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American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

Executive Cornmitttee
1994-1995

Voting Members

OfJers:

President: Wayne Shackelford, Georgia

Vice President: Bill Bumett, Texas

SecretaqdTreasurer: Clyde E. Pyers, Maryland

Regional Representatives:

Region I Patrick Garahan, Vermont

Region II Ben Watts, Florida

Region III Darre1 Rensink, Iowa

Region IV Lany Bonine, Arizona

Non-Voting Members

Executive Director: Francis B. Francois, Washington, D.C.

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AASHTO Highway Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures 1995

JAMES E. SIEBELS, COLORADO, Chairman

G. CHARLES LEWIS, GEORGIA, Vice Chairman
STANLEY GORDON, FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION, Secretary

ALABAMA, William F. Conway PENNSYLVANIA, Mahendra G. Pate1

ALASKA, Steve Bradford, Ray Shumway PUERTO RICO, Jose L. Melendez, Hector Camacho
ARIZONA, William R. Bruesch, F. Daniel Davis RHODE ISLAND, Kazem Farhournand
ARKANSAS, Dale F. Loe SOUTH CAROLINA, Rocque L. Kneece
CALIFORNIA, James E. Roberts SOUTH DAKOTA, John C. Cole
COLORADO, A.J. Siccardi TENNESSEE, Ed Wasserman
. CONNECTICUT, Gordon Barton
DELAWARE,, Chao H. Hu
TEXAS, Charles C. Terry
U.S. DOT, Stanley Gordon (FHWA), Nick E. Mpars
D.C., Gary A. Burch, Charles F. Williams, Jacob Patnaik (USCG1
FLORIDA, Jerry Potter UTAH, David L. Christensen
GEORGIA, Paul Liles VERMONT, Warren B. Tripp
HAWAII, Donald C. Ornellas VIRGINIA, Malcolm T. Kerley
IDAHO, L. Scott Stokes WASHINGTON, M. Myint Lwin
ILLINOIS, Ralph E. Anderson WEST VIRGINIA, James Sothen
INDIANA, John J. White WISCONSIN, Stanley W. Woods
IOWA, William A. Lundquist WYOMING, David H. Pope
KANSAS, Kenneth F. Hurst ALBERTA, Dilip K.Dasmohapatra
KENTüCKY, Richard Sutherland MANITOBA, W. Saltzberg
LOUISIANA, Wayne Aymond NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS,
MAINE, Lany L. Roberts, James E. Tuley John C. Pangalinan
MARYLAND, Earle S . Freedman NEW BRUNSWICK, G.A. Rushton
MASSACHUSETTS, Joseph P. Gill NEWFOUNDLAND, Peter Lester
MICHIGAN, Sudhakar Kulkami NORTHWEST TERRITORIES, Jivko Jivkov
MINNESOTA, Donald J. Flemming NOVA SCOTIA, C.Y.S. Nguan
MISSISSIPPI, Wilbur F. Massey ONTARIO, Ranjit S.Reel
MISSOURI, Allen F. Laffoon SASKATCHEWAN, Lome J. Hamblin
MONTANA, William S.Fullerton ENGLAND, Philip J. Andrews
NEBRASKA, Lyman D. Freemon MASS. METRO.DIST. COMM., David Lenhardt
NEVADA, Floyd I. Marcucci N.J. TURNPIKE AUTHORITY, Wallace R. Grant
NEW HAMPSHIRE, James A. Moore PORT AUTHORITY OF NY & NJ, Joseph K. Kelly
NEW JERSEY, Robert Pege NY STATE BRIDGE AUTHORITY, William Moreau
NEW MEXICO, Martin A. Gavurnick BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS, (vacant)
NEW YORK, Michael J. Cuddy, Arun Shirole U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE-FOREST
SERVICE, Steve L.Bunneíi
NORTH CAROLINA, John L. Smith
MILITARY TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT COMMAND,
NORTH DAKOTA, Steven J. Miller (vacant)
OHIO, B. David Hanhilammi U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEER-DEPT. OF THE
OKLAHOMA, Veldo M. Goins ARMY, Paul C. T.Tan
OREGON, Terry J. Shike

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PREFACE

Objective

In 1991, a study was initiated by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) to identify the current state of
the practice in the United Stat& and abroad for designing, constructing, and inspecting the falsework and formwork
used to construct highway bridge structures. The findings of this study were published in MA-RD-91-062,
Synthesis of Falsework, Formwork, and Sc@olding for Highway Bridge Structures.“)

As part of the aforementioned study, a questionnaire was developed and sent to the fifty U.S. highway
departments. Information relating to design and administrative policies for falsework and formwork construction,
and the bridge construction activity for each State was requested. Virtually every State was found to have general
requirements and guideiines for the consmaion and removal of falseworkand fomwork. However, only about half
of the States specified design criteria. Similarly, only 22 States had accompanying design or construction manuais
that included specific design information.

In addition to identifying the content of State specifications,the survey also provided Some insight regarding each
State’s respective administrativepolicies concerning faisework and formwork. About two-thirds of the States require
the submittai of plans and calculations, sealed by a registered professional engineer, for any significant faisework
construction. By definition, significant faisework generally corresponds to anything that spans over 16 ft (4.9 m)
or rises more than 14 ft (4.3m) in height. The survey showed that a majority of Sîates also conduct their own
reviews and inspections, subject to availability of staff, complexity of design, and so forth. While the proposed
design specification herein does not include procedural guidelines, recommended guidelines can be found in the
Guide Standard Specflcation for Bridge Temporary Works recently issued by the FHWA.@’

Based upon a review of current State practice, the authors of the Synthesis concluded that design procedures vary
considerably from one State to another. As expected, States that are more active constructing cast-in-place concrete
highway bridges generally have more comprehensive specifications and design guidelines. There are also many
States, however, with significant bridge inventories that do not faii into this group. Therefore, despite the available
information, there appeared to be a clear need to develop unified design critena and standards for the temporary
structures used to construct highway bridges.

The objective of this study has been to develop a guide design specification for use by State agencies to update
their existing standard specifications for faisework, formwork. and related temporary construction. The guide
specification was prepared in a format similar to the American Association of State Highway and Tmsportation
Officials (AASHTO) Standard Specflcationsfor Highway Bridge Structures.(3)

Research Approach

Virtually all of the potential reference or source documents necessary to develop the guide design specification
and commentary were identified in the Synthesis noted above. The reference material included applicable AASHTO
standards; the standard specifications of the FHWA and several States;Canadian, British, and New Zealand codes
of standard practice and specifications; and standards or guides prepared by other agencies and industry
a~sociations!”~) While the existing foreign standards served as good models, they were not found to be entirely
adaptable to U.S. codes and construction practices or the proprietary systems common to the U.S. construction
industry. Where applicable, selected provisions of other standards were either adopted directly from the reference
material or slightly modified. However, no single reference document was found that covered the entire scope of
the guide design specification.

After reviewing the reference material, a preliminary outline was developed by Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates,
Inc. (WJE) and submitted to an industry advisory group for further comments. The outline was, in turn, submitted
to the FHWA for approval. The preliminary draft was developed in the same manner, then revised after receiving
the collective comments of the advisory group and the FHWA.

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Throughout the study, the primary objective was to develop a consensus document that would be readily adopted
by the State agencies and AASIïïû. The evaluation criteria in the project guidelines stipuiated that the proposed
guide specification reflect generally accepted practice, be acceptable to industry, and be supported by existing
research. The finai draft was revised to reflect the consensus of WJE and the advisory group, the FHWA, and other
individuals or associations identified in the acknowledgement. In addition, a commentary was developed to provi&
background on the provisions and to assist in the application of this specification.

Recommendation for Implementation

The following guide design specification closely reflects the current state of the practice for the falsework,
formwork, and temporary retaining structures used in highway bridge Construction and is offered for adoption by
AASHTO.

The authors recommend distributing this document to the appropriate State agencies for use in revising their
current standard specifications. The authors also recommend soliciting further comments from the State bridge
authorities, AASHTO, and industry groups. After trial use of this specification, it is recommended that the FHWA
Task Group reconvene to consider any revisions or additions that may be proposed.

Acknowledgments

This study was conducted under FHWA Contract No. DTFH61-91-C-00088by Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates,
Inc., Northbrook, Illinois. The project was directed by the Scaffolding, Shoring, and Formwork Task Group of the
FHWA, whose comments and review were very helpful in the preparation of this document The task group
consisted of the following Federal, State, and industry representatives:

Sheila Rimai Duwadi, Federal Highway Administration

James R. Hoblitzell, Federal Highway Administration
Donald W. Miller, Federal Highway Administration
William S . Cross, Federal Highway Administration
Ian M. Friedland, Transportation Research Board
James M. Stout, California Department of Transportation
Donald Flemming, Minnesota D e p a m n t of Transportation
Nick Yaksich, Associated General Contractors
Kent Starwalt, American Road and Transportation Builders Association
Ramon Cook, The Burke Company
Robert Desjardins, Cimbra Corp.
Richard F. Hoffman, McLean Contracting
Robert T. Ratay, Consulting Engineer

WJE assembled an outside advisory group of individuals who served as consultants on this project. The
primary role of the advisory group was to review the guide design specifícation prior to submiüai to the FHWA Task
Group. The advisory group consisted of the following members:

L.Edwin Dunn, Calfornia Department of Transportation (Retired)

Safdar Giil, Ground Engineering Consultants, Inc.
Robert G. Lukas, Ground Engineering Consultants, Inc.
Peter Courtois,Dayton-Superior Corporation (Deceased)
Mark K.M e r , Dayton-Superior Corporation

Additional informationand input was solicited from other individuals and industry associatiOnsin their fields
of interest. Their comments were incorporated, where appmpfiate, in the finaidraft. Special mgnition is extended
to representatives of the Shoring and Forming Engineering Commitke of the Scaffolding, Shoring, and Fonning
Institute; W."homas Scott, C a o Concrete Construction; Aian D.Fisher, Cianbm Corporation;Flora A. Caiabmse,
Donald F.Meinheit, William F. Perenchio, and Raymond H.R. Tide.

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GUIDE DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR BRIDGE TEMPORARY WORKS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SECTION 1 .INTRODUCTION

1.1 SCOPE ............................................................ 1

1.2 REFERENCES ...................................................... 1
13.1 Codes and Standards ............................................ 1
1.2.2 Related Publications............................................ 1
13 DEFINITIONS ...................................................... 2
1.4 METRIC CONVERSIONS .............................................. 2

SECTION 2 .FALSEWORK

2.0 FALSEWORK DRAWINGS ............................................ 3

2.1 MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURED COMPONENTS ....................... 3
2.1.1 General ...................................................... 3
2.1.2 Structural Steel................................................ 3
................................
2.1.2.1 Identification and Properties 3
2.1.2.2 Salvaged Steel........................................... 4
2.1.23 Welding ............................................... 4
2.1.3 Timber ...................................................... 4
........................................
2.1.3.1 Allowable Stresses 4
2.1.3.2 Modification Factors...................................... 4
2.1.33 Used Lumber ........................................... 5
2.1.4 Other Materials ................................................ 5
2.1.5 Manufactured Components ....................................... 5
2.1.5.1 General ............................................... 5
2.1.5.2 Maximum Loadings and Deflections........................... 5
2.1.53 Factor of Safety ......................................... 6
2.2 LOADS ............................................................ 6
23.1 General ...................................................... 6
23.2 DeadLoad ................................................... 6
2.2.3 Live Load .................................................... 6
2.2.3.1 Construction Live Load.................................... 6
2.2.3.2 Impact ................................................ 6
2.2.4 Minimum Vertical Load ......................................... 7
2.2.5 Environmental Loads ........................................... 7
2.2.5.1 Wind ................................................. 7
2.2.5.2 StreamFlow ............................................ 7
23.53 Snow ................................................. 7
23 DESIGN ........................................................... 8
23.1 General ..................................................... 8
23.2 Load Combinations ............................................. 9
23.3 Stability Against Overturning ..................................... 9
23.4 Combined Stresses .............................................. 9
23.5 Deflection .................................................... 9
23.6 Slenderness .................................................. 10
23.7 Steel Beam Grillages ........................................... 10
23.8 Proprietary Shoring System ..................................... 10
23.9 Traffic Openings .............................................. 10

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2.4 FOUNDATIONS .................................................... 10

2.4.1 General ..................................................... 10
2.4.2 Footings .................................................... 10
2.4.3 Pile Foundations .............................................. 11
2.4.4 Foundations for Heavy-Duty Shoring Systems........................ 11
25 CONSTRUCTION
25.1 General ..................................................... 11
2.53 Foundations ................................................. 11
25.3 Timber Construction ........................................... 11
25.4 Steel Construction ............................................. 11
25.5 Proprietary Shoring System ..................................... 13
25.6 Manufactured Components ...................................... 13
25.7 Noncommercial Components ..................................... 13
25.8 TrafficOpenings .............................................. 13
25.9 Adjustment .................................................. 13
2.5.9.1 .Wedges ................................................ 13
25.93 Jacks ................................................ 13
25.10 Camber Strips ................................................ 13
25.11 Loading .................................................... 14
2.5.12 Removal .................................................... 14
2.5.13 Dismantling .................................................. 14

SECTION 3 .FORMWORK

3.1 MATERIALS AND FORM ACCESSORIES ................................ 15

3.1.1 General ..................................................... 15
3.1.2 Sheathing ................................................... 15
3.13 .............................................
Structural Supports 15
3.1.4 Prefabricated Formwork ........................................ 15
3.1.5 Stay-in-Place Formwork ........................................ 15
3.1.6 Form Accessories .............................................. 15
3.2 LOADS ........................................................... 15
33.1 Vertical Loads ................................................ 15
33.2 Lateral Pressure of Fluid Concrete................................. 16
333 HorizontalLoads .............................................. 16
33 DESIGN .......................................................... 16
33.1 General ..................................................... 16
33.2 Allowable Stresses ............................................. 16
33.3 Deflection ................................................... 16
33.4 Safety Factors for Form Accessories................................ 17
3.4 CONSTRUCTION ................................................... 17
3.4.1 General ..................................................... 17
3.43 Tolerances ................................................... 17
3.43 Joints ...................................................... 17
3.4.4 FomAccessories .............................................. 18
3.4.5 Prefabricated Formwork ........................................ 18
3.4.6 Stay-in-Place Formwork ........................................ 18
3.4.7 Bracing and Guying ........................................... 18
3.4.8 FormRemoval ............................................... 18
3.4.8.1 General .............................................. 18
3.4.8.2 Time of Removal........................................ 19
3.4.9 Reuse of Formwork ............................................ 19

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SECTION 4 .TEMPORARY RETAINING STRUCTURES

4.1 GENERAL ........................................................ 21

4.2
43
TYPES OF RETAINING STRUCTURES
LATERAL EARTH PRESSURES
.................................. 21
....................................... 21
43.1. Cantilever Walls .............................................. 21
43.1.1 Wall Movement Necessary for Active Pressures
43.13 Active Pressures
.................21
........................................ 21
43.13 At-Rest Pressures ....................................... 22
43.1.4 Passive Pressures ....................................... 22
433 Braced Excavations ............................................ 22
43.3 Surcharge Pressures ........................................... 23
4.4 STABILIITY ....................................................... 23
4.5 COFFERDAMS ..................................................... 23
45.1 Cantilever Walls .............................................. 23
45.2 ............................................
Braced Cofferdams 23

COMMENTARY ................................................................ 31
APPENDIX A .Maximum Design Values for Ungraded Structural Lumber..................... 47
..............53
APPENDIX B .AISC Provisions for Webs and Flanges Under Concentrated Forces
..................
APPENDIX C .Design Wind Pressures and Forces from Selected Model Codes
49
..................................... 63
APPENDIX D .Foundation Investigation and Design
.......... 69
APPENDIX E .Conversion of Equations from U.S. Customary Units to S.I. Metric Units

REFERENCES ................................................................. 75

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No .
2.1 Basicwind Speed .......................................................... 8

4.1 Guidelines for Estimating Earth Pressure on Walls with Two or More Levels
of Anchors Constructed from the Top Down [modified after Terzaghi and Peck (1967)l ......25
4.2 Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions for Permanent Flexible Cantilevered
Walls with Discrete Vertical Wall Elements ...................................... 26

43 Simpiified Earth Pressure Distributions and Design Procedures for Permanent

Flexible Cantilevered Walls with Continuous Vertical Wall Elements ...................27
4.4 Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary Flexible Cantilevered
Walls with Discrete Vertical Wall Elements ...................................... 28

4.5 Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary Flexible Cantilevered

Walls with Continuous Vertical Wau Elements [modified after Teng (1962)l .............. 29

LIST OF TABLES

Table No .
2.1 Material Properties ......................................................... 4

2.2 WindPressureValues ....................................................... 7

2.3 Load Combinations ......................................................... 9

2.4 Presumptive Soil-Bearing Values .............................................. 12

2.5 Ground Water-Levei Modification Factors ....................................... 12

3.1 Minimum Safety Factors of Formwork Accessories ................................ 17

C2.1 Early ASTM Steel Specifications .............................................. 33

C3.1 Form Materials with References for Design and Specification ......................... 41

(3.2 Permitted Irregularities in Formed Surfaces ...................................... 43

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ABBREVIATIONS

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

AC1 American Concrete Institute
AISC American Institute of Steel Construction
AIS1 American Iron and Steel Institute
AITC American Institute of Timber Construction
ANSI American National Standards Institute
APA American Plywood Association
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
AWS American Welding Society
BOCA Building Officiais & Code Administrators
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
NAVFAC Naval Facilities Engineering Command
NDS Nationai Design Specification for Wood Construction
NFPA National Forest Products Association
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration
PCI PrecastPrestressed Concrete Institute
SSFI Scaffolding, Shoring and Forming Institute
UBC Uniform Building Code

GENERAL NOTATION

in. inches
ft feet
Plf pounds per linear foot
psi pounds per square inch
ksi kips per square inch
PSf pounds per square foot
ksf kips per square foot
tsf tons per square foot
PCf pounds per cubic foot
fps feet per second
m meters
N newtons
hr hour

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ÕOC Y

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Section 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 SCOPE National Design Specification for Wood

Construction, 1991 Edition, Nationai Forest products
This guide design specification has been Association, Washington, DC,1991.
developed for use by State agencies to include in their
existing standard specifcations for falsework, NDS Supplement-Design Values for Wood
fonnwork, and reiated temporary construction used to Construction, Nationai Forest Products Association,
construct highway bridge structures. The Washington, DC,1991.
specification should also be useful to bridge
engineers, falsework &signers, contractors, and Building Code Requirementsfor ReiMorced
inspectors. Sections within this specification address Concrete (AC1 318-89)and C o m n t u ï y (AC1318R-
falsework, fonnwork, and temporary retaining 89), American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI, 1989.
structures. Reference standards,related publications,
and definitions are identified below. Minimum Design Loa& for Buildings and
Other Structures (ASCE 7-88), American Society of
1.2 REFERENCES Civil Engineers, New York, NY,1990.

