Contents

Introduction iv
Exam breakdown v

1 Characteristics and classification of living organisms 1

2 Organisation of the organism 10

3 Movement into and out of cells 18

4 Biological molecules 26

5 Enzymes 29

6 Plant nutrition 34

7 Human nutrition 44

8 Transport in plants 53

9 Transport in animals 59

10 Diseases and immunity 67

11 Gas exchange in humans 72

12 Respiration 76

13 Excretion in humans 80

14 Coordination and response 83

15 Drugs 97

16 Reproduction 99

17 Inheritance 112

18 Variation and selection 123

19 Organisms and their environment 129

20 Human influences on ecosystems 141

21 Biotechnology and genetic modification 151

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Index 157

Answers to exam-style questions are available at:

www.hoddereducation.co.uk/cambridgeextras

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 Characteristics and

1
classification of living
organisms

Key objectives
The objectives for this chapter are to revise:
l how classification systems aim to reflect
l definitions of the key terms
l characteristics of living organisms
evolutionary relationships
l how the sequences of bases in DNA are
l classification of organisms into groups using
shared features used as a means of classification
l how similarities and differences in base
l species and the binomial system of naming them
l features of the cells of all living organisms
sequences of DNA show how closely related
l features used to place animals and plants into
groups of organisms are
l the features of the five kingdoms
the appropriate kingdoms
l classification of ferns and flowering plants
l classification of vertebrates and arthropods
l the features of viruses
l construction and use of simple dichotomous
keys

Key terms
Term Definition
Binomial system An internationally agreed system in which the scientific name of an organism is made up of
two parts, showing the genus and the species
Excretion Removal of waste products of metabolism and substances in excess of requirements
Growth A permanent increase in size and dry mass
Movement An action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of position or place
Nutrition The taking in of materials for energy, growth and development
Reproduction The processes that make more of the same kind of organism
Respiration The chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules and release energy for
metabolism
Sensitivity The ability to detect and respond to changes in the internal or external environment
Species A group of organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile offspring

Characteristics of living organisms

There are seven characteristics shown by all living things, including plants
and other organisms. These are movement, respiration, sensitivity,
growth, reproduction, excretion and nutrition. You need to be able to
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recall and describe these.

You may be given a picture of an organism to study and then asked to Revision activity
identify which characteristics you could observe by watching it for a few
Create a mnemonic (a
minutes. Some of the seven would not be suitable answers, for example sentence using the first
growth, respiration and reproduction (these are not likely to be visible or letter of each word) to
observable in a short timespan). Some non-living things, such as cars, may help you remember the
appear to show some of the characteristics, but not all of them. seven characteristics of
Do not confuse respiration (chemical reactions in cells that break down living organisms, such
as MRS GREN. It can be
nutrient molecules and release energy for metabolism) with breathing.
more memorable if you
Also, do not use faeces or defecation as an example of excretion. Faeces have made it up yourself.
are undigested food and are not formed through metabolic processes.

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 Classification systems

Sample question
Name three characteristics of living things that you would expect an
organism to show, other than irritability. [3]

Student’s answer
Movement ✓, reproduction ✓ and sensitivity ✗

Teacher’s comments
The first two answers are fine. However, the term sensitivity means the
same as irritability, which has already been given in the question, so it did
not earn a mark. Other possible answers are respiration, growth, excretion
and nutrition.

Classification systems
Classification makes the identification of living organisms easier – there
are more than one million different species already identified. It involves
sorting organisms into groups according to the features they have in
common. The biggest group is called a kingdom. Each kingdom is divided
into smaller groups, which include genus and species. Organisms can exist
in only one group at each level of classification. For example, an organism
can belong to only one kingdom or one genus.
When learning details about the classification of an organism, remember
to identify what features are adaptations to its environment.

Binomial nomenclature
The binomial system is a worldwide system used by scientists. The
scientific name of an organism is made up of two parts – genus and
species – which are in Latin. The genus always has a capital letter – for
example, Panthera leo is the binomial name for lion.

Dichotomous keys
Keys are often used by biologists in the process of identifying organisms.
You need to be able to construct and use a dichotomous key, i.e. a key
that branches into two at each stage, requiring you to choose between
alternatives.
When completing a question involving a dichotomous key, make sure you
work through the key properly to select your answer, rather than jumping
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to a statement that appears to fit the organism.

