and
environment also. These, heavy metals enters in to food chain and causes Bio-magnification.

b) Partly valuable: Mother boards, PCB’s and connectors which are coated with gold and other
noble metals are valuable, which can be recycled.
Need for e-waste management
Following are the challenges for E-waste management:

1. Lack of awareness and financial incentives

2. Less information on E-waste generation rates

3. Mismanagement in end of life products

4. Environmentally unsustainable informal sector practices

5. Inadequate regulatory design and enforcement

If e-waste is not managed in a proper way following are the problems.

 Recycling scenario in India

 E-waste recycling is presently concentrated in the informal

(unorganized) sector.
 No organized collection system prevails.
 Operations are mostly illegal.
 Processes are highly polluting.
 Recycling operations engage in:
dismantling , sale of dismantled parts, valuable resource
recovery & export of processed waste for precious metal
recovery.
Concerns: Informal Recycling

 High-risk backyard operation

 Non- efficient and Non-
environmentally sound
technologies
 Occupational and environmental
hazards
 Loss of resources due to
inefficient processes
Toxic materials used in manufacturing of electronic and electrical products and health
hazards due to exposure to e-waste

Electrical and electronic equipment contain different hazardous materials which are harmful to
human health and the environment if not disposed off carefully.

E-waste is a serious issue for our environment because it releases harmful toxic chemicals
from the metals due to chemical reactions and these toxic chemicals harm our environment,
therefore they must be handled with care when no longer wanted or needed.

Electronic scrap components, such as CPUs, contain potentially harmful materials such as
lead, cadmium, beryllium, or brominated flame retardants. Improper disposal of e-waste is
highly dangerous to the global environment involving significant risk to the health of
workers and their communities
The consequences of improper e-waste disposal in landfills or other non-dumping
sites pose serious threats to current public health and can pollute ecosystems for
generations to come. When electronics are improperly disposed of and end up in
landfills, toxic chemicals are released, impacting the earth’s air, soil, water, and
ultimately, human health.
1. The Negative effect onhuman health
E-waste contains hazardous metals such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, polyvinyl chlorides
(PVC), brominated flame retardants, beryllium, antimony. Long term exposure to these chemicals
damages internal organs of human.

2. The Negative Effects on Air

Unscientific dismantling, shredding and melting of e-waste causes air pollution. Breathing of polluted air
causes respiratory problems.

3. The Negative Effects on Soil

When improper disposal of e-waste in regular landfills, the heavy metals and flame retardants can seep
directly from the e-waste into the soil, causing contamination of groundwater and contaminations of crops
of that area.

4. The Negative effect on water bodies

The heavy metals from e-waste, such as mercury, lithium, lead and barium, then leak through the earth
and reach groundwater and eventually make their way into ponds, streams, rivers and lakes.

To prevent the human being and environment from contamination of these pollutants, it is desirable to
manage e-waste scientifically and to follow reuse and recycle methodologies.
Health hazards of e-waste
Solder: Solder contains lead that damages the nervous system, blood system, and kidney and also
affect the development of brain in children.
Relays, Switches and Printed Circuit Boards
Mercury present in these elements leads to brain damage, disorders in the respiratory system and
skin diseases.
Corrosion Protectors
Asthmatic bronchitis and DNA damage are caused due to the Hexavalent Chromium present.
Cabling and Computer Housing
When burn these produce dioxin, which causes problems of reproduction, destruction of the
immune system, and regulatory hormones are damaged too.

Brominated Flame Retardants: BFRs increases contamination of the environment, wildlife, and
people. These do not decompose easily in the environment, and long term exposure can cause
impaired memory function and learning. Pregnant women exposed to brominated flame retardants
have been shown to give birth to babies with behavioral problems as it interferes with estrogen
and thyroid functioning.
Arsenic: Arsenic is a poisonous metallic element which is present in dust and soluble substances.
Chronic exposure to arsenic can lead to various diseases of skin and decrease nerve conduction
velocity. Chronic exposure to arsenic can also cause lung cancer and can often be fatal.

Barium: Barium forms toxic oxides when reacted with air. Short term exposure to barium could
lead to brain swelling, damage to heart, liver and spleen.

Beryllium: Exposure to Beryllium causes lung cancer. People working in beryllium atmosphere
will suffer from Beryllicosis, a disease primarily affects lungs.