1.2.1 Codes and Standards Uniform Building Code, 1991 Edition,

Intemationai Conference of Building Officials,
Standard Speccficationsfor Highway Bridges, Whittier, CA, 1991.
Latest Edition, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, The BOCA National Building Co&/1990,
DC. Building Officiais & Code Administrators
International, hc.,Country Club Hiiis, IL, 1990.
Interim Specifications Bridges, 1991,
American Association of State Highway and Occupational Safety and Health Standards
Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, 1991. (Parts í9IO and I926), United States Department of
Labor, Occupational Safety and Health
Standard Specifrcaions for Construction of Administration, Washington, DC,1974.
Roads and Bridges on Federal Highway Projects (FP-
85), Federal Highway Administration, Washington, 1.2.2 Related Pubiications
Dc,1991.
Guide Standard Specification for Bridge
American National Standardfor Construction Temporary Works (FHWA-RD-93-031), Federal
and Demolition Operations: Concrete and Masonry Highway Administration, Washington, DC, 1993.
Work-Safety Requirements (ANSI A l 0.9-1983),
American National Standards Institute, New York, CertijìcaiionProgramfor Bridge Temporary
NY, 1982. Works (FHWA-RD-93-033), Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, DC, 1993.
American National Standardfor Construction
and Demolition Operations: Safety and Health Construction Handbook for Bridge
Program Requirements for Multi-Employer Projects Temporary Works (FHWA-RD-93-034), Federai
(ANSI 10.33-1992), American National Standards Highway Administration, Washington, DC,1993.
Institute, New York, NY,1992.
California Falsework Manuai, California
Manual of Steel Construction-Allowable Department of Transportation,Sacramento,CA, 1988.
Stress Design, Ninth Edition, American Institute of
Steel Construction, Chicago, IL, 1989. Guide to Formworkfor Concrete (ACI347R-
88), American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI, 1989.
Structural Welding Code-Steel (AWS D1.11,
American Welding Society, Miami, FL, 1988. Formworkfor Concrete (SP-4),Fifth Edition,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI, 1989.

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Timber ConstructionManual, Third Edition, designated shape until it hardens. Formwork must
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY,1985. have enough strength to resist the fluid pressure
exerted by plastic concrete and any additional fluid
Guidelines for Safety Requirements for pressure effects generated by vibration.
Shoring Concrete Formwork, Publication No. SH306,
Scaffolding, Shoring, and Forming Institute, Inc., Horizontal Shoring Beams - Adjustable or
Cleveland, OH, 1990. fixed length beams or trusses used as load-carrying
members in falsework systems.
Recommended Procedure for Compression
Testing of Welded Frame Scaffokìs and Shoring Allowable Stress - The stress that can be
Equipment, Publication No. S102, Scaffolding, susmined with acceptable safety by a structural
Shoring, and Forming Institute, Inc., Cleveiand, OH, component under the particular condition of service
1989. and loading.

Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete Post Shore - Individual vertical member
Bridge Structures (ACI 343R-88),American Concrete used to support loads, including adjustable timber
Institute, Detroit, MI, 1988. single-post shores, fabricated single-post shores, and
timber single-post shores.
Soil Mechanics, Foundations, and Earth
Structures (NAVFAC DM-7),Departmentof the Navy, Scaffolding - An elevated work platform
Alexandria, VA, May 1982. used to support workmen, materials, and equipmens
but not intended to support the structure being
Suggested Design and Construction constructed.
Procedures for Pier Foundations (ACI 336.3 R-72),
American Concrete Institute, Demit, MI, Revised Shoring - A componentof falsework such as
1985. horizontal. vertical, or inclined support members. For
the purpose of this document this term is used
13 DEFINJTIONS interchangeably with falsework.

For the purposes of this specification, the Temporary Retaining Structure - For the
following definitions apply: purpose of this document, temporary retaining
structure refers to both earth-reraining structures and
Brace - A member placed diagonally with cofferdams.
respect to the vertical or horizontal members of
falsework or scaffolding and fixed to them to provide -
Tube and Coupler Shoring An assembly
stability. used as a load-carrying structure, consisting of tubing
or pipe that serves as posts, braces and ties, a base
Cofferdam - A cofferdam is a watertight supporting the posts, and special couplers that serve
structure that aiiows foundations to be constructed to connect the uprights and join the various members.
under dry conditions.
-
Ultimate Load The maximum load that
U

Engineer - This term used with a capital "E" may be placed on a structure, causing failure by
refers to the owner's engineer. buckling of column members or failure of some other
component.
-
Factor of Safety The ratio of predicted
ultimate load to the calculated maximum serviceload. 1.4 MmRIC CONVERSIONS

-
Faisework Temporary construction used to Conversion equations from U.S.Cuseomary
support the permanent stnicture untu it becomes self- units to S.I. mehic units are provided in Appendix E.
supporting. Falsework would include steel or timber
beams, girders, columns, piles and foundations, and
any proprietary equipment including modular shoring
frames,post shores, and horizontal shoring.

Formwork - A temporary structure or mold

used to retain the plastic or fluid concrete in its

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Section 2

FALSEWORK

2.0 FALSEWORK DRAWINGS drawings shall show the location of all such openings,
including horizontal and vertical clearances and the
Ail elements of the falsework system shall be location of temporary railing.
shown on working drawings, hereinafter r e f e d to as
falsework drawings. The falsework drawings shall Where temporary bracing is to be used
include the information and details necessary to during erection and removal of falsework over or
enable the falsework to be constructed without adjacent to public traffic, the falsework drawings shall
reference to any supplemental drawing, calculation show the sequence of erection and removal and
sheet, design standard, or other source or reference details of the temporary bracing system to be used.
document.
The falsework drawings, when submitted to
The falsework drawings shall include all the owner, shall be accompanied by one set of the
design-controllingdimensions,includingbeam length, design calculations. The calculations shall show the
beam spacing, post location and spacing, vertical stresses and deflections in load-supporijng members.
distance between connections in diagonal bracing,
height of falsework bents, and similar dimensions 2.1 MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURED
controliing falsework design and erection. COMPONENTS

The falsework drawings shall include a 2.1.1 General

superstructure piacing diagram, which shall show the
concrete placing sequence, placement rate, and all Falsework design may be based on the use of
construction joint locations. either new or used materials and manufactured
components, or a combination thereof.
When footing-type foundations are to be
used, the soil-bearing value assumed in the design 2.1.2 Structural Steel
shall be shown on the falsework drawings.
2.1.2.1 Identification and Properties
When pile-type foundations are to be used,
and the vertical distance between the ground line and New structural steel shall conform to the
the top of the pile will equal or exceed four times the ASTM and AASHTO specifications designated in
pile diameter at the ground line, the falsework Table 2.1. The most recent date of issue shall apply
drawings shall show the maximum horizontal distance to each of these specifications.
that the top of a falsework pile may be pulled to its
position under the cap, and the maximum allowable Certified mill test reports or certified reports
deviation of the top of the pile, in its fmal position, of tests made by the fabricator or a testing laboratory
from a vertical line through the point of fixity of the in accordance with ASTM A6 or A568, as applicable,
pile. and the governing specification shali constitute
sufficient evidence of conformity with one of the
The anticipated total settlement of the above ASTM standards. Additionally, the fabricator
falsework and forms shall be shown on the falsework shall, if requested, provide an affidavit stating that the
drawings. The anticipated settlement shall include structural steel furnished meets the requirements of
both foundation settlement and joint take-up, and shall the grade specified.
not exceed 1 in. (25 mm).
For new süuctural steel, the design working
The falsework drawings shall show the stresses shall not exceed those specified in the AZSC
method by which the falsework may be adjusted Specificationfor Structural Steel Buildings-Allowable
vertically, and the locations where such adjustments Stress Design. For structural steel design, the
wili be reinforced. modulus of elasticity (E) shall be assumed as 29,000
ksi (200,000 N/mm*).
Where openings through the falsework are
requireü to permit the passage of public
traffic, including pedestrian traffic, the falsework

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stnichiral Welded and

I I
Type Steel Seamless Steel Pipe Carbon Steel Sin~udiiralTubing Carbon Steel
Equivalent ASTM
Designation

AASHTO
I 2f36
M183
I A53
Grade B
_--
I A5ûûRound

--_
I A500Squareand
Rectangular
-__
A501

_--
A529

---
Designation Grade 36

Minimum Tensile 58,000 w@o GradeA 45,000 GradeA 45,000 58,000 @,000
S@engthPA Pi Grade B: 58,000 Grade B: 58,000
G r a d e C 62,000 GradeC 62,000

Minimum Yield 36,000 35,000 Grade A: 33,000 GradeA 39,000 36,000 42,000
Strength (FYI,psi GradeB: 42,000 GradeB: 46,000
GradeC 46,000 GradeC 50,000

Conversion: 1,ûûû psi = 6.89 N / m *

2.1.23 Salvaged Steel Society, except 2.3.2.4, 2.5, 8.13.1.2, and Section 9,
as appropriate, apply to work performed under this
Used structural steel, satisfying ASTM A6 specification.
criteria for surface imperfections, may be used at the
allowable working stresses for new material, provided 2.1.3 Timber
the grade of steel can be identified to the owner’s
satisfaction. 2.1.3.1 Allowable Stresses

When the grade of used structural steel All species of wood to which allowable unit
cannot be identified, the design working stresses shall stresses have been assigned in the National Design
not exceed the following: Specijication for Wood Construction (NOS)
Supplement, 1991 edition, azc acceptable for use in
Tension, axial, and flexural . . . . . . . . . 22,000 psi faisework.

Compression, axial . . . . . . 16,000 - 0.38(L/r)2 psi, Design working stresses for new lumber shall
except U r shall not exceed 120. not exceed the design values for visually graded
dimension lumber and visually graded timbers as
Shear on gross section of web of rolled tabulated in the National Design Specification for
shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,500 psi Wood Construction (NDS) Supplement, 1991 Edition.
The listed values are for normal load duration and d q
Web crippling for rolled shapes . ..... 16,000 psi service conditions, and shall be modified as provided
herein.
Compression, flexural . . . . 12,ûûû,ûûû/(Ld/bt) psi,
but not more than 22,000 psi. 2.1.33 Modifcation Factors

In the formulas, L is the unsuppoaed length; Modification factors for service conditions
d is the least dimension of rectangular columns, or the and duration of load shall be as prescribed by NDS
width of a square of equivalent cross-sectional area except that the normal service condition for falsework
for round columns, or the depth of beams; b is the members shall be considered to be dry and reduction
width and t is the thickness of the compression for wet service conditions will not apply. All
flange; and r is the radius of gyration of the member. modification factors are cumulative.

2.1.23 Welding Load duration factors shall not apply to

values for modulus of elasticity or compression
All provisions of the Structural Welding perpendicular to the grain.
Code, AWS D1.1-92,of the American Welding

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Table 2.1 Material Properties (Cont.)

~

High Yield Strength, Quenched and High-Strength High-Strength Low-Alloy

Type Tempered Alloy Steel Low-Alloy Steel Structural Tubing

Equivalent ASTM A514 A512 m a A618

Designation
~

AASHTO M244 M223 M222 __-

Designation

Minimum Tensile Grade 100 up to 2% in.: 110,000 Grade42 60,000 70,000 Grades I & II: 70,000
Strength (FA psi Grade 100 over 244 in. to 6 in.: 100,OOO Grade 50 65,000 1 GradeIII: 65,000
I I I
Minimum Yield Grade 100 up to 2% in.: 100,ûûû Grade42 42.000 50,000 Grades I, II, & III: 50,000
Strength (FJ psi Grade 100 over 2% in. to 6 in.: 90,000 Grade 5 0 50,000

Conversion: 1,OOO psi = 6.89 N / m * ; 1 in. = 25.4 mm

2.1.33 Used Lumber 2.1.4 Other Materials

Subject to the owner's concurrence, used The design of materiais other than structural
lumber of known species may be used in accordance steel and timber shall conform to the applicable
with the following: design standard or specification for such material.

(a) Where the grade is known or can be 2.1.5 Manufactured Components

estabiisheà, the stress level €or used lumber, in good
condition and without obvious defects, shall not 2.1.5.1 General
exceed the adjusted allowable stress for new lumber
of that grade and species. As used herein, manufactured components
include the following classes of proprietary products:
(b) Where the grade is unknown and cannot
be established, the stress level for used lumber, in Vertical shoring systems including tubular
good condition and without obvious defects, shall not welded fiame shoring, tube and coupler
exceed the adjusted allowable stress for No. 1 shoring, and components thereof.
commercial grade new lumber of that species.
Manufactured assemblies including single-
(c) The stress level €or used lumber of lower post shores, brackets, jacks, joists, clamps,
quality or showing evidence of abuse shall not exceed and similar devices manufactured for
the stress values for the species as listed in Appendix commercial use.
A. The listed stress values are maximums and shall
not be increased by application of load duration or 2.1.53 Maximum Loadings and
other stress-adjustment factors. Deflections

Unless otherwise permitted by the owner, The maximum load to be used on any
lumber of unknown species may not be used at higher manufactured component, under any load sequenceor
stress levels than those listed in Appendix A €or combination, shali not exceed the manufacturer's
"MIXED MAPLE." Said stresses are maximums and recommendations.
shall not be increased by application of load duration
or other stress-adjustment factors. When requested by the owner, a
manufacturer's catalog, technical bulletin, or similar
The owner may require any lumber proposed publication shall be furnished with the faisework
€or use under paragraphs (a) or (b) above to be drawings showing the use of manufactured
regraded prior to use. components. The information furnished shall include,

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but not be limited to, test data and limitations and If the effect of a particulat loading condition
conditions governing the use of the component. cannot be determined at the falsework design stage,
the design shall be based on an assumed loading
The dead load deflection of a manufactured condition. In such cases, the assumptions shall be
component designed for use in a horizontal or reviewed when the actual conditions become known,
inclined position shall not exceed imo of the span and the falsework design revised if necessary.
length under the weight of the concrete only.
23.2 Dead Load
The use of a manufactured assembly for
which no engineering data is furnished will not be The dead load shall consist of the weight of
permitted, unless the assembly has been tested under the concrete, construction materials, and fakework to
conditions simulating the proposed use in the be supported at any given location.
falsework design. The working load for such
assemblies shall not exceed Mpercent of the The combined weight of concrete, reinforcing
maximum load sustained during the test. and prestressing steel, and formwork shall be assumed
to be not less than 160 pcf (25.1 kN/m3) for normal
2.1.53 Factor of Safety concrete or 130pcf (20.4 kN/m3) for lightweight
concrete.
The factor of safety for vertical shoring
systems shall not be less than 2.5. This shall be 2.2.3 Live Load
clearly evident from a W o g or other engineering
data furnished by the manufacturer. 23.3.1 Construction Live Load

The factor of safety for jacks that are not a The construction live load shall consist of the
part of a shoring system, and all types of actual weight of any equipment to be supported
manufactured assemblies, shall not be less than the applied as concentrated loads at the points of contact,
minimum factor of safety required by the industry plus a uniform load of 20 psf (960 N/m2)applied over
standard for the particular device, and in no case shall the area supported, plus 75 plf (1100 N/m) applied at
the factor of safety be less than 2. the outside edge of deck overhangs.

2.2 LOADS 23.33 Impact

23.1 General When impact can occur, the design load to

be applied to steel members and manufactured
The falsework design load shall consist of components shall be increased as provided herein.
the sum of the dead and Eve vertical loads and a
horizontal load. For members and components subject to
impact during placing operations, the design
Tbe vertical design load shall consist of the dead load shall be increased by an impact
sum of the &ad and live vertical loads, including live factor of not less than 30 percent of the
load impact where appropriate. weight of the mataiai being placed.

The borizontai design load shall consist of For members and components subject to
the sum of any actual horizontal loads due to impact during lifting operations, the sîatic
equipment, construction sequence, or other causes, load due to the payload shall be increased by
excluding the specified wind load, but in no case shall not less than 30percent for mechanicaüy
the horizontal design load be less than 2 percent of operated lifting equipment and not less than
the total dead load to be supported at the point under 15 percent for manually operated lifting
consideration. equipment.

Pursuant to the provisions in Section 2.3.1, If motorized carts are used, the uniform live
the vertical and horizontal design loads shall be load shall be increased an additional 25 psf
increased as necessary to account for the effect of (1200 N/m2).
load redistribution due to prestressing, shrinkage, or
other causes.

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23.4 Minimum Vertical Load where diagonal bracing is not used. The basic wind
pressure for each height zone shall be increased by
The minimum total design vertical load for 5 psf (240 N/m? for falsework members over or
any falsework member shall be not less than 100 psf adjacent to üaffic openings.
(4800Nh? for the combined dead and live load,
exclusive of any increase for impact, regardless of 23.53 Stream Flow
slab thickness.
When falsework supports are placed in
23.5 Environmental Loads flowing water, water pressure on the supports shall be
determined by the following formula:
2.2.5.1 Wind

For heavy duty shoring systems having a

vertical load-carrying capacity exceeding 30kips In the formula, P, is the pressure in psf; v is the
(130 N)per tower leg, the minimum horizontal load water velocity in fps; and K is a constant that shall
to be allowed for wind shaii be determined in take the following values:
accordance with Chapter 23, Part II of the Uniform
Building Code (reproduced in Appendix C). The 1.375 for square faces
wind impact area shall be the total projected area of 0.67 for circular piers
ail elements in the tower face normal to the applied 0.5 for angular faces
wind. The basic wind pressure for each height zone
shail be increased by 5 psf (240 N/m2) for falsework Where a significant amount of drift lodged
members over or adjacent to traffic openings. against a pier is anticipated, the effects of this drift
build-up shall be considered in the design. When it
The minimum horizontai load to be allowed is anticipated that the flow area will be significantly
for wind on ail other types of falsework, including blocked by drift build-up, increases in high water
falsework supported on heavy duty steel shoring, shall elevations, stream velocities, stream flow pressures,
be the sum of the products of the wind impact area and the potential increases in scour depths shall be
and the applicable wind pressure value for each height investigated.
zone listed in Table 2.2. The basic wind speed used
in the determination of design wind loads shall be as 23.53 Snow
given in Fig. 2.1. The wind impact area shall be the
gross projected area of the falsework and any Where necessary, the effectsof snow shail be
unrestrained portion of the permanent structure, considered, and determined in accordance with ASCE
excluding the areas between falsework posts or towers 7-88 (formerly ANSI A58.1).