Skills
Construction of dichotomous keys
You need to be able to develop the skill of The question is going to generate a ‘yes’ or ‘no’
constructing simple dichotomous keys, based on answer. For each of the two subgroups formed,
easily identifiable features. If you know the main a further question based on the features of some
characteristics of a group, it is possible to draw of that subgroup should then be developed. This
up a systematic plan for identifying an unfamiliar questioning can be continued until every member
organism. The first question should be based of the group has been separated and identified.
on a feature that will split the group into two.

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 1 Characteristics and classification of living organisms

Classification and evolutionary relationships

By classifying organisms, it is also possible to understand evolutionary
relationships. Classification is traditionally based on studies of
morphology (the study of the form, or outward appearance, of
organisms) and anatomy (the study of their internal structure, as
revealed by dissection). Vertebrates all have a vertebral column, a skull
protecting a brain and a pair of jaws (usually with teeth). By studying
the anatomy of different groups of vertebrates, it is possible to gain an
insight into their evolution.

Use of DNA sequencing in classification

The sequences of DNA and of amino acids in proteins are used as a
more accurate means of classification than studying morphology
and anatomy. Eukaryotic organisms contain chromosomes, made up
of strings of genes. Genes are made of DNA, which is composed of a
sequence of bases (see Chapter 4). Each species has a distinct number
of chromosomes and a unique sequence of bases in its DNA, making it
identifiable and distinguishable from other species.
The process of biological classification involves organisms being
grouped together according to whether or not they have one or more
unique characteristics in common derived from the group’s last common
ancestor, which are not present in more distant ancestors. Organisms
that share a more recent ancestor (and are more closely related) have
DNA base sequences that are more similar than those that share only a
distant ancestor.

Features of organisms
The cells of all living organisms contain cytoplasm, a cell membrane and
DNA as genetic material. Two kingdoms are the plant and animal kingdoms.
Plants are made up of many cells – they are multicellular. Plant cells
have an outside wall made of cellulose. Many of the cells in plant leaves
and stems contain chloroplasts with photosynthetic pigments, such as
chlorophyll. Plants make their food through photosynthesis.
Animals are multicellular organisms whose cells have no cell walls or
chloroplasts. Most animals ingest solid food and digest it internally.
For the core syllabus, you only need to learn the main groups of
vertebrates and arthropods.

Classification of vertebrates
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Vertebrates are animals with backbones (part of an internal skeleton).

Vertebrates are divided into five groups called classes. Details of each group
are given in Table 1.1. You only need to be able to describe visible external
features, but other details can be helpful (see the ‘Other details’ column).

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 Features of organisms

q Table 1.1 Classification of vertebrates

Vertebrate class Body covering Movement Reproduction Sense organs Other details Examples
Fish Scales Fins (also Usually Eyes but no Cold blooded; Herring,
used for produces ears; lateral gills for rohu, shark
balance) jelly-covered line along breathing
eggs in water body for
detecting
vibrations in
water
Amphibians Moist skin Four limbs; Produces Eyes and ears Cold blooded; Frog, toad,
back feet jelly-covered lungs and skin salamander
often eggs in water for breathing
webbed
to make
swimming
more
efficient

Reptiles Dry, with Four legs Eggs with Eyes and ears Cold blooded; Crocodile,
scales (apart from rubbery, lungs for python
snakes) waterproof breathing
shell; eggs
are laid on
land
Birds Feathers, Wings; two Eggs with Eyes and ears Warm blooded; Flamingo,
scales on legs legs hard shell lungs for kestrel,
breathing; pigeon
beak

Mammals Fur Four limbs Live young Eyes, ears Warm blooded; Elephant,
with pinna lungs for mouse
(external flap) breathing;
females have
mammary
glands to
produce milk
to feed young;
four types
of teeth

Sample question
Animals A, B and C are vertebrates:
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l A has a scaly skin, four legs and lungs.

l B has hair, four legs and mammary glands.

l C has a scaly skin, fins and gills.

Create a table to show the group of organisms that each of the

animals belongs to. [3]

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 1 Characteristics and classification of living organisms

Student’s answer

Animal Vertebrate group

A Reptile ✓
B Mammel ✓
C Fish ✓

Teacher’s comments
This answer has gained all three marks. The teacher allowed the second
answer, although the spelling of mammal was not correct. Try to make sure
that your spellings are correct – poor spelling can result in a mark not
being awarded, especially if the word is similar to another biological word,
for example meiosis and mitosis.