Cadmium: Cadmium can easily be accumulated in human body. Acute exposure to cadmium
fumes causes flu-like symptoms of weakness, fever, headache, chills, sweating and muscular
pain. Long exposure to Cadmium causes lung cancer and kidney damage. It also causes
pulmonary emphysema and one disease(osteomalacia and osteoporosis)
Methods of disposal of E-waste:

To avoid the toxic effects of e-waste, it is crucial to dispose them in proper manner, so
that items can be recycled, resold, or reused.

Following methods are used to dispose e-waste:

Landfills: This is the most commonly used method of disposing e-waste. In this
method, large trenches are made in the soil to bury e-waste. But this is not a good
method to dispose e-waste because e-waste contains toxic substances like lead,
mercury, etc., that leak into the earth and harm the underground water and soil.
Incineration: It is also the most commonly used method to dispose of e-waste. In this
method, the e-waste is burned at high temperatures in specially designed incinerators.
Due to which the volume of e-waste is reduced and the energy produced by this
method is also utilized separately. But this is also not a good method because when
the e-waste burns, it releases harmful gases which harm our environment.
Acid Bath: In this method, the e-waste is soaked in powerful sulphuric,

hydrochloric, nitric acid solutions that remove the metal from the e-waste. The

recovered metal is further reused to create other products. This method also has

drawbacks, like the acid solutions sometimes dumped into the water resources

which is harmful for living things.

Reuse of e-waste
1. E-waste often contains precious metals such as gold, copper and nickel and rare materials of
strategic value such as indium and palladium. These precious and heavy metals could be
recovered, recycled and used as valuable source of secondary raw materials.
2. For instance, printed circuit boards (PCBs), present in all types of electronic equipment, are of
major interest because they contain secondary raw materials that are rich in copper and
precious metals such as gold, silver and palladium.
3. For example, a single mobile phone can contain high concentrations of gold (24 mg), silver
(250 mg) and palladium (9 mg)
4. E-waste contains precious metals including gold, silver, copper, platinum, and palladium, but
it also contains valuable bulky materials such as iron and aluminum, along with plastics that
can be recycled and reused
Advantage of Recycling
1. It Prioritizes Environmental Protection
2. E waste Recycling Helps to Conserve Available Natural Resources
3. E-waste recycling is creating new jobs for people and local recyclers nearby.
4. Saves Landfills and Reduces GHG emissions
5. Prevent Water Bodies from Toxic Waste Poisoning
6. E waste recycling helps reduce air pollution
7. Electronic Recycling Promotes Soil Fertility and Maintain Nutrient
Extraction of Copper from e-waste

The electronic waste also contains fair percentage of precious metals like Cu, Ag, Au, Pd,
Rh etc.

Techniques such as Pyrometallurgy, Hydrometallurgy and Bio-hydrometallurgy are used to

recover precious metals like copper, silver and gold.
 Hydrometallurgy for extraction of Copper and Gold from e-Waste
Stage I Leaching
1 .PCB’s, CPU’s and mother boards are crushed to 1mm size particles and soaked in 100mL HNO3 to leach 99%
copper
2. The pieces are soaked in 100mL of 3M HNO3 to leach 99% Copper.
3. The solution is filtered to separate the leachate and residue. The leachate contains cooper ions.
Stage II Leaching
4. Filtered residue was then treated with 3M NaBr containing 3M H2SO4 of 100mL to dissolve gold and silver.
5. Solution is heated in a three neck flask at 50˚C
Solvent Extraction
a) Recovery of Copper: The pH of Stage I leachate was adjusted to 3.5 by controlled addition of NH4OH
800g of Phenolic Oxime was mixed with 1L kerosene and added to above solution and stirred for 2hrs at 20˚C.
Organic and acid layers are physically separated, organic layer was stripped in sulphuric or nitric acid.
Further, purification is done by electrolysis using 100% Copper as cathode.

a) Recovery of Gold: Stage II leachate was treated with 0.1M organic amide in toluene, stirred for 2hrs at 20˚C.
Organic and acid layers are physically separated and Organic layer was stripped in 1.0M Sodium Hydroxide.
Further, purification is done by electrolysis using 100% Gold as cathode.