Height Zone (ft Pressure, psf for Indicated Wind Velocity, mph
above ground) 70 80 90 100
O to 30 1.5 Q 2.0 Q 2.5 Q 3.0 Q
30 to 50 2.0 Q 2.5 Q 3.0 Q 3.5 Q
~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~

50 to 100 2.5 Q 3.0 Q 3.5 Q 4.0 Q

over 100 3.0 Q 3.5 Q 4.0 Q 45 Q

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Noles:
(a) Vdues arc futut-mile apeeda .t 33 fi (10 rn) .bow ground f a expoaure cstegary C riid ut wociatcú with an annual probability of 0.02.
@) Lineu iiaerpolation bstwecn wind speed contaus ir rcceptoble.
(c) Cuition in the we of wind speed contours in mountainous regions of Alaska is advised.
(d) Conversion: 1 mph = 1.609 km/hr; 1 mi = 1.61 km

Figure 2.1 Basic Wind Speed (mph)

.
23 DESIGN The entire superstructure cross section,
except railing, shall be considered to be placed at one
23.1 General time except as otherwise provided herein. Girder
stems and connected bottom slabs, if placed more
Tbe Ealsework design analysis shall consider than 5 days prior to the top slab, may be considered
the effect of foundation settlement, interaction to be self-supporting between falsework posts at the
between elements of the falsework system and time the top slab is placed, provided that the distance
completed portions of the permanent stnicture, and between falsework posts does not exceed four times'
load redistribution due to shriniage and dead load tbe depth of the portion of the girder placed in the
&flection. The falsework design shall accommodate first pour.
these factors if necessary. For cast-in-place
prestressed construction, the falsework shall be The support system for form panels
&signed to support any increased load resulting from supporting concrete deck slabs and overhangs on
load reùisbibution caused by the prestressing forces. girder bridges shall be considered to be falsework and

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shall meet all falsework design criteria and Except for bracing required to prevent I
requirements. Additionally, such falsework shall be overturning or collapse of the falsework system or
designed so no differential settlement will occur any element of the system, the ability of falsework
between the girders and the deck forms during members to resist horizontal loa& may include the
placement of the deck concrete. contribution to stability provided by the supported
structure. Bracing required to prevent overtuming or
23.2 Load Combinations collapse shaii be designed to resist the fuli horizontal
design load with the falsework in the unloaded
The groups given in Table 2.3 represent (before the concrete is placed) condition, except for
combinations of loads and forces to which the cable bracing used to externally brace heavy-duty
falsework may be subjected. shoring systems. Such cables may be designed to
resist the difference between the overturning and
Ail elements of the falsework, or the resisting moments.
foundation upon which it rests, shall be designed to
resist the Group I, II, III, and IV load combinationsat 23.4 Combined Stresses
the percentage of the basic allowable stress shown.
The adequacy of falsework members
23.3 Stability Against Overturning subjected to both axial and bending stresses shall be
determined by the following combined stress
The falsework system, including individual expression:
elements and units of the system that are subject to
overturning forces, shall be analyzed for stability -
f,
Fa
+ -
fb !5 1.0
Fb
(2-2)
against overturning with the falsework in the loaded
and unloaded condition; that is, with and without the
dead load of the concrete. The ratio of the resisting where, respectively, f, and fb are the calculated axiaI
moment to the overturning moment shall be equal to and bending stresses and F, and Fbare the allowable
or greater than 1.2 for all load combinations. axial and bending stresses.

Except as otherwise provided in the 23.5 Deflection

following paragraph, if the ratio of the resisting to the
overturning moments is less than 1.2, external bracing The calculated vertical deflection for
shall be provided to resist the full overturning falsework members shall not exceed 1t24o of their
moment. span under the dead load of the concrete only,
regardless of the fact that deflection may be
compensated for by camber strips.

Table 2.3 Load Combinations

Percentage of Basic
Group Load Combinations Allowable Stress or Load
Group I DL + DP + LL + I + H 100%
Group II DL + DP + PS + H 100%
Group III DL + DP + LL + I + W +ALL 133%
Group IV DL + DP + LL + PS + W + ALL 133%

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23.6 Slenderness supporting footing at its base, or otherwise be

laterally restrained, so as to withstand a force of not
For compression members, the slenderness less than 2,000lb (8,900 N) applied to the base in
ratio, Kyr, shall not exceed the following: any direction. Such columns or frames shall also be
mechanically connected to the faisework cap or
(a) Main load-carrying members: stringer so as to be capable of withstanding a
horizontal force of not less than 1,OOO lb (4,450 N) in
(i) Steel - 180; any direction.
(ii) Aluminum - 100.
Temporary bracing shall be provided, as
(b) Bracingmembers: necessary, to witbstand all imposed loads during
erection, construction, and removal of any falsework
(i) Steel - 200; whose height exceeds its clear distance to either the
(ii) Aluminum - 150. edge of any sidewaik or shoulder of any roadway that
is open to the public or to a point 10 ft (3 m) from
The slenderness ratio of a tension member, the centerline of any railroad track. The falsework
other than guy lines, cables, and rods, shall not drawings shall show such temporary bracing or
exceed 240 for a main member nor 300 for a bracing methods to be used to conform to this requirement
member. These limits may be waived if other means during each phase of erection and removal. Wind
are provided to control flexibility, sag, vibration, and loads shall be included in the design of such bracing
slack in a manner commensutate with the service or methods.
conditions of the structure, or if it can be shown that
such factors are not detrimentai to the performance of 2.4 FOUNDATIONS
the structure or of the assembly of which the member
is a part. 2.4.1 General

23.7 Steel Beam Griiiages The falsework sW be founded on pads,

footings, or piles that are capable of carrying the
Webs and fianges of steel beams under imposed loads without aggravated distortion or
concentrated loads shall satisfy the criteria specified settiement until the supported structure becomes self-
in Chapter K, AISC Specificaton for Structural Steel supporting.
Buildings - Allowable Stress Design, repraduced in
Appendix B. 2.4.2 Footings

23.8 Proprietary Shoring System Footings shall be designed to distribute the

applied load over the supporting foundation materiai
Differential leg loading of vertical shoring uniformiy, without exceeding the allowable soil-
systems shall be minimized. in cases wbere bearing value. The ailowable soil-bearing value shall
differential leg loading cannot be avoided, the be &remined by the Contractor through an
manufacturer of the shoring system shall furnish a examination of the site, a geotechnical foundation
letter of certification stating that the proposed loading investigation, or through other appropriate means. in
differential will not overstress any tower component. the absence of other soils information, the
presumptive bearing values shown in Table 2.4 may
23.9 TraMc Openings be used as a guide, but the Contractor is responsible
for the actual value used in the design.
The vertical loads used for the design of
falsework columns and towers, but not footings, The presumptive W n g values shown in
which support the portion of the faisework over or Table 2.4 are for level and sloping ground where the
immediately adjacent to open public roads, shall be slope is not greater than 1 vertical to 6 horizontai.
increased to not less than 150 percent of the design
loads that would otherwise be calculated in If the data obtained during the site
accordance with these provisions. exploration is minimal, or if there is a significant
amount of variation fkom one sampling location to
Each column or tower Erame supporting mother, the presumptivebearing pressure value given
falsework over or immediately adjacent to an open in Table 2.4 shall be multiplied by a factor of 0.75 to
public road shall be mechanically connected to its

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take into account the non-unifonnity and uncertainty the falsework design. The worlananship shall be of
of the site conditions. such quality that the falsework will support the loads
imposed on it without excessive settlement or take-up
These values apply for the ground water beyond that shown on the falsework drawings.
level at a depth below the foundation greater than the
width of that foundation. Continued flooding or wet 2.5.2 Foundations
weather wili soften clay soils. Where site flooding
andor high ground water levels are likely to be Falsework footings shall bear uniformly on
experienced, the presumed allowable bearing pressure the supporting material, which shall be safe from
in Table 2.4 shall be multiplied by the factor given in undermining and protected against softening.
Table 2.5.
When requested by the owner, the Contractor
Pursuant to the provisions in Section 2.0, the shall demonstrate by suitable load tests that the soil-
allowable soil-bearing value used in the foundation bearing values assumed for the falsework design do
design shall be shown on the falsework drawings. not exceed the supporting capacity of the foundation
material.
Footings with eccentric loadings shall be
designed so that no portion of the footing has uplift The load-carrying capacity of driven piles,
pressures. Footings with lateral loading shall be unless driven by a drop hammer, shall be determined
designed to provide a 1.5 factor of safety against by the ENR or other recognized pile driving fonnula.
sliding. If a drop hammer is used, the allowable piIe capacity
shall not exceed the value indicated by the driving
2.4.3 Pile Foundations formula divided by a factor of safety of 1.5.

When timber piles are used, the load applied 25.3 Timber Construction
to any pile in the foundation under any loading
condition shall not exceed 45 tons (400 kN). Timber beams, stringers, and joists shall be
of the size and timber grade specified, and shall be
When steel piles are used, the load applied to straight and undamaged.
any pile in the foundation under any loading condition
shail not exceed the capacity of the pile when Adequate splice details shall be used where
analyzed as a short column. the splicing of timber members is unavoidable.
Wherever practical, continuous or overlapping
When piles extend above the ground line, the members shall be used.
load-carrying capacity of both individual piles and
piles within a framed bent shall be evaluated under Where the use of discontinuous members is
the combined action of the vertical and horizontal permitted, joints shall be made over the center of
design loads. supports. Where a beam comprises a pair of
members, joints in the members shall be staggered
2.4.4 Foundations for Heavy-Duty Shoring between supports. Paired members used to form a
Systems single beam shall be of identical depth.

Foundations for individual steel towers where 2.5.4 Steel Construction

the maximum leg load exceeds 30 kips (130 kN)shall
be designed and constructed to provide uniform Adequate bracing shali be provided to
settlement under ail legs of each tower under all sections of members, in compression, and to resist
loading conditions. lateral forces applied to the falsework.

2.5 CONSTRUCTION Used beams, and particularly beams salvaged

from a previous commercial use, shall be carefully
2.5.1 General examined for loss of section due to welding, rivet OT
bolt holes, or web openings that may adversely affect
The falsework shall be constructed to the beam’s ability to safely carry the imposed load.
conform to the falsework drawings. The materials
used in the falsework construction shall be of the
quality necessary to sustain the stresses required by

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Table 2.4 Presumptive Soil-Bearing Values

Group Foundation Bearing Deposit Presumptive Bearing Pressure
1 A. Hard shales and soft sandstones 20 tsf
Excellent B. Soft shales, soft claystones, and 6 to 10 tsf
Foundation Support very soft sandstones
C. Weak and fractured limestone 6 tsf
D. Dense sands and gravels 4 tsf
E. Very stiff to hard clays 3 to 4 tsf
2 A. Medium dense sands and gravels 2 to 4 tsf
Generally Adequate B. Medium dense uniform-size sand 2 tsf
Foundation Support C. Stiff clays 1 to 2.5 tsf n

3 A. Loose sand or loose sand and 1 tsf

Poor Foundation gravel
Support B. Loose uniform-size sand 0.75 tsf
C. Soft to medium clays 0.5 tsf
D. Loose silts 0.5 tsf
4 A. Peat and organic silts Requires deep foundations for
Unacceptable B. Very soft clays soils A and B
5 A. Collapsible soils Requires special attention to
Potential Problem B. Swelling soils moisture control for soils A and B
Soils C. Frost-susceptible soils Could require insulation
D. Fill deposits Could be same as groups 2 and 3
depending upon compaction

Conversion: 1 tsf = 96 kN/m2

Table 2.5 Ground Water-Level Modification Factors

I Modification factors for:
Cohesive Noncohesive
Condition soils soils Rock
Ground water level at B, or less, below level of
foundation (where B is the width of foundation) 1.0 0.5 1.0
Site liable to flooding 0.67 0.5 1.0

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2.5.5 Proprietary Shoring System banier and the falsework footing and at least 1 fi
(0.3 m) between the barrier and aii other falsework
Proprietary shoring systems shall be members.
undamaged and assembled using only the components
supplied by the manufacturer for the particular Temporary bracing required pursuant to the
system. provisions in Section 2.3.9 shaü be instailed
concutrently with the restrained element of the
Proprietary systems shall be installed in falsework system.
accordancewith the manufacturer’s recommendations,
with provision for vertical adjustment. For faisework over or adjacent to a traffic
opening, all details that contribute to horizontal
Extension tubes shall be braced as required stability and resistance to impact, except bolts in
and erection tolerances shall not exceed the tolerances bracing, shall be instailed at the time each element of
recommended by the manufacturer. the falsework is erected and shall remain in place
until the falsework is removed.
25.6 Manufactured Components
25.9 Adjustment
When manufactured components are used in
the falsework, the owner shall be furnished with a 2.5.9.1 Wedges
letter of certification signed by the supplier of the
component or his authorized representative. Said Wedges shall be installed in sets of two
letter of certification shall state that the component is wedges (matched pair) except that a single wedge
being used in accordance with the manufacturer’s may be used on a sloping surface. Wedges shall have
recommendations for loads and conditions of use. a height not exceeding one-thiid of their length.
When instailed, wedge sets shall be in contact over at
2.5.7 Noncommercial Components least haif of their sloping faces.

If the falsework construction incorporates Wedges may be used at either the top or
generic or homemade components fabricated from bottom of a post or strut, but not at both ends.
steel or timkr, such as overhang brackets, beam
supports and similar devices, the owner may require 25.9.2 Jacks
a load test to establish the safe load-carrying capacity
of such a component. Such tests shall be performed Screwjacks shall not be extendedbeyond the ,

in the field, on components randomly selected by the limit set by the manufacturer.
owner, under conditions that will simulate the
intended use in the falsework. The allowable capacity Where hydraulic jacks are used for
of any such component shall not exceed 40 percent of adjustment, the load imposed by the supported
the ultimate load-carrying capacity as indicated by the member shall be transferred at the end of the
load test. adjustment cycle to a permanent means of support
capable of resisting the load without additional
2.5.8 Traffic Openings settlement or distortion.

Unless otherwise provided, the minimum Where sand jacks are used, the annular
dimensions of clear openings to be provided through distance between the confining element of the jack
falsework for roadways that are to remain open to and the edge of the base plate shall not exceed % in.
traffic during construction shall be at least 5 ft (6 m).
(1.5 m) greater than the width of the approach
traveled way, measured between barriers when used, 2.5.10 Camber Strips
and 14 ft (4.3m) high, except that the minimum
vertical clearance over interstate routes and freeways When directed by the owner, camber strips
shall be 14.5 ft (4.4 m). shall be furnished and installed to compensate for
beam deflection, vertical alignment, and anticipated
Falsework at traffic openings shall be structure deflection.
protected by a temporary concrete barrier system.
The falsework shall be constructed so as to provide
clear distances of at least 3 in. (80 mm) between the

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2.5.11 Loading

Control of the sequence and rate of placing

of concrete shall be exercised to minimize mbaianced
load conditions. The concrete shall also be
discharged onto the formwork in a manner that
prevents localized overloading.

2.5.12 Removal

Unless otherwise specified or approved,

falsework shail be released before the railings,
copings, or barriers are placed for all types of bridges.
For arch bridges, the time of falsework release
relative to the construction of elements of the bridge
above the arch shall be as shown on the plans or
directed by the Engineer.

Falsework supporting any span of a h

continuous or rigid frame bridge shall not be released

until the compressivestrength requirementshave been
satisfied for all of the structural concrete in that span
and in the adjacent portions of each adjoining span
for a length equal to at least one-half the length of the
span.

For post-tensioned concrete bridges, the

falsework supports that might continue to remain
engaged after structurai units are prestressed shall be
released in such a manner as to permit the concrete to
accept its own weight and disîribute stresses
gradually. Sequence of disengagements shall be such
that fEed connections at tops of piers will not be
subjected to damaging forces. Sequence of falsework
support disengagement shall be shown on falsework
drawings.

2.5.13 Dismantling

The falsework shall be designed with due

regard for ease and safety of dismantling. Suitable
adjustment devices shall be provided for alignment of
the falsework during erection, and to facilitate
dismantling. Sections of the falsework that are to be
shifted and reused without dismantling shall be
designed to resist the forces imposed on the falsework
during moving operations.