Classification of arthropods
Special features of arthropods:
l They are invertebrates – they have no backbone.
l They have an exoskeleton that is waterproof. This makes arthropods an
extremely successful group, because they can exist in very dry places and
are not confined to water or moist places like most other invertebrates.
l Their bodies are segmented.

l They have jointed limbs (the exoskeleton would otherwise prevent

movement).
There are more arthropods than any other group of animals, so they are
divided into classes. Figure 1.1 shows the differences between the four
classes – insects, arachnids, crustaceans and myriapods. You only need to
know about their external features.
Insects, e.g. dragonfly, locust Arachnids, e.g. spider, tick
Key features: Key features:
l three pairs of legs l four pairs of legs
l usually have two pairs of wings l body divided into cephalothorax and
l one pair of antennae abdomen
l body divided into head, thorax and l several pairs of simple eyes
abdomen l chelicerae for biting and poisoning prey
l a pair of compound eyes
Crustaceans, e.g. crab, woodlouse Myriapods, e.g. centipede, millipede
Key features: Key features:
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l five or more pairs of legs l ten or more pairs of legs (usually

l two pairs of antennae one pair per segment)
l body divided into cephalothorax and l one pair of antennae
abdomen l body not obviously divided into
l exoskeleton often calcified to form a thorax and abdomen
carapace (hard) l simple eyes
l compound eyes

 Figure 1.1 Classification of arthropods

Be careful with when answering questions about the different numbers

of legs in insects, arachnids and crustaceans. Students often state that
insects have three legs instead of three pairs of legs, losing the mark
through carelessness or haste.

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 Five kingdoms

Five kingdoms
In the classification of living organisms, there are five kingdoms, each
with its own special and obvious features. The kingdoms are as follows:
l Animals – multicellular organisms that have to obtain their food.
Their cells do not have walls.
l Plants – multicellular organisms with the ability to make their own
food through photosynthesis because of the presence of chlorophyll.
Their cells have walls (containing cellulose).
l Fungi – many are made of hyphae, with nuclei and cell walls
(containing chitin) but no chloroplasts.
l Prokaryotes (bacteria) – very small and single celled, with cell walls
but no nucleus.
l Protoctists – single celled with a nucleus. Some have chloroplasts.

Features of the plant kingdom

You only need to learn the features of flowering plants and ferns.
Flowering plants (Figure 1.2) are all multicellular organisms. Their cells
have cellulose cell walls and sap vacuoles. Some of the cells contain
chloroplasts. They have roots, stems and leaves. Reproduction can be by
producing seeds, although asexual reproduction is also possible.
flower

parallel
veins

shoot
leaf

bud node (a) monocot leaves

ground level
network
of veins
main or
tap root

lateral roots root main

system
vein
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 Figure 1.2 Structure of a typical flowering plant (b) a dicot leaf

There are two groups – monocotyledons and dicotyledons. The term  Figure 1.3 Leaf types in
cotyledon means ‘seed leaf’. The main differences between the two groups flowering plants
are shown in Figure 1.3 and listed in Table 1.2.

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 1 Characteristics and classification of living organisms

q Table 1.2 Features of monocotyledons and dicotyledons

Feature Monocotyledon Dicotyledon

Leaf shape Long and narrow Broad
Leaf veins Parallel Branching
Cotyledons One Two
Grouping of flower parts, In threes In fives leaf
such as petals, sepals and
carpels

Ferns (Figure 1.4) are land plants. Their stems, leaves

and roots are very similar to those of the flowering
plants. The stem is usually entirely below ground. The
stem and leaves have sieve tubes and water-conducting
cells. Ferns also have multicellular roots with vascular
tissue. The leaves are several cells thick. Most of these underground
have an upper and lower epidermis, a layer of palisade stem
cells and a spongy mesophyll. roots

Ferns do not form buds. The midrib and leaflets of the

 Figure 1.4 Structure of a fern
young leaf are tightly coiled and unwind as it grows. Ferns
produce gametes but no seeds. The zygote gives rise to the
fern plant, which then produces single-celled spores from strand of
genetic material
numerous sporangia (spore capsules) on its leaves. The
sporangia are formed on the lower side of the leaf. protein coat

Features of viruses
Viruses are very small (one-hundredth the size of  Figure 1.5 Structure of a virus
bacteria), and they do not have a typical cell structure
(Figure 1.5). The only life process they show is Revision activity
reproduction (inside host cells). They contain a strand of Make your own
genetic material (DNA or RNA) and are surrounded by a mnemonic for the five
protein coat. kingdoms, using the
letters P, P, F, P, A.