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 SeCaon 3

FORMWORK

3.1 MATERIALS AND FORM 3.1.5 Stay-in-Piace Formwork

ACCESSORIES
Stay-in-placesofft forms, such as corrugated
3.1.1 General metal or precast concrete panels, may be used if
approved by the Engineer. If the use of such forms
Concrete forms shall be mortartight, hue to is proposed by the Contractor, complete details for
the dimensions, lines, and grades of the stnicture, and their use shall be provided to the Engineer for review
of sufficient strength to prevent appreciable deflection and approval prior to use. The detailed plans for
during the placing of the concrete. structures, unless otherwise noted, are dimensioned
for the use of removable forms. Any changes
Prior to the use of each forming system to be necessary to accommodate stay-in-place forms, if
used for exposed surfaces and when requested by the approved, shall be at the expense of the Contractor.
Engineer, the Con@actor shall fumish form design and
materials data to the Engineer for approval. Stay-in-place steel bridge deck forms and
supports shall be fabricated from steel conforming to
3.1.2 Sheathing ASTM Specification A M Grade A-3 and having a
coating class of G165, according to ASTM
Form panels for exposed surfaces shaü be Specification A525.
plywood, conforming to or exceeding the
requirements of U.S. Product Standard PS-1 for Stay-in-placeprecast bridge deck forms shall
Exterior B-B (concrete form) Plyform Class I, be manufactured in accordance with Recommended
Structurai Class I or other equivalent grades of Practice for Precast Prestressed Concrete Composite
plywood, used with the face grain perpendicular to Bridge Deck Panels!")
the joists. Overlaid, laminated, or other types of form
panels may be utilized at the Conaactor's discretion, 3.1.6 Form Accessories
provided that the physical properties conform to
requirements of the formwork design. They shall be When form ties, form hangers, anchor ties,
free of knotholes, warps,or other defects. column clamps, inserts, and other similar devices are
used to support formwork, the allowable working load
3.1.3 Structural Supports shall be based on the in situ load conditions. When
requested by the Engineer, the Contractor shall
Materials used for structural supports shall provide shop drawings and technical data
conform with the applicable provisions of Section 2.1. substantiatingthe load-wrying capacity and detailing
application instructions and limitations of use. In all
Vertical side forms, wall forms and column cases, the Contractor is required to follow the
forms and their related studs, waiers, etc. are aU manufacturer's recommended instructions.
defined as formwork. Structural supports on the sofft
of a bridge deck and slab overhangs are faisework by 3.2 LOADS
definition and shall be designed accordingly.
3.2.1 Vertical Loads
3.1.4 Prefabricated Formwork
The total dead load shall equal the weight of
The Contractor shall fumish shop drawings the formwork plus the weight of the fieshly placed
and technical data substantiating load-carrying concrete.
capacity and detailing application instructions and
limitations of use. The Contractor shall utiiize The minimum live load shall be 50psf
prefabricated product in accordance with (2,400N/m2) for the vertical load of construction
manufacturer's recommendations. traffic. This requirement is fur formwork only, and
does not apply to the underlying faisework. When
large equipment is to be utilized during the
construction process, including motorized carts, the
minimum live load shall be 75 psf (3,600N/m2).

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The minimum design load for combined dead with a maximum of 2,000psf, a minimum of 600 psf,
and live loads shail not be less than 100psf but in no case greater than 150 h.
(4,800N/m2), or 125 psf (6,000N/m2) if motorized
carts are used. where R = rate of placement, ft per how,
T = temperature of concrete in the form, O F .
33.2 Lateral Pressure OP Fluid Concrete
33.3 Horizontal Loads
33.2.1 Unless the conditions of
Section 3.2.2.2apply, formwork shail be designed for Vertical wall or side form bracing shall be
the lateraï pressure of the newly placed concrete given designed to meet the minimum wind load
by Equation 3-1. requirements of ASCE 7-88(fomerly ANSI A58.1)
or the local building code, whichever is more
stringent. For wall foms exposed to the elements,
the minimum wind design load shail not be less than
where p = lateral pressure, psf; 15 psf (720N/m2). Bracing for wall forms shall be
w = unit weight of fresh concrete, pcf; designed for a horizontal load of at least 100plf
h = depth of fluid or plastic concrete, ft. (1,500N/m) of wall, applied at the top.

For columns, or other forms that may be 33 DESIGN

filled rapidly before any stiffening of the concrete
takes piace, h shall be taken as the full height of the 33.1 General
form. It shall be the distance between construction
joints when more than one placement of concrete is to The design of formwork shall be the
be made. responsibility of the Contractor. When required by
the Contract Documents or pursuant to Section 3.1.1,
33.23 For concrete made with Type I shop drawings shall be submitted for review by the
cement, weighing approximately 150 pcf Engineer. Such review does not relieve the
(23.6 kN/m3),containing no pozzolans or admixtures Contractor of the responsibility of constructing the
and having a slump of 4 in. (100 mm) or less, structure in accordance with the Contract Documents.
formwork shall be designed for a lateral pressure as
follows: In selecting the hydrostatic pressure to be
used in the design of forms, consideration shall be
For columns: given to the maximum rate of concrete placement to
be used, the effects of vibration, the temperature of
p = 150 + 9,ooO IUT (3-2) the concrete, and any expected use of set-retarding
admixtures or pozzolanic materials in the concrete
with a maximum of 3,000psf, a minimum of 600 psf, mix.
but in no case greater than 150 h.
33.2 Allowable Stresses
For walls with a rate of placement less than 7 ft per
hour: Unit stresses for use in the design of
formwork, exclusive of accessories, shall conform
p = 150 + 9,OOO IUT (3-3) with applicable d e s or standards. When fabricated
formwork, shoring, or scaffolding units are used,
with a maximum of 2,000psf, a minimum of 600 psf, manufacturer’s recommendations for allowable loads
but in no case greater than 150 h. may be followed if supported by the test reports of a
qualified and recognized testing agency. For
For walls with a rate of placement of 7 to 10 ft per formwork materials that will experience substantial
hour: reuse, reduced values shall be used.

p = 150 + 43,400íï+ 2,800 IUT (3-4) 33.3 Deflection

Forms for exposed concrete surfaces shall be

designed and constructed so that the formed surface
of the concrete does not undulate excessively in any

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 AASHTO T I T L E GDSBTW 95 m 0639804 0033693 537 m

direction between studs, joists, form stiffeners, form Exposed outside edges should be chamfered
fasteners, or wales. Undulations exceeding either 118 with a minimum Min. ( 1 3 m ) material unless
in. (3.2 mm) or 1/î40 of the center-to-center distance otherwise shown. Bevels are permitted at formwork
between studs, joists, fonn stiffeners, form fasteners, projections such as beam copings, girders, and other
or wales will be considered to be excessive. Should difficult intersections to facilitate formwork removai.
any form or forming system, even though previousiy Spreader blocks and bracing shaü be removed during
approved for use, produce a concrete surface with concrete placement.
excessive undulations, its use shall be discontinued
until modifications satisfactory to the Engineer have 3.43 Tolerances
been made. Portions of concrete structures with
surface undulations in excess of the limits herein may All formwork shall be built and erected true
be rejected by the Engineer. to line and grade as specified in Contract Documents.
Sufficient support systems must be designed to
33.4 Safety Factors for Form Accessories maintain formwork alignment during construction.

Minimum factors of safety for formwork Unless specified in the Contract Documents,
accessories such as form ties, form anchors, and form the fonnwork shall be constructed to conform with
hangers shall conform with the safety factors the tolerance limits of Standard Spec$îcatwn for
<
presented in Table 3.1. In selecting these accessories, Tolerancesfor Concrete Construction and Materials
the formwork designer shall make Certain that (AC1 117-90).('9) The class of surface shail ais0 be
materials furnished for the job meet these minimum specified in accordance with AC1 117 documents.
strength safety requirements.
Formwork shall be inspected by the
3.4 CONSTRUCTION Contractor in the presence of the Engineer prior to
placement of concrete. Such inspection does not
3.4.1 General relieve the Contractor of the responsibility of
obtaining a concrete structure and finish within the
All forms shall be constructed and specified tolerances, free of warping, bulging, or other
maintained in a mortar-tight condition, including defects. In the event of a defect, the repair method,
compensation for lumber shrinkage. Formwork shall including removal and replacement, must be approved
be constructed and erected in such a manner as to by the Engineer and shall be completed at the
prevent injury and to facilitate stripping and removal. Contractor's expense.
Prior to concrete placement, specified formliners shall
be placed and inspected to ensure proper positioning. 3.4.3 Joints
Where required, formwork joints shali be filled with
an approved material that is impervious to moisture, Expansion joints, coristniction joints, and
will not stain concrete, and produces a tight joint. isolation joints shall be located as shown on the
Contract Documents. The location of joints that

Table 3.1 Minimum Safety Factors of Formwork Accessories"'

~~ ~ ~

Accessory Safety factor Type of construction

Form tie 2.0 All applications
Form anchor 2.0 Formwork supporting form weight and
concrete pressures only

3.0 Formwork supporting weight of forms,

concrete, construction live loads, and impact
Form hangers 2.0 All applications
Anchoring inserts used as form ties 2.0 Precast concrete panels when used as
formwork

Note:
(a) Safety factors are based on ultimate strength of accessory.

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become necessary due to equipment breakdown or 3.4.6 Stay-in-Piace Formwork

other interruption must be approved by the Engineer.
Form sheets shall not be permitted to rest
Concrete shall be placed continuously from directly on the top of the stringer or floor beam
joint to joint. Reinforcement shall pass through flanges. Sheets shall be securely fastened to form
constructionjoints or shali be connected at the joints supports and shall have a minimum bearing length of
with mechanical splices. Keyways, when required, 1 in. (25 mm) at each end. Form supports shall be
shall be formed to assure a full keyway and accurate placed in direct contact with the flange or stringer or
alignment. floor beam. Ail attachments shaií be made by
permissible welds, bolts, clips, or other approved
Bulkheads shall be adequate to support the means. However, welding of form supports to
lateral concrete pressures without visible movement flanges of steels not considered weldable and to
during concreting operations. The concrete shall be portions of fiange subject to tensile stresses shall not
vibrated at the bulkhead joint to assure good be permitted. Welding and welds shall be in
consolidation of the concrete at the joint. accordance with the provisions of AWS D2.0
pertaining to fillet welds except that 118 in. (3 mm)
Expansion joints shaü be constructed to fillet welds will be permitteù.
permit free movement. Projections of concrete into
the joint that are likely to spall under movement or Any permanently exposed form metai where
prevent the proper operation of the joint are to be the galvanized coating has been damaged shall be
carefully removed. thoroughly cleaned, wire-brushed, and painted with
two coats of zinc oxidezinc dust primer, Federal
3.4.4 Form Accessories Specification Tï-P-ó41d, Type II, no color added, to
the satisfaction of the Engineer. Minor head
Metal ties or anchorage utilized to maintain discoloration in areas of welds need not be touched
formwork in proper alignment shall be manufactured UP.
to permit removal or breakback to a depth of at least
1 in. (25 mm) from the face of the concrete without Transverse construction joints shall be
damage to the concrete. The cavities created shall be located at the bottom of a flute and % in. (6 mm)
filled entirely with a cementitious mortar. Where weep holes shall be field-drilled at not less than 12 in.
removable through ties are utilized, the cavity created (3ûûmm) on center along the line of the joint.
shall be constructed as to minimize the area The Locate joint and weep holes at lowest portion of
cavities shall be filled entirely with a cementitious concrete soffit.
mortar.
3.4.7 Bracing and Guying
The working components coil rod, coil bolts,
or other fastening mechanisms should have the ends Forms for waiis or columns shall be guyed,
that are to be encased in concrete greased or oiled to shored, or braced to resist wind loads and to
provide easy removal. All reused parts shall be withstand alignment shifts resulting from consbuction
thoroughly inspected for straightness,thread wear, and live loads. Single-sided bracing shall be designed to
other types of damage. withstand tension and compression forces. Wales and
other form members shall be designed to transmit
3.4.5 Prefabricated Formwork accumulated horizontal forces to strut bracing.

The requirements for prefabricated forms, 3.4.8 Form Removal

regardless of material type, are the same as that
required for standard fonnwork including design, 3.4.8.1 General
strength, mortar tightness, chamfers, filleted comers,
bracing, alignment, oiling, and reuse. The sheathing Forms shall not be removed without approval
shall be of such strength that it remains true to shape of the Engineer. In the determination of the time for
and alignment. All bolted and riveted heads shall be the removal of forms, consideration shall be given to
countersunk on the face of the form. the location and character of the structure, the
weather, the materials used in the mix, and other
conditions influencing the early strength of the
concrete.

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Methods of removal likely to cause

overstressing of the concrete or áamage to its surface
shaii not be used. Supports shaii be removed in such
a manner as to permit the stnicture to uniformly and
gradualiy take the stresses due to its own weight. For
arch structures, the sequence of falsework release
shaii be as specified or approved.

3.4.83 Time of Removal

When field operations are controlled by

cylinder tests, the removal of supporting forms or
falsework shaii not begin until the concrete is found
to have the specified compressive strength, provided
further that in no case shall supports be removed in
less than 7 days after placing the concrete.

If field operations are not controlledby beam

or cylinder tests, the following minimum periods of
time, exclusive of days when the average temperature
is below 40 OF (4 OC), shall have elapsed after
placement of concrete before forms are removed

Not supporting the dead weight of the

concrete ....................... 24 hours

For interior cells of box girders and for

railings ........................ 12hours

If high early strength is obtained by the use of

Type III or additional cement in the concrete mix,
these periods may be reduced as permitted by the
Engineer.

Forms shall not be removed until the

concrete has sufficient strength to prevent damage to
the surface.

3.4.9 Reuse of Formwork

Forms and form materiai may be reused after

they have been inspected for damage. Damaged
material shall be discarded or reconditioned. All
material reused shall meet the requirements of forms
regarding design, strength, mortar tightness, and
alignment.

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 AASHTO T I T L E GDSBTW 95 -
Section 4
Ob39ôOY 0 0 3 L b 9 4 2 4 6

TEMPORARY RETAINING STRUCTURES

4.1 GENERAL 43.1.1 Wall Movement Necessary for

Active Pressures
All excavations shall meet Federal OSHA
Standards as outlined in 29CFR Part 1926, In order for the calculated pressures to be
Subpart PJm) Sloped excavations shall have side attained, the soil must undergo some strain, dependent
slopes no steeper than those specified in subpart P of upon the elastic modulus of the soil and the stnictural
OSHA 29CFR 1926 for the type of soil, as identifed member in contact. Restraining effects of anchors
by a licensed geotechnical engineer. and tiebacks may create higher îhan the basic active
pressures from the Rankine or Coulomb formulae,
Vertical-sided excavations shaU be sheeted Pressures in restrained cases may approach those from
and braced as necessary to retain the earth and water the passive pressure or at-rest pressure formulae.
pressures as specified in Section 4.3. The effects of
any live load and dead load surcharges acting on the Wail movements considered necessary tD
surrounding area shall also be considered in the mobilize active pressure are tabulated below:
design of the temporary retaining structure. Formulas
given are for vertical walls with horizontal ground Soil Tvoe Wall Movement
surfam structure. For other cases, refer to standard Cohesionless, dense 0.001H
textbooks in soil mechanics or NAVFAC DM-7.(21*22) Cohesionless, medium to loose 0.002H to 0.004H
Cohesive, hard to stiff 0.01H to O.02H
4.2 TYPES OF RETAINING STRUCTURES Cohesive, medium to soft 0.02H to 0.MH
where H = height of wall
Selection of the type of retaining structure
shall be based on an assessment of the type of soil, 43.13 Active Pressures
depth of cut, environmental conditions such as
locations of nearby foundations, physical constraints, Cohesionless Soils
sensitivity of adjacent structures to movements, and
ease of construction. (4-1)

For excavations in stiff cohesive soils, where

common types of temporary retaining structures are Pa = active earth pressure in psf;
wood sheeting, steel soldier piles and wood lagging,
and steel sheet piles. In soft cohesive soils and wet y = unit weight of soil in pcf; For most soils,
granuIar soils, steel sheet piles are most commonly moist unit weight ranges from 100 to 130
used. Soil washout shall be prevented by use of hay, pcf (15.7 to 20.4 kN/m3). Use total moist
geotextiles, excelsior, or similar materiais. Where weight above the water table and buoyant
ground movement is to be minimized, all voids unit weight below the water table.
outside the lagging or sheeting shall be packed with
soil, sand, gravel, or grout, as necessary. H = depth below ground level in ft;

43 LATERAL EARTH PRESSURES = active earth pressure coefficient;

43.1 Cantilever Walls = tan2 (45" - Q/2);

For a cantilever retaining system or walls Q = angle of internal friction which usually
with a single level of bracing, lateral pressures shall ranges from 26" to 30" for medium to
be computed by the Rankine or Coulomb method. dense soils.
For active pressure calculation, friction between the
soil and the wall element shall be neglected. For Hydrostatic water pressure shall be added below the
passive pressure calculation by the Coulomb method, water table.
the angle of wail friction shall be less îhan one-third
the effective angle of internal friction for the soil.

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Cohesive Soils values shall be based on appropriate values h m

standard textbooks.
Pa = yH - 2C (4-2)
43.1.4 Passive Pressures
where
Y = total unit weight in pcf, and other Cohesionless Soils
symbols are as defined above;
pp = I$yH (4-5)
c = cohesion = QJ2
where
Qu = undrained unconfined compressive Pp = passive pressure;
strength in psf.
K, = passive earth pressure coefficient;
In the absence of test data, cohesion "C" may be
estimated to range between 20 to 25 percent of the K, = (1 + sin$) / (1 - sin$) for zero angle
effective overburden pressure. of wall friction. For values of &
including the effect of wall fiiction, refer
Pressures given by this formula may be negative to charts in standard textbooks or
in the upper portion of the wall, depending on the NAVFAC DM-7.
value of cohesion. In such cases, minimum active
pressure shall not be less than those for a cohesionless Cohesive Soils
soil with an active earth pressure coefficient (KJ of
0.25. Pp = y H + 2 c (4-6)
Mixed Soils Mixed Soils

Pa = KayH - 2C{Ka (4-3)

Pp = KpyH + 2 C K (4-7)
where the symbols have the same meaning as
described above. Design values of cohesion shall be selected
conservatively with a minimum factor of safety of
Minimum pressures shall not be less than those 1.5. Effect of soil disturbance at the excavated
corresponding to an active earth pressure coefficient subgrade shall also be considered. If duration of
of 0.25. exposure is sufficient for pore pressure dissipation,
design values in cohesive and mixed soils shall be
43.13 At-Rest Pressures based on effective strength parameters, neglecting the
undrained cohesion.
Where ground movement is prevented, lateral
pressures shall correspond to the at-rest values given Full passive pressures will be mobilized
by: where ground movements will cause strains of 0.02H
to .04H for medium to dense cohesionless soils, and
Po = KoyH (4-4) 0.02H to 0.04H or more for hard to soft cohesive
soils. Where smaller movements are anticipated,
where computed passive pressures shall be reduced
K, = at-rest earth pressure coefficient, which is appropriately.
given empirically as follows:
43.2 Braced Excavations
Cohesionless soils: K, = 1 - sin $'
For braced retaining structures with two or
Cohesive soils: K, = 0.95 - sin 9' more levels of bracing, design shall be based on
apparent earth pressure diagrams given by empirical
$' = effective angle of internal friction. methods or any other applicable earth pressure
distribution developed for this purpose. The apparent
For most normally consolidated clays, $' ranges earth pressure diagram in Figure4.1 is reproduced
between 20" and 28". In overconsolidated and from the AASHTO 1991 Interim Specificut¿~ns!~)
compacted clays, K,values can be higher and design

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The figure for soft to medium clays shall be used seepage, as given in NAVFAC DM-7. Similar charts
when the stability n u m b given by yWC exceeds 4.0. are also available in standard texîbooks in
geotechnical engineering. In layered soils, blowup of
Using Fig. 4.1, reaction at the bracing levels cohesive soil layers due to hydrostatic pressure in
shall be determined by assuming simple hinges at the underlying cohesionless layers shali be considered.
bracing points and a fictitious hinge below the cut Where conditions require, a pressure relief system
level. Penetration of sheathing shall be sufficient so shall be provided.
that enough passive soil resistance can be developed.
The lower hinge point shail depend on the strength of Variations of loadings on different sides of a
a soil, depth of cut, duration, and the type of retention cofferdam due to different ground levels and
system. For normal soils, this depth would be in the surcharge loadings shall be evaluated.
range of 2 to 6 ft (0.6 to 1.8 m) below the excavation
level and may be assumed at the point of zero net 4.5 COFFERDAMS
pressure. Wall elements may be designed for the
same pressures, assuming hinges at support points. Temporary cofferdams for construction of
bridge foundations shall be designed for soil and
Alternate design methods based on active and water pressures and other loads and factors as
passive pressures and staged excavations with outlined in the previous sections. Design water levels
continuous wall elements may also be used provided shall be specified on the drawings with provision for
the continuity of wall elements, soil-structure wave height.
interaction, and deflections during the various stages
of excavation are considered. Cofferdam size shall be adequate for the
construction of the foundationsand structure within it.
43.3 Surcharge Pressures Allowance in size shail be made for possible
misalignment of the wall elements during their
In addition to soil and hydrostatic pressures, installation (driving) of sheet piles or soldier piles,
the retaining structure shail be designed to include the presence of obstructions, and anticipated movements.
effect of surcharge loads acting within a 1.5 In braced excavations, encroachments by walers and
(horizontal): 1 (vertical) zone from the base of the struts shall be considered.
excavation. Surcharge lateral pressures shall be
evaluated using the same earth pressure coefficient as 4.5.1 Cantilever Walls
for the active soil pressures or using elastic solution
charts and tables given in NAVFAC DM-7 or any Cantilever systems shall have a factor of
stanáard textbook on soil mechanics. safety against overturning of at least 1.5. Figures 4.2
through 4.5, reproduced from the AASHTO 1991
4.4 STABILITY Interim Specijications, are diagrams of active and
passive pressures for analysis of cantilever systems.
Overall stability of a sloped excavation or a
retained excavation shall be investigated by iimit Embedment depth of sheet piles in wet
equilibrium methods or empirical methods. Charts cohesionless soils shall be adequate to control piping
and figures for stability analyses are available in with a minimum factor of safety of 1.5.
standard textbooks in soil mechanics. A computer
program based on the Simplified Bishop method or 45.2 Braced Cofferdams
the Janbu method can also be used for stability
analysis. Minimum factor of safety shall be 1.3. Braced cofferdams in dry conditions shall be
designed as a structure to resist loads as outlined in
For excavations in cohesive soils, stability the previous sections. The &signer shall specify the
against basal heave shall be investigated, using design assumptions including soil parameters, ground
standard methods or empirical charts given in water levels outside and inside the cofferdam during
NAVFAC DM-7 and other textbooks on soil various stages of excavation, and the cut levels when
mechanics. Critical conditions shall be evaluated by braces are to be installed. For cofferdams in wet
a licensed geotechnical engineer. construction, any installation of bracing under water
and prior to interior excavation shall be so specified.
Excavations in wet cohesionlesssoils shall be Design loads for the braces and required preloads
evaluated against piping or basai quick conditions by shall be indicated on the &sign drawings.
use of flow nets or charts for conwl of ground water

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 AASHTO T I T L E GDSBTW 95 M Ob39804 003Lbîï T55 M

Cofferdams in wet conditions such as those

for construction of foundations in a body of water
shall be designed for conditions occurring during
various stages of construction, considering the
stability of basal soils, the cofferdam, and the
structure to be constructed. Where hydrostatic uplift
cannot be controiled by dewatering alone, a tremie
seal shall be designed to resist hydrostatic uplift
during dewatering.

Resistance of îremie seals shall be based on

the weight of the seal concrete, the cofferdam
elements, and foundation piles, if any, bonded to the
m i e seal. Skin fictional resistance of piling and
cofferdam elements (for example, sheeting) below the
depth of excavation shall be evaluated based on the
effective stress principles, but shall not exceed
100 psf (4,800 N/m3.

Provision shall be made for flooding of the

cofferdam at stages of water level exceeding the
design water level of the tremie seal.

Cofferdams in a navigable channel shall be

designed for impact from waterway traffic or suitably
protected from impact. Loads imposed by work
barges and from flowing water shali be included
along with dynamic forces from fluctuating water
level. Dynamic water pressure from flowing water
shaU be calculated from:

In the formula, P, is the pressure in psf; v is the

water velocity in fps; and K is a constant that shall
take the following values:

1.375 for square faces

0.67 for circular piers
0.5 for angular faces.

These pressures are applicable for both a cantilever

and a braced cofferdam.

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Soil Type Apparent Earth Pressure Distribution
Sand"') (or Permanent Waiis in Clay)

Soft to Medium Cia$@ (4,= 0.25 to 1.0 tsf)

Stiff to Hard Clay@)(9. > 1.0 tsf)

Ezl 0.25 H

,,, t0.25"

-'t
0 . 4 ~
H
(3)

Figure 4.1 Guidelines for Estimating Earth Pressure on Wails with Two or More Levels of Anchors
Constructed from the Top Down [modified after Tenaghi and Peck (1%7)]
Notes:
(a) K, = tan2(45"-$'/2)
(b) K, = 1 - m (2qJyH), but not less than 0.25
m = 1 for overconsolidated clay
m = 0.4 for normally consolidated clay
(c) Value of 0.4 should be used for long-term excavations; values between 0.4 and 0.2 may be used for short-
tenn conditions.
(d) Surcharge and water pressures must be added to these three earth pressure diagrams. The two lower
diagrams are not valid for permanent walls or walls where water level lies above bottom of excavation.
(e) Conversion: 1 tsf = 96 W h 2 .

Notation:
H final wall height
% = active earth pressure CoefficienPb)
Y - effective angle of internai friction
Y - effective soil unit weight
Y - total soil unit weight
m - reduction factor
e - unanfïned compressive strength

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 a. EMBEDMENT IN SOIL b. EMBEDMENT IN ROCK

Figure 4.2 Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions €or Permanent Flexible

Cantilevered Walls with Discrete Vertical Wail Elements
Notes:
(a) For temporary walls embedded in granular soil or rock, refer to Figure 4.2 to determine passive resistance
and use diagrams in Figure 4.4 to determine active earth pressure of retained soil.
(b) Surcharge and water pressures must be added to the indicated earth pressures.
(c) Forces shown are per vertical wall element.
(d) Pressure distributions below the exposed portion of the wall are based on an effective element width of 3b.
which is valid for 1 2 5b. For 1< 5b, refer to Figures 4.3 and 4.5 for continuous waii elements to detemine
pressured distributions on embeúded portions of the wall.
(e) Refer to Reference 3 for determination of K, and I$.

Effective unit weight of soil

Vertical element width
Spacing between vertical wall elements (ck)
Shear strength of rock mass
Passive resistance per vertical wall element
Active earth pressure per vertical wall element
Ground surface slope behind wail {+ for slope up from wall, - for slope down from wall)
Ground surface slope in front of wall {+ for slope up from wall, - for slope down fim wall)
Active earth pressure coefficient
Passive earth pressure coefficient

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1. Determine the active earth pressure on the

wall due to surchargeloads, the retained soil,
and differential water pressure above the
dredge line (refer to Reference 3 for
determination of KJ
2. Determine the magnitude of active pressure
at the dredge line (P? due to surcharge
loads, retained soil, and differential water
pressure, using the earth pressure coefficient
Kl2.
3. Determine the value of x = P'/[&&WJ
for the distribution of net passive pressure in
front of the wall below the dredge line (refer
to Reference 3 for determination of K, and

4.
v*
Sum moments about the point of action of F
to determine the embedment (Dh for which
the net passive pressure is sufficient to
provide equilibrium.
5. Determine the depth (point a)at which the
shear in the wall is zero (i.e., the point at
which the areas of the driving and resisting
pressure diagrams are equivalent).
6. Calculate the maximum bending moment at
the point of zero shear.
7. Calculate the design depth, D = 1.2D0 to
1.4D, for a safety factor of 1.5 to 2.0.

a. PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION b. SIMPLIFIED DESIGN PROCEDURE

Figure 4 3 Shplifîed Earth Pressure Distributions and Design Procedures for Permanent
Flexible Cantilevered Walls with Continuous Vertical Wall Elements

Notes:
(a) Surcharge and water pressures must be added to the above earth pressures.
(b) Forces shown a ~ per
e horizontal foot of vertical wall element.

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fi CONSIDER PossieLE coNDITIot

(ff WATER IN TENSON CRACK

NOTE FOR SLOPING BACKFILL

FIGURE 5.6.2.C.o ~ .
(Y
H
; - 2s")H1
2

-
3b (D I 5 b )(4Su-7; H l
Pp
I
FOR TANB*(I eb
r
LJ
ri
i

a. EMBEDMENT IN COHESIVE SOIL b. EMBEDMENT IN COHESIVE SOIL

RETAINING GRANULAR SOIL RETAINING COHESIVE SOL

Figure 4.4 Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary Flexible Cantilevered
Walls with Discrete Vertical Wall Elements

Notes:
(a) For temporary walls embedded in granular soil or rock, refer to Figure 4.2 to determine passive resistance
and use diagrams in Figure 4.4 to determine active earth pressure of retained soil.
(b) Surcharge and water pressures must be added to the indicated earth pressures.
(c) Forces shown are per verticai wail element.
(d) Pressure distributions below the exposed portion of the wall are based on an effective element width of 3b,
which is valid for 12 5b. For 1 < 5b, refer to Figures 4.3 and 4.5 for continuous wail elements to determine
pressured distributions on embedded portions of the wail.
(e) Refer to Reference 3 for determination of &.

Effective unit weight of soil

Vertical element width
Spacing between vertical wall elements (c/c)
Undrained shear strength of cohesive soil
Passive resistance per vertical wall element
Active earth pressure per vertical wail element
Ground surface slope behind wail (+ for slope up from wail, - for slope down from wall)
Ground surface slope in front of wall [+ for slope up from wall, - for slope down bom wall}
Active earth pressure coefficient

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COHESIVE
SOIL II
DO
l

a. EMBEDMENT IN COHESIVE SOIL b. EMBEDMENT IN COHESIVE SOIL

RETAINING GRANULAR SOIL RETAINING COHESIVE SOIL

Figure 4.5 SimplifW Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary Flexible Cantilevered Walls with
Continuous Vertical Wall Elements [modified after Teng (1962))

Notes:
(a) For wails embedded in granular soil, refer to Figure 4.3 and use above diagram for retained cohesive soil
when appropriate.
(a) Refer to Figure 4.3 for simplified design procedure.
(c) Surcharge and water pressures must be added to the above earth pressures.
(d) Forces shown ate per horizontai foot of vertical wall element.
(e) Refer to Reference 3 for determination of &.

Notation:
Y - Effective unit weight of soil
s, - Undrained shear strength of cohesive soil
ß - Ground surface slope behind wall (+ for slope up from wall, - for slope down from wall)
K , = Active earth pressure coefficient

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GUIDE DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR BRIDGE TEMPORARY WORKS

COMMENTARY

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Section 2

FALSEWORK

2.1 MATERIALS AND MA"ACTURED COMPONENTS

2.1.2 Structural Steel

The specification allows the use of both new and salvaged structurai steel. Salvaged (used) steel is subject
to the same ASTM A6 criteria for surface imperfections as new steel.@) The prescribed working stresses for
unknown steel grades are based on the assumed use of structural steel conforming to ASTM A36. For reference,
some of the more common steel designations preüating ASTM A36 are provided in Table C2.1.

Table C2.1 Early ASTM Steel Specifications(24'

ASTM Requirement

Date Specifcation Remark Tensile Strength, psi Minimum Yield Point,psi

1924- 1931 ASTM A7 structura Steel 55,000 to 65,000 41 T.S. or not less than 30,000

Rivet Steel 46,OOO to 56,000 H T.S. or not less than 25,000

ASTM A9 smictural Steel 55,000 to 65,000 H T.S. or not less than 30,000

Rivet Steel 46,000 to 56,000 Y; T.S. or not less than 25,oOo

1939-1948 ASTM A7-A9 structural Steel 60,oOO to 72,000 M T.S.or not less than 33,000

1939-1949 ASTM A141-39 Rivet Steel 52,000 to 62,000 H T.S. or not less than 28,000

Conversion: 1,000 psi = 6.89 N / m z

While it is recognized that many provisions of the Structural WeMing Code, AWS DZ.Z-92 may not be
applicable to falsework construction, the intent of Section 2.1.2.3 is to require the same quality of workmanship for
temporary works as for permanent construction. The noted exceptions are the same as those found in the AZSC
Specificationfor Structural Steel Buildings.@)

2.1.3 Timber

Since falsework is seldom subjected to maximum loading for more than seven days, a load duration factor
of 1.25 will be applicable to most falsework designs. In the case of loads of shorter duration, such as wind,a larger
factor is appropriate. A duration-of-load factor of 2.0 (impact loading) may be used in the design of the connection
at the base of a falsework post adjacent to a traffic opening.

The maximum design values for ungraäed structurai lumber tabulated in Appendix A are based on the lowest
stresses for each size classification. These apply only for normal load duration and dry surface conditions, unless
noted otherwise. Refer to the NDS Supplement-Design Valuesfor Wood Construction for a description of applicable
adjustment factors and species designationjq

2.1.5 Manufactured Components

Vertical shoring systems consist of individual components that may be assembled and erected in place to
form a series of internally braced steel towers of any desired height. Safe working loads for these shoring systems
are generally determined empirically by full-scale load tests, where the ultimate capacity is based upon uniform and
concentnc loading of the tower legs. Therefore, the shoring capacity published by the m a n u f a c m should be
considered the maximum load that the shoring is able to safely support under ideal loading conditions. Horizontai
loads, eccentricity due to unequal spans or an Imbalanced pouring sequence, and uneven foundation settlement
generally will have an adverse effect on the vertical shoring assembly, and warrant special consideration.

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Manufactured assemblies are commercial products; such as jacks, hangers, brackets, and similar items; the
use of which is governed by conditions or limitations imposed by the manufactmr. When approved for use, these
products become an identifiable component of the falsework system.

The specifications limit the load op the deflection or both, of any commercial product to the maximum
recommended of allowed by the manufactmr of the product. The manufacturer’s recommendation should be shown
in a catalog or design manual published by the manufacturer, or in a statement of compliance pemining to a
particular project.

2.2 LOADS

22.1 General

The minimum lateral load is intended to ensure that sufficient horizontal load capacity is available so that
the falsework remains stable under normal conditions, when environmental lateral loads are not present. The
horizontal design load should be considered separately in both the transverse and longitudinal directions.

For post-tensioned construction, it is generally recognized that redistribution of gravity loads occufs after
the superstnicture is prestressed. The distribution of load in the falsework after post-tensioning is dependent on
factors such as spacing and stiffness of falsework supports, foundation stiffness, superstructure stiffness, and tendon
profile. The amount of load redistribution can be significant and may be a governing factor in the falsework design.
Accordingly, the vertical load due to dead load transfer should be added to the remaining gravity loads to obtain the
total vertical load for the falsework design.

Overall tempemure variations result in contraction or expansion. The induced forces must be resisted or
the movement accommodated by the falsework.

23.3 Live Load

23.3.1 Construction Live Load

Construction live loads are inherently transient and, therefore, for a given falsework scheme the potential
combinations of these loads should be considered.

In bridge deck consiruciion, a concentration of live load generally occurs at or near the edge of the bridge
deck during concrete placement and finishing. To account for this loading, the guide specifications include a 75 plf
(1100 N h ) live load applied along the outside edge of all deck overhangs. In the case of long falsework spans,
however, the application of 75 plf (1100 N/m) to falsework components below the overhang support system may
be unduly conservative. Therefore, it is recommended that the 75 plf (1100 N h )be applied as a moving load over
a length of 20 fi (6 m) and positioned to produce the maximum stress in the underlying falsework component being
considered.

23.3.2 Impact

The allowance for impact assumes n o d care in the placing of structural elements. It is not intended to
cover excessive impact loads resulting from dropping materiais onto the falsework or dragging structural elements
into position.

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2.2.5 Environmental Loads

23.5.1 Wind

The basic reference for computation of wind load is the UnlformBuiúfing Code. 1991 oeidnt@
i.)' Table 2.2
was developed assuming an average Ce coefficient for exposure categories B and C, C, = 1.3 to 1.4 (depending upon
the height zone) and I = 1.0. The Q-factor was adopted from Caltran~.(~) Detailed provisions for calculating the
design wind pressures are reproduced in Appendix C.

Given the regional preferences for different model codes, the relevant wind provisions from ASCE 7-88
(formerly ANSI A58.1) and the BOCA National Building Code are also provided in Appendix C.(29s30) The wind
provisions in ASCE 7-88 consist of the same general equations that appear in the AASHTO StandardSpecfications
for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Trafic

For heavy-duty shoring, the wind impact is assumed to be the total projected area of all the elements in the
tower face normai to the applied wind. For all other falsework, the wind impact area is assumed as the gross
projected area of the falsework and any unrestrained portion of the permanent structure, excluding tbe area between
falsework posts or towers where diagonal bracing is not used.

23 DESIGN

23.3 Stability Against Overturning

For stability analysis, it is generally assumed that the horizontal design load produces a moment that acts
to overturn the falsework system or element of the system under consideration. When calculating overturning
moments, the horizontal design load will be applied to the faisework in accordance with the following:
O
Actual loads (such as those due to construction equipment or to the concrete placing sequence) will
be considerd as acting at the point of appiication to the falsework.
O Wind loads should be considered as acting at the centroid of the wind impact area for each height
zone. When wind loads govern the design, however, the horizontal design load (to be used in
calculating the overturning moment) is applied in a plane at the top of the faisework post or
shoring.