Exam-style questions
1 Complete the following sentences about the characteristics of
living organisms using only words from the list below. [4]
excretion growth movement nutrition
respiration sensitivity
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A living organism can be compared to a machine such as a car. The

supply of petrol for the car is similar to ______, and the release
of energy when the petrol is burned resembles ______ in a living
organism. This can bring about the ______ of the wheels. ______ in
living organisms is similar to the release of exhaust fumes by the car.

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 Five kingdoms

2 Figure 1.6 shows single leaves from six different trees.

A B C

D E F
 Figure 1.6
Use the key below to identify which tree each leaf comes from. Make a
table similar to the one below and put a tick in the correct box to show
how you identified each leaf. Give the name of the tree. Leaf A has
been identified for you as an example. [5]
1 a Leaf with smooth outline go to 2
b Leaf with jagged outline go to 3
2 a Leaf about the same length as width Cydonia
b Leaf about twice as long as it is wide Magnolia
3 a Leaf divided into more than two distinct parts go to 4
b Leaf not divided into more than two distinct parts go to 5
4 a Leaf divided into five parts Aesculus
b Leaf divided into ten or more parts Fraxinus
5 a Leaf with pointed spines along its edge Ilex
b Leaf with rounded lobes along its edge Quercus

Leaf 1a 1b 2a 2b 3a 3b 4a 4b 5a 5b Name of tree

A ✓ ✓ Cydonia
B

3 Figure 1.7 shows some invertebrates found in a compost heap.

D
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C
B
A

        
 Figure 1.7

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 1 Characteristics and classification of living organisms

Use the key to identify each animal and state the items in the key
used in each identification. One has been done for you. [6]
1 Has legs 2
No legs 5
2 More than six legs 3
Six legs 4
3 Short, flattened grey body Oniscus asellus
Long brown/yellow body Lithobius forficatus
4 Pincers on last segment Forficula auricularia
Hard wing covers Coccinella septempunctata
5 Body segmented Lumbricus terrestris
Body not segmented 6
6 Has a shell Helix aspersa
No shell Arion ater

Animal Name of animal Items used in the key

A Helix aspersa 1, 5, 6
B
C
D

4 Figure 1.8 can be used to identify the main classes of vertebrate.

Use the key to identify the main classes represented by the
letters A–E. [5]
animals with a backbone
(vertebrates)

scales on at least no scales

part of skin on skin

wet scaly dry scaly naked skin skin with

skin skin B hair
A C

feathers no feathers, and either

and two legs four legs or no legs
D E
 Figure 1.8

5 a Copy the diagrams of the insect, crustacean and arachnid in

Figure 1.1 (p. 5) and label the key features that you can see. [4]
b Copy the myriapod diagram in Figure 1.1 and label the features
that are common to all arthropods. [3]
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 2 Organisation of the organism

Key objectives
The objectives for this chapter are to revise:
l how to convert measurements between
l definitions of the key terms
l structures of plant, animal and bacterial cells
millimetres (mm) and micrometres (µm)
and the functions of cell structures
l tissues, organs and organ systems
l calculating the magnification and size of
biological specimens

Key terms
Term Definition
Cell The smallest basic unit of an animal or plant; it is microscopic and acts as a building block
Magnification The observed size of an image divided by the actual size of the image
Organ A structure made up of a group of tissues working together to perform a specific function
Organ system A group of organs with related functions working together to perform a body function
Organism A living thing that has an organised structure, can react to stimuli, reproduce, grow, adapt,
and maintain homeostasis
Tissue A group of cells with similar structures working together to perform a shared function

Cell structure and organisation

Most living things are made of cells – microscopic units that act as
building blocks. Multicellular organisms are made up of many cells. Cell
shape varies depending on its function (what job it does). Plant and
animal cells differ in size, shape and structure (Figure 2.1). Plant cells are
usually larger than animal cells.
Animal cell Plant cell
membrane This is a liver cell. It is cell wall This is a palisade cell. It
a very active cell. The membrane is found below the upper
cytoplasm contains many nucleus epidermis of leaves. Its
nucleus
mitochondria, which cytoplasm
role is in photosynthesis
provide energy for the – trapping sunlight and
chloroplast
cell’s activities. converting it into chemical
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sap vacuole
energy.
cytoplasm

 Figure 2.1 Comparison of animal and plant cells

When viewed under an electron microscope, other organelles become

visible. These include ribosomes and mitochondria (Figure 2.2).

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 2 Organisation of the organism

cell
mitochondrion membrane

nuclear pore

nucleus
rough
endoplasmic
reticulum

cytoplasm

ribosome (on rough

endoplasmic reticulum)
 Figure 2.2 Liver cell

Remember:
l Animal cells contain only three main parts: membrane, nucleus and
cytoplasm.
l Animal cells never have a cell wall, chloroplasts or sap vacuoles
(although they may have temporary vacuoles where food is stored). Revision activity
l Not all cells have all cell parts when mature – for example, red blood Make a mnemonic to
cells do not have a nucleus and xylem cells do not have a nucleus or help you remember
cytoplasm. the three main parts of
l It is not true that all plant cells contain chloroplasts – for example, animal cells (membrane,
epidermis cells and root cells do not. nucleus, cytoplasm) – for
example, Mice Nibble
l Chloroplasts (structures or organelles) are different from chlorophyll Cheese.
(the chemical found in them).

Parts of a cell
Structures found in animal and plant cells are summarised in Table 2.1.
q Table 2.1 Structures in animal and plant cells, and their functions

Part Description Where found Function

Animal and Cytoplasm Jelly-like, containing Enclosed by a cell Contains cell organelles,
plant cells particles and organelles membrane e.g. mitochondria, nucleus
Chemical reactions take
place here
Membrane Partially permeable layer Around the Prevents cell contents from
that forms a boundary cytoplasm escaping
around the cytoplasm
Controls what substances
enter and leave the cell
Nucleus Round or oval structure Inside the cytoplasm Controls cell division
containing DNA in the form
Controls cell development
of chromosomes
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Controls cell activities

Ribosomes Tiny particles floating Inside the cytoplasm Responsible for synthesis of
freely or attached to proteins from amino acids
membranes called rough
endoplasmic reticulum
Mitochondria Circular, oval or slipper- Inside the cytoplasm Responsible for aerobic
(singular: shaped organelle respiration
mitochondrion)
Cells with high rates of
metabolism, e.g. liver cells,
require large numbers of
mitochondria to provide
sufficient energy

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 Cell structure and organisation

Part Description Where found Function

Plant cells Cell wall Tough, non-living layer Around the outside of Prevents plant cells from
only made of cellulose; it plant cells bursting
surrounds the membrane
Freely permeable (allows
water and mineral ions to
pass through)
Sap vacuole Fluid-filled space Inside the cytoplasm Contains mineral ions and
surrounded by a membrane of plant cells sugars
Helps keep plant cells firm
Chloroplasts Organelles containing Inside the cytoplasm Trap light energy for
chlorophyll of some plant cells photosynthesis

Sample question
Figure 2.3 shows a nerve cell. State the names of the cell parts A, B
and C. [3]
A

 Figure 2.3

Student’s answer Teacher’s comments

A: cell wall ✗; B: cytoplasm ✓; C: nucleus ✓ The first answer is wrong
– a nerve cell is an animal
cell, so it does not have
a cell wall. The correct
Revision activity answer for part A is cell
Trace, copy or sketch the cells shown in Figure 2.1 (p. 10). Practise labelling membrane.
both cells. Then do the same with other types of animal and plant cells.
When labelling plant cells, start from the outside (the cell wall) and work
inwards on this order: cell wall, membrane, cytoplasm, chloroplast,
nucleus, sap vacuole. The chloroplasts and nucleus are both held inside
the cytoplasm.
Cell walls are always drawn as a double line to show their thickness. Make
sure that your cell wall label line touches the outer line. The membrane
label line should touch the inner line of the cell wall (when plant cells are
turgid – firm – the membrane is pressed against the cell wall).
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Bacterial cell structure

Bacteria are very small organisms that are single cells. They have a cell wall
surrounding the cytoplasm, which contains large numbers of free-floating
ribosomes and granules. Bacteria do not have a nucleus: they have circular
DNA, made of a single chromosome, and plasmids (Figure 2.4).