All other horizontal loads, including the minimum load when the minimum load governs, should
be assumed as acting in a plane at the top of the falsework posts or shoring.

The intent of Section 2.3.3 is to insure that for each load combinationidentified in Section 2.3.2, the righting
moment shall be at least 1.2 times the overturning moment.

23.5 Deflection

The theoretical deflection is the deflection that would occur if ail of the concrete in the bridge superstructure
were to be placed in a single pour. Theoretical deflection is limited to ln40of the span of the falsework beam. This
limiting value is included in the specifications to ensure a Certain degree of rigidity in the falsework and thereby
minimize distortion of the forms, Theoretical deflection (deflection under the weight of the entire superstructure)
is usually greater than the actual deflection for a given falsework member.

Actual deflection is the deflection that occurs as the falsework beam is loaded. When calculating the actual
deflection, it is necessary to include the weight of foms and falsework supported by the beam as well as the weight
of the concrete the beam actually supports. It is also necessary to consider such factors as the sequence of
construction and the depth of the bridge superstructure when two or more concrete pours are involved.

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Readily identifmble components of the deflection arise from elastic shortening of support members and
foundation settlement, but additional and often more significant deflections may occur due to take-up arising from
the straightening of bent sole plates, crushing of timber packers, and other causes. The magnitude of &fleaions
arising from takeup is largely dependent on the properties of packing materials and joint details. As a general nile,
however, the vertical take-up may be on the order of 1/16in.(2 mm) for every lumber surface in contact with anotha
wood member or steel component.

23.7 Steel Beam Grillages

The current AISC specificationshave been extensively modified to distinguish between local web yielding,
web crippling, and sidesway web buckling.@) The current web yielding criteria conespond to the original web
crippling equations, and are an indication of the load level required to yield the web steel below the top flange. The
new web crippling provisions limit concentrated loads to prevent column-type buckling of the web, and the sidesway
web buckling provision limits magnitudes of concentrated load to prevent the tendency of a flange to "kick-out"
under heavy compression loads.

23.8 Proprietary Shoring Systems

In the United States, there are several manufacturers of proprietary shoring systems. However, then? are
no industry standards for the various components of these systems and, as a general rule, towers or components
produced by different manufacturers should not be intermixed. Some other limiîations or general characteristics of
modular systems are as follows:

e Extemai bracing is recommended when the height exceeds four times the least base dimension.
e Allowable leg capacities are generally reduced when the screw jacks, or extension legs, are fully
extended.
e Multi-tiered towers stacked in excess of two fiames high have lower allowable leg capacities than
single- or double-tier towers.
e The drift characteristics of proprietary systems can vary considerably,depending upon their bracing
configurations. Ladder frames exhibit the least lateral stiffness, and very little benefit is derived
from the horizontal braces.

Some manufacturers allow a 4 to 1 differential leg loading between two legs of a frame, or two frames in
a tower. Examples of where this type of differential leg loading could occur would be a skewed overpass where the
underlying right-of-way is maintained, or the exterior shoring towers of a bridge deck supporting screed loads and
the overhang falsework. Significant differential leg loads are generally discouraged however, unless substantiating
data can be furnished by the manufacturer that indicate that the differential loading wili not overstress the tower
components.

23.9 Traffic Openings

The modified design load requirement is adopted from Calirans, where experience has shown that the
downward force exerted by the bridge superstructure increases after the deck concrete is placed.") The increased
force is the result of deck shrinkage during the curing period; consequently, it will be larger at falsework bents
located near the center of the bridge span than at bents near the abutments or columns. The increased force is of
greater concern in the case of cast-in-place prestressed structures (which have little load-camying capacity until
tensioned) than in conventionally reinforced concrete structures.

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2.4 FOUNDATIONS

2.4.1 General

Falsework foundations are generally set at M o w depths because the loading is frequently temporary anci
may only last for months as opposed to loadings from permanent smctures that will last for years. The foundations
should be designed with an adequate safety factor against failure of the supporting ground and without detrimental
settlements. The ground support factors that need to be considered include:

The properties of the various strata below foundation level:

- shear strength
- compressibility.
Site and construction considerations:
- scour of the surface deposits
- loss of shear strength due to construction disturbance
- settlement due to liquefaction from vibrations
- reduced bearing capacity due to steep ground slopes or cuts adjacent to the loaded area.
Potential problem soils:
- collapsible soils
- swelling and shrinking soils
- frost-susceptible deposits
- fill deposits.
The purpose of this section is to provide guidelines for evaluating the properties of the various strata below
the foundation level, including potential problem soils. These evaluations must be done in order to properly design
foundation support for falsework systems. Detailed design procedures for these factors are not presented since the
methodology for making these calculations is available in textbooks or design manuals. The designer of the
falsework foundation should either be familiar with these procedures or, where deemed necessary, consult with a
geotechnical or foundation engineer for recommendations. Site and construction considerations are discussed in
Section 2.5.2. References 21 and 22 provide simplified foundation design procedures. Additional infomiation
pertaining to the investigation and design of falsework foundations is provided in Appendix D.

2.4.2 Footings

The use of presumptive bearing values for design is based upon judgment and experience developed on a
large number of projects. For most situations, the presumptive bearing pressures, as given in Table 2.4 of the
specification, are conservative. However, the presumptive bearing values do not consider important factors such as
foundation size and embedment, soil stress bistoxy, and stress distribution of layered soils. Thus, the presumptive
soil pressures should be considered to be an upper bound value. The design bearing pressures should be based upon
site specific information and a more thorough analysis. The designer should also check the local building code,since
presumptive bearing values in these codes are based upon local experience.

Soil descriptions used in Table 2.4 are in accordance with the Unified Soil ClassifiCaton System, briefly
described in Table D.4. These values are based upon typical soil properties for various types of deposits. For the
pressures listed, settlements should be in an acceptable range.

Both uniform and differential settlement can affect the adequacy of the falsework foundations. For soil
Groups 1 and 2 in Table 2.4, settlement should not be a major factor. However, settlement may be si@icant for
the soil Group 3 and a more detailed settlement analysis shall be carried out. For soil Group 4, the use of shallow
foundations is generally not acceptable. Deep foundations are normally used for support of the falsework in these
deposits. The amount of movement that can occur in soil Group 5 is a function of local conditions, climatic effects,
and other geologic considerations. A local gwtechnical engineer shall be consulted regarding these matters.

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2.43 PiieFoundaüons

If the surface deposits provide insufficient bearing capacity, or the shallow foundations are p~edictedto
I
deform more than allowed., it WUbe necessary to extend the foundations &rough the surface deposits to a more
competent bearing stratum, If piles are to be used, the driving aiteria should be selected on the basis of a wave
equation analysis or an accepted driving formula. The penetration data of the last 5 ft (1.5 m) of driving should be
recarded and submitted to the designer of the falsework foundations. Guidelines for the design of pile foundations
are presented in Chapter 4 of AASHTO Standard Spec8catwns for Highway Bridges.‘”
2.4.4 Foundations for Heavy-Duty Shoring

In any case where the maximum leg load within a given tower exceeds 30 kips (130w), the tower
foundation should be designed and constnicted to provide uniform settlement under all legs of the tower under all
loading conditions. Ihisrequirement is included in the specifications to prevent distortion of the tower components
as a consequence of unequal leg sealement.
The effect of unequai leg settlement becomes more severe as leg loads increase; consequently, the tower
foundation design, including the method employed to ensure uniform settlement, is relatively more importantwhen
leg loads are high.

2.5 CONSTRUCTION

25.2 Foundations

Surface water from rainfall or other sources could cause scour around foundations, leading to loss of
supporL The surface water drainage should be diverted to prevent erosion or scour d u h g the time the falsework
foundations are in use.

Construction activity taking place in the vicinity of the foundation can alter the foundation support. This
can occur when trenches or pits are dug adjacent to the foundation, thereby reducing lakral support of the soil below
the foundation level. Heavy construction equipment can cause nitîing that will disturb the soils below the foundation
level, thereby weakening them and perhaps leading to unacceptable settlements. Equipment might also be stoclrpied
next to foundations, causing additional loading that was not considered in the design. AU construction activities
should be reviewed prior to being implemented so as to maintain the adequacy of the foundations.

Ceriain soils are susceptible to densification from vibrations and, under the right conditions, may even
liquify. These vibrations can occur from construction-related operations such as the driving of piles or sheet piling.
Vibrations could also occur from movement of construction equipment across the site. Soil types A, B, and D in
Group 3 of Table 2.3 are most susceptible to settlement from vibrations.

25.4 Steel Construction

Friction between the joists and the top fiange of a steel beam wili provide some iaterai resîraint, but the
amount is indeterminate. Therefore, as a general nile, friction between the joists and top fiange should be neglected
when investigating flange buckling.

Timber cross bracing between adjacent steel beams is commonly used for flange suppûrt in falsework
construction. In this method, timber struts are set diagonally in pairs between the top flange of one beam and the
bottom flange of the adjacent beam, and securely wedged into place. However, timber cross bracing alone will not
prevent flange buckling because the timber struts resist only compression forces. A more effective flange support
method uses steel tension ties welded, clamped, or otherwise secured across the top and bottom of adjacent beams
in combination with timber cross bracing between the beams.

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When beams are continuous over two or more spans of unequal length, and if an end span is considerably
shorter than the adjacent span, beam uplift may occur at the end of the short span. This uplift condition (negative
deflection at the end support) is an indication of system instability and must be considered in the analysis. if
theoreticai uplift cannot be prevented by loading the short span first, the end of the beam must be tied down or the
span lengths changed.

2.5.8 Traffk Openings

The clearances from falsework over traffic cited in this section are minimums based on Article 2.4,
"Highway Clearances for Underpasses"of the AASHTO Standard SpecifzcutionsforHighway Bridges.") Some States
routinely speciîy greater clearances, that is, verticaï clearances of 15 ft (4.6 m) over freeways and truck routes, and
horizontal clearances to include nominal shoulders. Increased horizontal clearances should be specified when
indicated by traffic needs or existing roadway geometrics at specific sites. Temporary barriers or railings to protect
the falsework from vehicular impacts are normaïiy required at ail locations except where traffic speeds and volumes
are very low.

2.5.12 Removal

In general, ail elements of the falsework system must remain in place for a specified time period or until
the concrete attains a specified strength or, in the case of cast-in-phce prestressed construction, untü stressing is
completed. However, these limitations do not apply to bracing, including cable bracing, which is installed to prevent
overturning gr collapse of the falsework system. Such bracing may be removed on the day following concrete
placement in any m e where the in-place concrete provides horizontal stability. Note that the concrete will provide
horizontal stability if, in the Engineer's judgment, it is capable of transferring horizontal forces from the falsework
to previously constructed elements of the bridge substructure.

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I

Section 3

FORMWORK

Bridge formwork can be divided into two categories: vertical and horizontal formwork Vertical formwork
can be generally consbucted using job-built systems or prefabricated systems. Horizontal formwork can be
constructed utilizing a job-built, prefabricated, or permanent stay-in-piace system. These systems are defined as:

Job-Built - a formwork system designed and built for a specific application, most commonly using
plywood and lumber.
O
Prefabricated Formwork - most commonly a modular system that has the durability for multiple
reuses and normally is built with plywood with a metal framing. Prefabricated formwork can be
built for custom uses on special projects.
Stay-in-Place Formwork - a formwork system designed such that the formwork is not removed
after consîruction. This system most commonly consists of stay-in-place metal decks or precast
concrete planks.

3.1. MATERIALS AND FORM ACCESSORIES

Fonnworkfor Concrete describes the formwork materials commonly used in the United Siaies and provides
extensive related data for form design.'") Information is also available from manufaclmers and suppliers of materials.
Table C3.1 indicates other specific sources of design and specification daia for formwork materials. This tabulated
information should not be interpreted to exclude the use of any other materials that can meet quality and safety
requirements established for the completed work.

3.1.2 Sheathing

Sheathing is defined as the supporting layer of formwork closest to the concrete. It may be in direct contact
with the concrete or separated from it by a form liner. Sheathing materials consist of wood, plywood, metal, or other
products capable of transferring the load of the concrete to supporting members such as joists or studs.

In selecting and ushg sheathing materials, important considerations are: (1) strength; (2) stiffness; (3) ease
of release; (4) reuse and cost per use; (5) surface characteristics imparted to the concrete such as wood grain transfer,
gloss, and paintabiiity; (6) resistance to mechanical damage, such as from vibrators and abrasion from slip forming;
(7) workability for cutting, drilling, and attaching fasteners; (8) adaptability to weather and extreme field conditions,
temperature, and moisture; and (9) weight and ease of handling.

3.1.5 Stay-in-Place Formwork

In areas where form removal is expensive or hazardous, the use of stay-in-place (S.1.P) forms may be
desirable. The additional dead weight of the deck slab, appearance, and corrosiveness of the environment are some
of the factors that should be considered when deciding if metal or concrete S.I.P. forms should be used. Some States
have developed criteria for allowing the use of corrugated steel S.I.P. forms. These criteria are generally based on
the FHWA Instructional Memorandum 40-3-72 (no longer an active FHWA policy), except that deflections are
limited to If240 or % in. (20 mm), whichever is less.

3.1.6 Form Accessories

Since a large proportion of formwork accessories consists of proprietary equipment, the designer shall, prior
to use in designs, ensure that the engineering data provided by equipment suppliers include the foliowing:

The basis on which the safe working loads were determined, and whether the factor of safety is
based on yield load or ultimate load.
O A statement as to whether the supplier's data are based on calculations or test results.

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Insuuctions compatiblefor use and maintenance,including points that may require specialattention
during formwork erection or dismantling.
Detailed information on mass, dimensions,load capacities, deflxtions, shear, bending moment, and
torsional strength as may be applicable.
O
Number of reuses before refurbishment is required.

When threaded parts are utilized in the formwork design, the designer must call out thread type and
dimensions to ensure that the Component parts have compatible threads. Caution is warranted when interchanging
component formwork accessories from different manufacturersbecause most formwork accessories are designed and
tested as a system. Interchanging component parts may affect load-carrying capacity or formwork connections,
leading to premature failures. Manufacturers’ recommended procedures and instructions must be followed in
formwork design and construction.

Table C3.1 Form Materiais with References for Design and Specification
Item Princioal use Reference data

Lumber Form framing, sheathing, and National Design Speci3cation for Wood Construction (NDS),
shoring Reference 26, 3 2

Wood H d m k : Wood ar an Engineering Material,

Reference 33.

Wood Engineering, Reference 34.

T h b e r Construction Manual,Reference 35.

Plywood Form sheathing and panels Constructionand Indutrial Plywood, Reference 36.

Concrere Forming, Reference 31.

P l w d Desim Suecific&m. Reference 38.

Steel Panel framing and bracing Manual of Steel Construction, Reference 25.

Heavy forms and faisework Cold-Fonned Steel D a i m Manual. Reference 39.

Aluminum Lightweight panels and framing; Aluminum Cmtruction Manual,Reference 40.
bracing and horizontal shoring

Fiber or laminated paper Column and beam forms; void

pressed t u b oc forms forms for slabs, beams, girders,
and precast piles

Concrete Footings, stay-in-placeforms, AC1 318, Reference 41.

molds for precast units
AC1 347R, Reference 13.

Form ties, anchors, and For securing formwork against See Table 3.1 for recommended safety factors.
hangers placing loads and pressures

Steel joists Standard Specijhtions, Lwd Tabla, and Weight Tobfesfor

Steel Joke and Joist Girdcrs, Reference 4 2

Steel frame shoring Formwork support Gu& to HorYmta~ Shoring Beam Erection P m e d u n for
P t d o r w y Systems, Reference 43.

Guideunufor Safety Requirements for Shoring concrek

Formwork, Reference 16.

Design Manual for Structural Tubing, Reference 44.

Form insulation Cold weather protection of con- AC1 306R Reference 45.
crete

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3.2 LOADS

3.2.2 Lateral Pressure of Fluid Concrete

The lateraì pressure formulas (3-2) to ( 3 4 , adopted from AC& are empirid equations based on data and
conditions that have changed over the yeam, particularly admixture usage and placement rates. The pressure
formulas are applicable under the following conditions:
o The concrete weighs 150 pcf (23.6 kN/m3), is made with Type I cement, and has a slump of not
more than 4 in. (100 mm). For concrete weighing other than 150 pcf (23.6 kN/m3), the resulting
pressure from the equations is multiplied by the ratio of actual unit weight to 150 pcf (23.6 kN/m3).

o The concrete contains no admixtures or pozzolans. When a retarding admixture, or fly ash or &er
pozzolan replacement of cement is used in hot weather, an effective temperature less than that of
the concrete in the forms should be used.

o The temperature of the concrete ranges from 40 O F to 80 O F (4.4 OC to 26.7 OC).

o The concrete is consolidated by internal vibration to a depth of 4 ft (1.2 m) or less.

o Column forms are assumed to have a maximum plan dimension of 6 ft (1.8 m). Othenvise they
are classified as wall forms.

If concrete is pumped from the base of rhe form, the form should be designed for full hydrostatic head of
concrete plus a minimum allowance of 25 percent for pump surge pressure. If there are significant restrictions to
the flow of concrete being pumped from the bottom, such as large anchorages or precast elements inside the forms,
pressures may be as high as the face pressure of the pump piston.

33 DESIGN

33.2 Allowable Stresses

For formwork materiais with limited reuse, allowable stresses specified in the appropriate design d e s or
for temporary loads on permanent st~cturesmay be used. Where there will be a considerable number of formwork
reuses or where formwork is fabricated from materiais such as steel, a i d n u m , or magnesium, it is recommended
that the formwork be designed as a permanent structure carrying permanent loads.