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 2 Organisation of the organism

chromosome
cell wall (single DNA
strand coiled up)

ribosome glycogen
granule

plasmid

cytoplasm
flagellum (in
some bacteria)
 Figure 2.4 Generalised diagram of a bacterium

q Table 2.2 Structures in bacterial cells and their functions

Part Description Where found Function

Cytoplasm Jelly-like; contains particles and Surrounded by the cell Contains cell structures, e.g.
organelles membrane ribosomes, circular DNA,
plasmids
Cell membrane A partially permeable layer that Around the cytoplasm Prevents cell contents from
surrounds the cytoplasm escaping
Controls what substances enter
and leave the cell
Circular DNA A single circular chromosome Inside the cytoplasm Controls cell division
Controls cell development
Controls cell activities
Plasmids Small, circular pieces of DNA Inside the cytoplasm Contain genes that carry genetic
information to help the processes
of survival and reproduction of the
bacterium
Ribosomes Small, circular structures Inside the cytoplasm Protein synthesis
Cell wall A tough, non-living layer Around the outside of the Prevents the cell from bursting
(not made of cellulose) that bacterial cell
Allows water and mineral ions to
surrounds the cell membrane
pass through (freely permeable)

Formation of new cells

Cells have a limited lifespan; if they become damaged, they may not
function properly. New cells are constantly being formed by the division of
existing cells.
Plant and animal cells divide by a process called mitosis (Chapter 17).
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Gametes (sex cells) are formed by a different process called meiosis,

which involves halving the chromosome number (Chapter 17).
Bacterial cells do not divide by mitosis because they do not have a
nucleus. They divide in the process of asexual reproduction (Chapter 16).

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 Sample question

Specialisation of cells
Figure 2.5 shows examples of cells and their functions in tissues.
Animal cells
Ciliated cells – in Sperm cells Red blood cells Egg cells Neurones
respiratory tract

Special features: Special features:

Special features: tail Special features: Special features:
tiny hairs called no nucleus; contain large amount of
to enable the sperm to often very long and
cilia that can move swim. Nucleus carrieshaemoglobin cytoplasm containing able to conduct
mucus genetic information yolk droplets, made electrical impulses.
Function:
up of protein and Some have a fatty
Function: waft Function: reproduction, transport oxygen sheath for insulation
fat. Nucleus carries
mucus with bacteria achieved by penetrating around the body
genetic information Function: carry
and dust away from an egg cell
the lungs Function: reproduction electrical impulses to
and from the brain and
spinal cord
Plant cells
Root hair cells Palisade mesophyll cells

Special features: hair gives a large surface Special features: column-shaped cells, packed with chloroplasts
area
Function: trap sunlight to make food for the plant by photosynthesis
Function: absorb water and mineral ions

 Figure 2.5 Examples of specialised animal and plant cells

Xylem and phloem tissues are often confused. Remember:

l Xylem carries water and mineral ions.
l Phloem transports sugars and amino acids.
l In a vascular bundle in a stem, phloem is on the outside and xylem is
on the inside.

Sample question
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With reference to a suitable named example, define the term tissue.[3]

Student’s answer
A tissue is a group of cells ✓ carrying out the same job ✓.

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 2 Organisation of the organism

Teacher’s comments
The answer needs three clear points to gain the 3 marks available. This
student has not named a type of tissue (even though this was the first
instruction in the question) and has given only two correct points. Always
use the marks shown in the margin to show you how many points to give.
Avoid giving more than three; this would waste time that you might need
to answer other questions. Choose three statements to make before writing
them down. The teacher will not select the best answers from a mixture of
good and bad ones.

Organs and organ systems

You need to be able to give examples of organs and organ systems in
both plants and animals.
Organs are made of several tissues grouped together to make a structure
with a special job. A leaf is an organ made up of a number of tissues, such
as the upper epidermis and palisade mesophyll. Organ systems are groups
of organs with closely related functions. Table 2.3 shows examples found
in animals and plants.
q Table 2.3 Examples of organs and organ systems in animals and plants

Organism Examples of organs Examples of organ systems

Animal Heart, lungs, intestine, eye, Circulatory system, nervous
brain system, digestive system
Plant Leaf, stem, flower Shoot, reproductive system

Revision activity
It is important that you can identify the lobed
different levels of organisation in drawings, nucleus bacterium
diagrams and images of plant and animal
material. Practise this by looking at
examples in textbooks or on the internet.
Annotating (adding a description to a
labelled part of a diagram or drawing) cytoplasm forms pseudopodia
these diagrams and drawings is also a to surround and engulf
bacteria – enzymes are
useful revision tool, and may help you gain released to digest and kill
extra marks in an exam answer. Figure 2.6 bacteria
shows the action of a phagocyte, for
 Figure 2.6 A phagocyte
example. engulfing a bacterium
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Size of specimens
A microscope makes a specimen appear larger than it really is (it magnifies
the specimen). You need to be able to calculate the magnification and
also the actual size of the specimen.
If dealing with a very large number, it may be better to display it in
standard form.