3.4 CONSTRUCTION

3.4.2 Tolerances

Dimensional tolerances for cast-in-place concrete bridges prescribed by ACI 117 are as foiiows:

(a) Departure from established alignment 1 in. (25 mm)

(b) Departure from established grades 1 in. (25 mm)
(c) Variation ftom the plumb or the specified batter in the l i e s and
surface of columns, piers, walls, and arises
Exposed, in 10 ft Yi in. (13 mm)
Backfilled, in 10 ft 1 in. (25 mm)
(d) Variations from the level or the grades indicated on the drawings
in slabs, beams, horizontal grooves, and railing offsets
Exposed, in 10 ft % in. (13 mm)
Backfilled, in 10 ft 1 in. (25 mm)

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(e) Variation in cross-sectional dimensions of columns, piers, slabs,

walls, beams, and similar parts
Minus '/4 in. (6 mm)
Plus !4 in. (13 mm)
(0 Variation in thickness of bridge slabs
Minus 118 in. (3 mm)
Plus '/4 in. (6 mm)
(g) Variation in the sizes and locations of the slab and wall openings !4 in. (13 m)

AC1 Committee 347 defines four classes of formed surfaces, shown in Table C3.2. Class A is suggested
for surfaces prominently exposed to public view, where appearance is of special hportance. Class B is intendeú
for coarse-textured concrete formed surfaces intended to receive piaster, stucco, or wainscoting. Class C is a general
standard for permanently exposed surfaces where other fmishes are not specified. Class D is a minimum quality
requirement for surfaces where roughness is not objectionable, usually applied where surfaces will be permanently
concealed.
Table C3.2 Permitted Irregularities in Formed Surfaces
(Checked with a 5-ft Template)"3)
Type of irregularity Class of surface

Abrupt
Conversion: 1 io. = 25.4 mm, 1 ft = 0.3048 m.

3.4.3 Joints

In continuous bridges, with center spans that exceed 150 ft (45.7 m), the positive and negative moment areas
should be poured separately, with a transverse consbuctionjoint installed near the point of dead load counterflexure.
The placing sequence should be determined on an individual basis and shown on the Contract Documents. Positive
moment regions should be placed first to avoid separation of the deck at the construction joint and to limit deck
cracking in the negative moment region.

On wide bridges, a longitudinal bonded construction joint may be placed at the edge of an intermediate
traffic lane. Placement of a joint within a traffic lane should be avoided. The joint should be located within the
center half of the deck slab.

3.4.6 Form Removal

Formwork removal is generally specified in terms of concrete maturity or concrete strength, or a

combination of both. AC1 committee 347 recommends the following with respect to time of stripping bridge
formwork and its supports.('3)

Shoring und cenfering removal: should follow recommended practices in Sections 3.5 and 3.7 (see
committee report). In no case should supporting forms and shores be removed from horizontai members before
concrete strength is at least 70 percent of design strength, as determined by field-cured cylinders or other approved
methods, unless removal has been approved by the Engineer. In continuous structures, support should not be released
in any span until the first and second adjoining spans on each side have reached the specified strength.

Form removal: forms for ornamentai work,railings, parapets, and vertical surfaces that require a surface
finishing operation should be removed not less than 12 hours, nor more than 48 hours, after casting the concrete,
depending on weather conditions. Bulkheads at constructionjoints should not be removed for a period of 15 hours
after casting adjacent concrete. Fomis under slab spans, beams, girders, and brackets must not be removed until the
concrete has attained at least 70 percent of its design strength.

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Section 4

TEMPORARY RETAINING STRU(XURJ3S

4.1 GENERAL

Excavations required for construction of foundations and any 0îhe.r below-grade components of structures
are made with sloping sides or with verticai or near vertical sides, depending on severai factors such as available
space, type of soil, water table, depth of cut, duration of the work, etc. In al1 cases,the conditions must provide for
stability and protection of workmen as well as the newly constmcted and adjacent existing structures. OSHA has
specified certain minimum slopes for the various types of soils and shoring requirements far vertical-sided trenches.
However, actual of site soils and neighboring conditions may require supplementary measures such as flaüening of
slopes, dewatering, and additional bracing.

The influence zone of surcharge pressures will depend on the type of soil. In weak soils, the zone of
influence may be flatter than 45" from the base of excavation.

The formulae for laterai pressures given in Section 4.3 are for the simple case of a vertical cut in
homogenous ground with a level surface. For complicated geometry, either a simplified model can be made, or an
analysis can be done using the actual specific geometry and formulae given in sîandard textbooks.

4.2 TYPES OF RETAINING STRUCTURES

The type of retaining structure is usually selected by the Contractor. nie selected scheme must satisfy the
protection requirements of the constructed and existing facilities and, of course, the workmen. Ground water control
is an essential element for maintaining the stability and support capacity of the sous. Soil retaining schemes may
include soil stabilization by grouting, freezing, soil nailing, etc. Trench boxes installed in overexcavated trenches
do not prevent ground movements. Their primary objective is protection of workmen and the installations within
the trench box.

4.3 LATERAL PRESSURES

Charts and graphs are available in many textbooks for active and passive earîb pressure coefficients related
to the soil angle of internal friction, angle of friction between the wall element (for example, sheetpiles) and the soil,
inclination of the surcharge or bacWiií, and the inclination of the wall. Various design simplificaíions are often made
in the surcharge geometry to utilize the available earth pressure coefficient charts.

43.1.1 Wail Movement Necessary for Active Pressures

For very rigid retaining structures, ground movements may not be sufficient to mobilize active pressures.
In such cases, the design should consider the higher at-rest pressures. If the retaining wall is restrained by
prestressed anchors, high pressures are usually induced at the anchor location. Fárih pressure distribution wouId be
irregular and different from the usual triangular pattern of active or at-rest state. Such cases should be designed by
an experienced geotechical engineer.

The wali movements given in the specification are for rotation about the bottom of the excavation. If the
top of the retaining structure is restrained and it acts as the fulcrum for rotation, then the earth pressure distribution
is no longer triangular and a higher pressure occurs at the location of,the support.

43.1.2 Active Pressure

Cohesionless Soils: The angle of internal friction for a cohesionless soil may be estimated from standard
penetration tests and charts given in many soil mechanics textbooks and also in NAVFAC DM-7jn) Careful
evaluation of loose layers or zones is recommended because they may act as the weak zone of a potential slide.

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Cohesive Soils: Tension cracks and fusures, etc. in cohesive soils can destroy the cohesion. Cohesion is
also lost from exposure to weather, pore pressure dissipation, erosion, remolding, and other construction activities.
Hence, a minimum active pressure coefficient of 0.25 has been specified. Where free ground water can exist, eartb
pressures should be determined for the buoyant unit weight of the soil below the water table, and separate hydrostatic
pressures added to the submerged soil piessures to determine the total earth pressure.

Mixed Soils: B e above commentary for cohesive soils is also applicable to the case of mixed soils.

43.13 At-Rest Pressures

Many published empirical fornuias are available for at-rest earth pressure coefficient. The selected value
should be consistent with local practice. Soil type and stress history have a significant effect on this coefficient.
Hydrostatic pressures should be added below the water table.

4 3 . U Passive Pressures

Cohesionless Soils: Passive pressure coefficients for various geometries and angles of internal friction and
wali friction can be obtained from charts given in many soil mechanics textbooks and handbook. in computing the
pixsive pressures below the water table, use buoyant unit weight of the soil and add hydrostatic pressure. The angle
of internal friction for the soil should be estimated conservatively. Charts are available in textbooks that relate the
angle of internal fiction to the relative density or standard penetration test values. Seepage gradients will reduce
the passive pressure.

Cohesive Soils: The formula given for the passive pressure is for undrained conditions. Pore pressure
dissipation can reduce îbe passive resistance significantly. For long duration exposure, passive pressures should also
be evaluated for the drained effective friction angles using the formulas for cohesionless soils and the design based
on the lower pressures. Ground water table conditions must also be considered in the analysis of earth pressures.

Mixed Soils: The above commentary for cohesionless and cohesive soils is also applicable to the mixed
soils. Hydrostatic pressures in cohesionless layers interbedded in cohesive layers can cause uplift and heaving and
reduce passive pressures significantly. The design should consider relief of uplift pressures, as appropriate.

43.2 Braced Excavations

Bracing should be designed for various stages of the excavation, corresponding to the cuts necessary to
install the braces at each level. The uppermost stage is analyzed for a cantilever condition, using active pressures.
The next stage with a single brace is also analyzed using active pressures and passive pressures. The b r a d case
empirical diagrams are generally used for conditions of two or more levels of bracing.

The location of the hinge point fur determining reactions at bracing levels may be estimated from the
position of net zero pressure (where the passive pressure equals the active or the empirical design pressure). The
wali elements must have sufficient embeäment below the assumed hinge position to obtain passive reaction greater
than the required toe reaction.

The design of braces should include allowances for thermai changes from ambient temperam,
misalignments, and impact from construction activities.

43.3 Surcharge Pressures

Surcharges near an excavation are varied in form (for example, existing foundations, proposed foundations,
embankments, and construction equipment). Ground pressure on the crane tracks or pads vary during the operation
of the crane. Surcharge effects should be analyzed for the most severe loading conditions. Charts are available in
many soil mechanics textbooks and handòook for analysis of iaterai pressure due to various configurations of
loadings.

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4.4 STABILITY

Where simplified analyses indicate critical stability conditions, methods for improvement of the soil
conditions should be implemented. These methods depend on soil, ground water, depth of cut, and many oîher
factors. Consultation with experienced geotechnical engineers is recommended for such a condition.

4.5 COFFJ3RDAMS

The shape and size of a cofferdam is usually selected by the Contractor. The minimum size should be
sufficient to construct the specified foundation. If piled foundations are to be constructed, strut and waler locations
should be adjusted to allow instailation of the piles.

45.1 Cantilever Walls

Assumptions made in the design of cantilever walls should be shown on the drawings. This is particularly
important for surcharges, depths of cuts, water table, and dewatering requirements. In the case of cohesive soils,
passive pressure on the embedded portion of the wall shall not exceed 2S, in the case that the active pressure at the
cut level on the soil side (i.e., yH - 2C) is negative.

45.2 Braced Cofferdams

Design assumptions should be clearly indicated on the drawings so that constructionpersonnel do not violate
the assumptions, and variations from the design assumptions are approved by the Engineer.

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APPENDIX B

AISC PROVISIONS FOR WEBS AND FLANGES

UNDERCONCENTRATEDFORCES
K1.l Design Basis

Members with concentrated loads applied n o d to one $unge and symmetric to the web shall
have a flange and web proportioned to satisfy the local flange bending, web yielding strength, web
crippling, and sidesway web buckling critena of Sections K1.2, K1.3, K1.4, and K1.5. Members
with concentrated loads applied to bofhflanges shall have a web proportioned to satisfy the web
yielding, web crippling, and column web buckling criteria of Sections K1.3, K1.4, and K1.6.

Where pairs of stiffeners are provided on opposite sides of the web, at concentrated loads, and
extend at least half the depth of the member, Sections K1.2 and K1.3 need not be checked.

For column webs subject to high shears, see Section K1.7;for bearing stiffeners, see Section K1.8.

K1.2 Local Flange Bending

A pair of stiffeners shall be provided opposite the tension fiange or flange piate of the beam or
girder ft.aming into the member when the thickness of the member flange is less than:

0.4 2
where F, = column yield stress, ksi;
Pb, = the computed force delivered by the fiange or moment connection plate
multiplied by 5 4 when the computed force is due to live and dead load oniy, or
by 4/3, when the computed force is due to live and dead load in conjunction with
wind or earthquake forces, kips.

If the length of loading measured across the member flange is less than 0.15b, where b is the
member fiange width, Equation K1-1 need not be checked.

K1.3 Local Web Yielding

Bearing stiffeners shall be provided in beams and welded plate girders if the compressive stress
at the web toe of the fillets resulting from concentmted loads exceeds O.óóF,..

a. When the force to be resisted is a concentrated load producing tension or compression,

applied at a distance from the member end that is greater than the depth of the member:

IO.óóFy
tJN + 5Æ)
b. When the force to be resisted is a concentrated load applied at or near the end of the
member:

I 0.66Fy (KI-3)
f,(N + 2.5Æ)
where R = concentrated load or reaction, kips;
f, = thickness of web, in.;
N = length of bearing (not less than Æ for end reactions), in.;
k = distance from outer face of flange to web toe of fiilec in.

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K1.4 Web Crippling

Bearing stiffeners shall be provided in the webs of members under concentrated loads, when the
compressive force exceeds the following limits:

a. When the concentrated load is applied at a distance not less than dn from the end of the
member:
r 1

b. When the concentrated load is applied less than a distance dn from the end of the
member:
r 1
(Kl-5)

where F, = specified minimum yield stress of beam web, ksi;

d = overall depth of the member, in.;
t, = flangethickness, in.

If stiffeners are provided and extend at least one-half the web depth, Equations K1-4 and
K1-5 need not be checked.

K1.5 Sidesway Web Buckling

Bearing stiffeners shall be provided in the webs of members with flanges not restrained against
relative movement by stiffeners or lateral bracing and subject to concentrated compressive loads,
when the compressive force exceeds the following limits:

a. If the loaded fiange is restrained against rotation and (d,/f,,,)/(l&,)is less than 2.3:
-I

b. If the loaded flange is not restrained against rotation and (d,/tJOf) is less than 1.7:

(Kl-7)

where 1 = largest laterally unbraced length along either flange at the

point of load, in.;
bf = flange width, in.;
d, -
= d 2Æ = web depth clear of fillets, in.;
h = clear distance between flanges at the section under investigation, in.

Equations K1-6 and K1-7 need not be checked providing fdJtW)/Vbf)exceeds 2.3 or 1.7,
respectively, or for webs subject to uniformly distributed load.

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 K1.6 Compression Buckling of the Web

A stiffener or a pair of stiffeners shall be provided opposite the compression flange when the web
4100t:cFYc
depth clear of fillets d, is greater than: 61-8)
Pbf

where t,, = thickness of column web, in.

K1.7 Compression Members with Web Panels Subject to High Shear

Members subject to high shear stress in the web should be checked for conformance with
Section F4.

K1.8 Stiffener Requirements for Concentrated Loads

Stiffeners shall be placed in pairs at unframed ends or at points of concentrated loads on the
interior of beams, girders, or columns if required by Sections K1.2 through K1.6, as applicable.

If required by Sections K1.2, K1.3, or Equation K1-9, stiffeners need not extend more than one
half the depth of the web, except as follows:

If stiffeners are required by Sections K1.4 or K1.6, the stiffeners shall be designed as axially
compressed members (columns) in accordance with requirements of Section E2 with an effective
length equal to 0.75h, a cross section composed of two stiffeners and a strip of the web having a
width of 25twat interior stiffeners and 12twat the ends of members.

When the load n o d to the flange is tensile, the stiffeners shall be welded to the loaded flange.
When the load normal to the flange is compressive, the stiffeners shall either bear on or be welded
to the loaded flange.

When flanges or moment connection plates for end connections of beams and gir&rs are welded
to the flange of an I- or H-shape column, a pair of column-web stiffeners having a combined cross-
sectional area A,, not less than that computed from Equation K1-9 shall be provided whenever the
P -F t (t + 5k)
calculated value of A , is positive:Abt = r

where FF, = stiffener yield stress, ksi;

Æ = distance between outer face of column flange and web toe of its fillet, if column
is a rolled shape, or equivalent distance if column is a welded shape, in.;
tb = thickness of flange or moment connection plate delivering concentrated force, in.

Stiffeners required by the provisions of Equation K1-9 and Sections K1.2 and K1.6 shall comply
with the following criteria:

1. The width of each stiffener plus M the thickness of the column web shaü not be less than
in the width of the flange or moment connection plate delivering the concentrated force.
2. The thickness of stiffeners shall not be less than Y, the thickness of the flange or plate
delivering the concentrated load.
3. The weld joining stiffeners to the column web shall be sized to carry the force in the
stiffener caused by unbalanced moments on opposite sides of the column.

-
Reproduced from Manual of Steel Construction Allowabk Stress Design, Ninth Edition, copyright O 1989, with the
permission of the American Institute of Steel Consíruction, Inc.

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APPENDIX C

DESIGN WIND PRESSURES AND FORCES FROM

S E L E W D MODEL CODES
Uniform Building Code, 1991 Edition

Basic Wind Speed

Sec. 2314. The minimum basic wind speed for determining design wind pressures shall be taken h m
Figure No. 23-1. For those areas designated in Figure No. 23-1as special wind regions and other areas where local
records or terrain indicate higher 50-year (meanrecurrence interval) fastest-mile wind speeds, these higher values
shall be the minimum basic wind speeds.

Design Wind Pressures

Sec. 2316. Design wind pressures for structures or elements of structures shall be determined for any height
in acmrâance with the following formula:
p = C,C,qJ (16-1)
where P = design wind pressure;
Ce = combined height, exposure, and gust factor coefficient as given in Table No. 2342
C, = pressure coefficient for the structure or portion of structure under consideration as given in
Table No. 23-H,
q, = wind stagnation pressure at the standard height of 30 ft (9.1 m) as set forth in Table No. 2 3 3
I = importance factor (assume equal to 1.0 for falsework).

Open-Frame Towers

Sec. 2319. Radio towers and other towers of trussed construction shall be designed and constructed to
withstand wind pressures specified in this section, multiplied by the shape factors set forth in Table No. 23-H.

Related Tables and Figures

Height Above Average Level of Exposure*) Exposure"' Exposure(d'

Adjoining Ground (fi) D C B
0-15 ~ 1 1.39 I 1.06 I 0.62

20 1.45 1.13 0.67

25 1.50 1.19 0.72

30 1.54 1.23 0.76

40 I 1.62 I 1.31 I 0.84

60 1.73 1.43 0.95

80 1.81 1.53 1.o4

100 1.88 1.61 1.13

Notes:
(a)' Values for intermediate heights above 15 fi may be interpolated.
@) Exposure D represents the most severe exposure in areas with basic wind speeds of Sû miles per hour (mph) or greater and has temin which
is flat and unobstmcted facing large bodies of water over one mile or more in width relative to any quadrant of the building site.
(c) Exposure C has terrain which is flat and generally open, extending 4i mile or more from the site in any full quadrant
(d) Exposure B hm terrain with buildings, forest, or surface irregularities 20 ft or more in height mvering at least 20 percent of the area extending
1 mile or more from the site.
(e) Conversion: 1 ft = 0.3048 m; 1 mph = 1.609 lonlhr; 1 mile = 1.609 km.