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 Size of specimens

Skills
Standard form
n
Standard form is a way of writing down very large You write it as y × 10 where:
or very small numbers more easily. It uses the l y is always a number greater than or equal to 1,
powers of 10 to show how big or how small the but less than 10
number is. l n can be any positive or negative whole number

If answering an extended paper, remember that there are 1000

micrometres (μm) in a millimetre. Therefore:
l To change a measurement from micrometres to millimetres, you need
to divide the figure by 1000.
l To change a measurement from millimetres to micrometres, you need
to multiply the figure by 1000.

Skills
Magnification observed size
magnification =
To calculate the magnification of specimens that actual size
have been observed using a light microscope, Make sure that the observed size and actual size
memorise and use the following equation: have the same units.

Exam-style questions
1 a Describe how a bacterial cell is different from a plant cell such
as a palisade cell. [3]
b Explain why bacterial cells do not divide by mitosis. [1]
2 Identify parts A, B, C and D shown in Figure 2.7, and describe their
main features and functions. [12]
A

D
 Figure 2.7
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3 a Name one organ not given in Table 2.3 that is found in:
i animals [1]
ii plants [1]
b Name two tissues found in each of the organs you have named. [4]

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 2 Organisation of the organism

4 The diagram of a cow’s eye shown in Figure 2.8 is magnified ×2.5

(not drawn to scale). Calculate the actual width of the eye, as shown
between points A and B. Show your working. [2]

7.5 cm
A B

 Figure 2.8
5 Display the sizes of the following organisms in standard form.
a The actual length of leaf D in Figure 1.6 (p. 8) (350 mm). [1]
b The diameter of a bacterial cell (0.002 mm). [1]

6 The actual length of leaf D in Figure 1.6 is 350 mm.

a Convert this figure into micrometres. [1]
b Display your answer in standard form. [1]

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 3 Movement into and out of cells

Key objectives
The objectives for this chapter are to revise: l that plants are supported by the pressure of
l definitions of diffusion and active transport water inside the cells pressing outwards on
l the source of energy for diffusion the cell wall
l that some substances move into and out
of cells by diffusion through the cell l the definition of osmosis
membrane l how to explain the effects of osmosis on
l the importance of diffusion of gases and plant cells
solutes in living organisms l how to use the terms associated with osmosis
l the factors that influence diffusion l the importance of water potential and
l the role of water as a solvent in organisms osmosis in the uptake and loss of water by
l that water diffuses through partially organisms
permeable membranes, and into and out l how to explain the importance of active
of cells through the cell membrane, by transport as a process for movement of
osmosis molecules or ions across membranes
l investigations into the effects on plant tissues l that protein carriers move molecules or ions
of immersing them in solutions of different across a membrane during active transport
concentrations

Key terms
Term Definition
Active transport The movement of particles through a cell membrane from a region of their lower concentration to a
region of higher concentration (i.e. against a concentration gradient), using energy from respiration
Diffusion The net movement of particles from a region of their higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration (i.e. down a concentration gradient), as a result of their random movement
Osmosis The net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential (dilute solution) to a
region of lower water potential (concentrated solution) through a partially permeable membrane

Diffusion
Diffusion is a really important process for living organisms because
it helps to provide essential gases and solutes (materials in solution),
and also helps to remove some substances that are potentially toxic
(poisonous). These move into or out of the cell through the cell membrane.
Table 3.1 gives some examples.
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q Table 3.1 Examples of diffusion in living organisms

Site of diffusion Substance Description

Alveoli of lungs Oxygen From the alveoli into the blood capillaries
Alveoli of lungs Carbon dioxide From blood capillaries into the alveoli
Stomata of leaf Oxygen From the air spaces, through stomata, into
the atmosphere during photosynthesis

The energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic (movement) energy of the
random movement of molecules and ions. From the organism’s point of view,
it is a ‘free’ process – no energy needs to be provided to make it happen.

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 3 Movement into and out of cells

Rates of diffusion Revision activity

You need to be able to state the factors that help diffusion to be
Make a mnemonic to
efficient. These are:
remember the factors
l distance (the shorter the better), for example the thin walls of alveoli that help diffusion to be
and capillaries efficient. The order of
l concentration gradient (the bigger the better); this can be maintained by
letters is not important;
sort them so they
removing the substance as it passes across the diffusion surface (think
make a memorable
about oxygenated blood being carried away from the surface of alveoli) sentence. For example,
l surface area for diffusion (the larger the better), for example there Cold Dinosaurs Sip Tea
are millions of alveoli in a lung, giving a huge surface area for the (concentration gradient,
diffusion of oxygen distance, surface area,
l temperature (molecules have more kinetic energy at higher temperatures)
temperature). The
sillier the better, as
Do not confuse cell walls with capillary walls – animal cells do not have it helps make it more
walls. Many students throw away marks by referring to ‘the thin cell walls memorable.
of capillaries’. What they mean is ‘the walls of capillaries are thin because
they are only one cell thick’.

Skills is measured. The other cubes are removed at

intervals of 15 minutes, sectioned and measured
Investigating how distance travelled affects the
in the same way. The rate of diffusion for each
rate of diffusion
cube is calculated using the equation:
You may be asked how to investigate how the
distance a material has to travel affects the rate distance travelled
rate =
of diffusion. This can be done using transparent time
blocks of agar or gelatine. They are cut into four Your results should lead you to the following
cubes, all with length of side 3.0 cm, and placed conclusions:
in a beaker containing a dye, such as methylene 1 The longer the cube is left in the dye, the
blue. greater the distance travelled by the dye.
After 15 minutes, the first cube is removed and 2 The further the dye travels, the slower the rate
cut in half. The depth to which the dye has diffused of diffusion.

Osmosis
Water is important to living things as a solvent – many substances
(solutes) dissolve in it. Examples include glucose, mineral ions and amino
acids. In animals, water is essential for the following processes:
l Digestion – water helps to break down and dissolve food molecules in
the process of digestion.
l Transport – blood is made up of cells and a water-based liquid called
plasma. The plasma is a way of transporting many dissolved substances,
for example carbon dioxide, urea, glucose and hormones.
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l Excretion – water is important in the process of excretion in animals

because some of the excretory materials, for example urea, are toxic.
Water dilutes these to make them less poisonous. Urine is a solution
containing dissolved mineral ions, urea, used hormones and drugs.
Osmosis is a special form of diffusion. It always involves the movement of
water across a partially permeable membrane. Plants rely on osmosis to obtain
water through their roots. They use water as a transport medium to carry
dissolved mineral ions, sucrose and amino acids around the plant through the
xylem and phloem vessels, and to maintain the firmness of cells. When young
plants lose more water than they gain, cells become limp and the plants wilt.

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 Osmosis

Fish living in salt water lose water by osmosis. They have very efficient
kidneys to reduce water loss in urine.
If we get dehydrated, water is lost from our red blood cells by osmosis. As
the cells shrink, they become less efficient at carrying oxygen.

Effects of osmosis on plant and animal tissues

l When placed in water, plant and animal cells will take in the water
through their cell membranes by diffusion. The diffusion of water in
this way is called osmosis.
l Plant cells become swollen, but do not burst because of their tough
cell wall.
l Plants are supported by the pressure of water inside the cells pressing
outwards on the cell wall, which is inelastic and prevents further net
entry of water.
l Animal cells will burst because they have no cell wall.
l The reverse happens when plant and animal cells are placed in
concentrated sugar or salt solutions – plant and animal cells become limp.
Remember that sugars and mineral ions do not move by osmosis. Cell
membranes can prevent some substances entering or leaving the cell.

Sample question
Some sugar solution was collected from the phloem of a plant stem. Plant
cells were placed on a microscope slide and covered with this sugar solution.
Describe what changes would occur to each of the following three cell
parts if the sugar solution was more concentrated than the sap in the
cell vacuole: sap vacuole, cytoplasm, cell wall. [3]

Student’s answer Teacher’s comments

Sap vacuole: this will get smaller ✓ because there is a higher concentration of The first answer is
water inside the cell, so the water will pass out of the vacuole by osmosis. correct, but this student
has wasted time writing
Cytoplasm: this will shrink because it is losing water. ✗
more than is needed –
Cell wall: this will stop stretching and stop curving outwards. ✓ the question required
a description, not an
explanation. The second
Correct answer answer should give
The sap vacuole will get smaller. details about the way the
cytoplasm comes away
The cytoplasm will shrink and pull away from the cell wall. from the cell wall. In
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The cell wall will stop stretching and stop curving outwards. the third answer, details
about the cell wall are not
very well worded, but it
is clear that the student
understands what is
happening.

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