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Basic wind speed (mph)'') 70 90 100 110 120 130

80
Pressure q5 (psf) 12.6 16.4 20.8 25.6 31.0 36.9 43.3

Structure or Part Thereof Description C, factor

piimary frames and systems Method 1 (Normai force method)
Windward waii 0.8 inward
Leeward waii 0.5 outward
Method 2 (Projected area method)
On verticai projected area
Structures 40 ft or less in height 1.3 horizontal any direction
Structures over 40 ft in height 1.4 horizontal any direction
On horizontai projected area 0.7 upward
ûpen-frame towers a+b Square and rectangular
Diagonal 4.0
N o d 3.6
Triangular 3.2
Notes:
(a) Local pressures shall apply o v a a distance from the discontinuity of 10 ft or 0.1 times the least width of the structure,
whichever is smaller.
(b) Wind pressures shall be applied to the total normal projected area of all elements on one face.
(c) The force shall be assumed to au parallel to the wind direction.
(d) Conversion: 1 ft = 0.3048 m.

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--

Notes:
(a) Linear interpolation between wind speed contours is acceptable.
@) Caution in use of wind speed amtours in mountainous regions of Alaska is advised.
(c) Wind speed for HawW is 80, Puerto Rico is 95, and the Virgin Islands is 110.
(d) Wind speed m a y be assumed to te constant between the coastline and the nearest inland contour.
(e) Conversion: 1 mph = 1.609 km/hr

-
Figure No. 23-1 Minimum Basic Wind Speeds in Miles Per Hour

Reproduced from the 1991 edition of the ünifonn Building Code, copyright 8 1991, with the permission of the piblisher, the Internacional
Conference of Building Officials.

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ASCE 7-88 (Formerly ANSI A58.11

Basic Wind Speed

D e f ~ t i o n . Fastest-mile wind speed at 33 ft (10 m) above the ground of terrain Exposure C (see 6.5.3.1) and
associated with an annual probability of occurrence of 0.02.

Section 65.2. The basic wind speed V used in the determination of design wind loads on buildings and other
structures shall be as given in Figure 1 for the contiguous United States and Alaska and in Table 7 for Hawaii and
Puerto Rico except as provided in 6.5.2.1 and 6.5.2.2. The basic wind speed used shall be at least 70 mph
(113 kmfhr).

Design Wind Force (Table 4)

Design Wind Force, F = q, Gh CfAr

- 0.00256 K, (IV)’;
- velocity pressure coefficient as given in Table 6;
- importance factor (assume equal to 1.0 for faisework);
- basic wind speed obtained from Figure 1 and Table 7, in miles per hour;
- gust response factor as given in Table 8;
- force coefficient as given in Tables 14 and 15;
- the projected area normal to the wind.

Related Tables and Figures

0-15 0.12 0.37 0.80 1.20

20 0.15 0.42 0.87 1.27

25 0.17 0.46 0.93 1.32

30 0.19 0.50 0.98 1.37

40 0.23 0.57 1.06 1.46

0.33 0.73 1.24 1.63

I
0.37 I
0.77 I
1.29 1.67

90 I 0.40 I 0.82 I 1.34 I 1.71

100 0.42 0.86

1 1.38 1.75

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Section 6.53 Exposure Categories

I
Exposure A. Large city centers with at least 50 percent of the buildings having a height in excess of 70 ft (210 m).
Use of this exposure category shall be limited to those areas for which terrain representative of Exposure A prevails
in the upwind direction for a distance of at least f i mile (0.8 km) or 10 times îbe height of the building or structure,
whichever is greater. Possible channeling effects or increased velocity pressures due to the building or structure
Wig located in the wake of adjacent buildings shall be taken into account.

Exposure B. Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other tem with numerous closely spaced obstnictionS
having the size of singlefamily dwellings or larger. Use of this exposure category shall be limited to those areas
for which terrain representative of Exposure B prevails in the wind direction for a distance of at least 1,500 ft
(460m) or 10 times the height of the building or structure, whichever is greater.

Exposure C. Open terrain with scattered obstruction having heights generally less than 30 ft (9 m). This category
includes flat open country and grasslands.

Exposure D. Flat, unobstructed areas exposed to wind flowing over iarge bodies of water. This exposure shall apply
only to those buildings and other structures exposed to the wind coming from over the water. Exposure D extends
inland from the shoreline a distance of 1,500 ft (460 m)or 10 times îhe height of the building or structure, whichever
is greater.
-
Table 7 Basic Wind Speed, V
Location
Hawaii
Puerto Rico
Notes:
(a) 'Ihe unique topographical features common to the islands of Hawaii and Puerto Rico suggest that it may be advisable to adjust the valm
given in Table 7 to account for locally higher winds for srnudures sited near mountainous terrain, gorges, and ocean promt&es.
(b) Conversion: 1 mph = 1.609 kmlhr.

-
Table 8 Gust Response Factors, Gh and G,
Height above G,,and G,
ground level,
Exposure A Exposure B Exposure C Exposure D
(ft)

Notes:
(4 For main wind-force resisting systems, use building or simdure height h = Z.
@) Linear interpolation is acceptable for intermediate values of z.
(4 Value of gust response factor shall be not less than 1.0.
(4 Conversion: 1 ft = 0.3048 m.

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 Notation:
--
AASHTO T I T L E GDSBTW 95

the wind direction.

<0.025
-

0.025 to 0.44
0.45toto1.0
0.7 0.69

multiplied by the following factors:

E 10.29, factor = 0.67
0.3 E I0.79, fXtor = 0.67~+ 0.47
0.8 5 E I1.0, factor = 1.0
= Ob39804 0033728

Table 15 Force Coefficients for Trussed Towers, C ,

square
Towers

4.1 - 5 . 2 ~

1.3 + 0 . 7 ~
Ç
Triangular
Towers

3.7 - 4 . 5 ~

1.0 + E
459 =

The area consistent with these force coefficients is the solid area of the front face projected n o d to

Force coefficients are given for towers with structurai angles or similar fiat-sided members.
For towers with rounded members, the design wind force shall be determined using the values in the table

For triangular section towers, the design wind forces shall be assumed to act normai to a tower face.
For square section towers, the design wind forces shall be assumed to act normal to a tower face. To allow
for the maximum horizontal wind load, which occurs when the wind is oblique to the faces, the wind load
acting nomial to a tower face shall be multiplied by the factor 1.0 + 0.75 E for E < 0.5 and shaü be assumed
to act along a diagonal.
Wind forces on tower appurtenances, such as ladders, conduits, lights, elevators, and the like, shall be
calculated using appropriate force coefficients for these elements.
For guyed towers, the cantilever portion of the tower shall be designed for 125 percent of the design force.
A reduction of 25 percent of the design force in any span between guys shall be made for demination
of controlling moments and shears.

E - ratio of solid area to gross area of tower face.

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NOW?:
(a) Values are fastest-mile speeds at 33 fi (10 m) above ground for exposure category C and are associated with an annual probability
of 0.02
@) Linear interpolation between wind speed contours is acceptable.
(c) Caution in the use of wind speed contours in mountainous regioos of Alaska is advised.
(4 Conversion: 1 mph = 1.609 kmh

-
Figure 1 Basic Wind Speed (mpb)

ReProQid from MUiimrrm Duign LwrLI for Buildings and Other Structures, copyright 8 1990, with the permission of the American Society
of civil Engineers.

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BOCA National Building Code, 1990

Basic Wind Speed

Section 11123.2 The basic wind speed, in miles per hour, to be used for the location of the building or other
structure shall be determined by Figure 1112.3.2. Basic wind speed for special wind regions indicated on
Figure 1112.3.2 shall be in accordance with local jurisdiction requirements.

Design Wind Pressure

Section 1112.3 The design and wind pressure for the main windforce-resisting system shall be determined as
follows:
Pd = Pe I2 cp

where Pe - effective velocity pressure, including gust effect as tabulated in Table 1112.3.3a(l) for
Exposure B and Table 1112.3.3b for Exposure C
I -
- importance factor of the building or other structure (assume equal to 1.0 for falsework)
CP - external pressure coefficient to be used in determination of wind loads for buildings or
for other structures (see Figure 1112.2a and Tables 1112.2~through 1112.2h)

Sec. 1112.3.3 Exposure Classifications

Exposure B: Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain with numerous closely spaced
obstructions having the size of single-famly dwellings or larger. Use of this exposure category shall be limited to
those areas for which terrain representative of Exposure B prevails in the upwind direction for a distance of at least
1,500 ft (460 m) or 10 times the height of the building or structure, whichever is greater.

Exposure C Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights generally less than 30 ft (9.1 m). This
category includes fiat, open country and grasslands.

Related Tables and Figures

-
Table 111ZzT FORCE COEFFICIENTS FOR TRUSSED TOWERS,'" C,rx'L('*o
CP
E@) I
Square towers(") Triangular towers@)
4.025 4.0 3.6
0.025 to 0.44 4.1 - 5 . 2 ~ -
3.7 4.5E
0.45 to 0.69 1.8 1.7
0.7 to 1.0 1.3 + 0.78 1.0 + E

Force coefficients are given for towers with structurai angles or similar flat-sided members.
For towers with rounded members, the design windforce shall be determined using the values in the above table multiplied by the
following factors:
€4.29, factor = 0.67
0.3~&<0.79,facta = 0.67s + 0.47
0.8c&<1.0, factor = 1.0
F a íriangulu section towers, the design windforces shall be assumed to act normal to a tower face.
For square section towers, the design windforces shall be assumed to ad normal to a tower face. To allow for the maximum horimntal
wind load which occurs when the wind is oblique to the faces, the wind load acting normal to a tower face shall be multiplied by the
factor 1.0 + 0 . 7 ~5 0.5 and shall be assumed to act along a diagonal.
Windforax on tower appurtenances, such as ladders, conduits, lights, elevators and the like, shall be calculated using approPnateforce
coefficients for these elements.
F a guyed towers, the cantilever portion of the tower shall be designed for 125 percent of the design windforce.
A reduction of 25 percent of the design windforce in any span between guys shaU be made for determination of controlling moments
and shears.
Notation:
E- Ratio Of solid na to GOSS Of tower.

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Table 1112.3.3a - EFFECTIYE VELOCITY PRESSURES P,(Ib&)

FOR BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES (EXPOSURE B)

Height above grade (ft) 1 Basic wind speed (mph)

0-20

20-40 10 13 17 21 25

40-60 -13 I 16 I 21 I 26 I 31

60- 100 14 18 23 28 34

Conversion: 1 psf = 47.88 N/m*; 1 mph = 1.609 kmhq 1 ft = 0.3048 m.

-
Table 11123.3b EFFECTIVE VELOCITY PRESSURES î. (lb@)
FOR BUILDINGS A N D STRUCTURES (EXPOSURE Cl

Height above grade

(ft)

0.20
Irsó"
I 1 5 1 2 5
i<:Wind speed

90
25
100

31
110

37

20-40 16 27 27

40-60 19 31 31

60-100 ~~ [ 20 I 33 33 ' 41 I 50

Conversion: 1 psf = 47.88 N / d ; 1 mph = 1.609 km/hr; 1 ft = 0.3048 m.

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Notes:
(a) Values are fast&-mile speeds at 33 ft (10 m) above ground for exposure category C and are associated with an annual probabiiity
of 0.02.
(b) Linear interpolation between wind speed contours is acceptable.
(cl Caution in the use of wind speed contœus in mountainous regions of Alaska is advised.
(4 Conversion: 1 mph = 1.609 knuhr

-
Figure 111233 Basic Wind Speed ( d e s per hour)

BOCA Nationai Building Codel1990,copyrighted 1989, Building Officials and Code Administrators Inteniational. Inc. hblished by arrangements
with author. All rights repervert

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APPENDIX D

FOUNDATION INVESTIGATION AND DESIGN

D.l Subsurface Investigation

Since all the structural loads of the falsework are eventually transferred to the soil or rock underlying the
falsework foundations,a subsurfaceinvestigation is necessary to determine the load-supporting ability of the various
strata of soil or rock. Before designing the faisework foundations, it is necessary to determine the type,depth, and
properties of the various soil or rock formations. If a foundation investigation has aiready been completed for the
pennanent structure, this informaîion can be used for the design of the falsework foundations.

In the absence of site-specific information, additional soil exploration is recommended. The subsurface
exploration can be tailored for each project and could include any of the following methods:

A. The best information is generally obtained from soil borings completed throughout the area of the
falsework foundations. The borings should be extended in depth to a level where the induced
foundation pressures from the new loading will be less than 10 percent of the overburden pressure,
but not less than 15 ft (5 m). Soil samples should be obtained at intervals not exceeding 2% ft
(0.8 m). The sampling should be done by conventional methods, resulting in test samples that are
indicative of the strength and compressibility of the soil deposits. This should include standard
penetration resistance testing (AASHTO T206-87), briefly described in Section D.3. In situ tests
provide sufficient information for foundation design even though test samples are not obtained.
These tests include cone penetrometer testing (ASTM D3441-86), pressuremeter testing (ASTM
D4719-87). and dilatometer testing. Samples obtained by Shelby tubes (AASHTO T207-87) in
cohesive soils are also acceptable when accompanied by appropriate laboratory tests, including the
unconfined compressive strength test (AASHTO T208-90) and water content testing (AASHTO
T265-86). Disturbed samples h m auger cuttings are not considered acceptable.

B. Test pits can be dug throughout the area to investigate the various soil or rock formations. Test
pits should be used to supplement the soil-boring investigation wherever erratic or discontinuous
subsurface conditions are present. It is easier to determine the thichess and character of these
deposits from a large excavation than from examination of small diameter samples. The person
logging the test pits should not only be capable of identifying the various strata, but should have
some means for determining the relative density of each deposit. The hand penetrometer is
sufficient for determining the shear strength of cohesive soils. Section D.4 provides guidelines for
estimating the unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soils based on field observations. The
determination of the relative density of granular soils is more difficult and may be subjective on
the part of the observer. However, techniques such as the dynamic cone penetrometer can be used
for this purpose. Alternatively, field density tests can be performed within the granular formations
(AASHTO T191-86).

C. Field tests can be undertaken and used as a guide where either the borings or test pits indicate
questionable surface support conditions. This should include proof-testing of the ground surface
with a fully loaded dump truck that has a minimum weight of 20 tons (18,000 kg). As the dump
truck traverses the area, the amount of ground deflection under loading should be observed.
Deflections of 2 in. (50 mm) or less under wheel load traffic are indicative of reasonably good
support conditions. Large deflections and severe rutting are indicative of very poor support
conditions.

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Plate load tests can be performed within the potential bearing strata for the foundations. The plate
load test consists of a plate with a minimum 12-in. (305-mm) diameter with a jack used to provide
a force and a buck or other heavy object used as a reaction. Deflections should be measured with
either survey instruments or dial gauges. As the jack loads are applied, deflection readings should
be taken at the design load and at twice the design load. The plate load test only measures the
subgrade reaction of the soil within a depth of 1%times the diameter of the plate. Other deeper
strata could also affect future performance of the foundation.
D.2 Relative Density of Granular Deposits

In the United States, the most commonly used method of determining relative density of granular &posits
is the standard penetration test (SPT). It is made by dropping a 140-lb (63.5-kg)hammer onto the drill rods from
a height of 30 in. (0.76 m). The number of blows required to advance a split barrel sampling tube 1 ft (0.30 m) is
called the standard penetration resistance. AASHTO T206-87describes the test procedure. Table D.l relates the
SPT to relative density.

Table D.l Determination of Relative Density Based on

Standard Penetration Resistance
Standard Peneîration Resistance I Relative Density
0-4 Very loose
4-10 Loose
10-30 Medium
30-50 Dense
Over 50 Very dense

Note: The standard penetration resistance (SPT) values correspond to an effective overburden pressure
of 1 tsf (96kN/m2). The correction factor, CN, to be applied to field S P ï values for other
pressures is given by:

where is the effective vertical overburden pressure in tsf at the elevation of the SPT test. This
equation is valid for 6 2 0.25 tsf (24 kN/m2).

In certain mas of the country, the cone penetration test (CFï) is used for soil exploration. The approximate
relationship between SPT and C P ï is shown in Table D.2.

-
CPï
Soil Type SFT
Silts, sandy silts, slightly cohesive silt-sand mixtures 2
Clean fine to medium sands and slightly silty sands 3 to 4
Coarse sands and sands with little gravel 5 to 6
Sandy gravels and gravels 8 to 10

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D.3 Consistency of Cohesive Soils

The most important index property used to describe cohesive soils is "consistency," which is qualitatively
described as "soft," "medium," "stiff," or "hard." The consistency of a cohesive soil can also be quantitatively in
terms of unconfined compressive strength. Table D.3 reiates the qualitative terms for consistency to the quantitative
values of unconfined compressive strength.

Table D.3 Consistency of Cohesive Soils(")

Unconfined Compressive
Consistency Field Identification
Very soft Easily penetrated severai inches by fist Less than 0.25
Soft Easily penetrated severai inches by thumb 0.25 - 0.5
Medium Can be penetrated severaí inches by thumb 0.5 - 1.0
wiîh moderate effort
Stiff Readily indented by thumb but penetrated 1.0 - 2.0
only with great effort
Very stiff Readily indented by thumbnail 2.0 - 4.0
Hard Indented with difficulty by thumbnail Over 4.0

Notes:
(4 ASTM D2488 has a slightly Merent criteria for describing consistency.
@) Conversion: 1 tsf = 96 kN/mz

D.4 Unified Soil Classification System

The soil classification system most widely used by foundation engineers in the United States is known as
the Unified Soil Classification System and has been adopted by the American Society for Testing and Materiais as
a Standard Test Method for Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes, ASTM D-2487. 'Ibe main points of
ASTM D-2487 are summarized in Table D.4.

According to the Unified System, soils are categorized by particle-size and plasticity characteristics.
Because this system is based on properties of the grains and of the remolded material, it does not fully describe the
engineering properties of the intact material as encountered in the field. However, it permits reliable classification
without extensive testing, and provides useful information about soils that bave been properly classified by this
method.

D.5 Potential Problem Soils

Certain soil deposits may experience movements that are not related to loading. These movements are due
to the geologic composition of the deposits or climatic effects. The foundation designer should be cognizant of local
problem soils and incorporate measures to reduce soil deformations.

In portions of the western and southern United States, collapsible soil deposits are sometimes encountered.
These are generally fine sands and silts that are deposited in a very loose condition. A low amount of cementation
holds the soil particles in the loose condition until they become wetted. Following wetting, the soils collapse into
a denser state, thereby leading to significant settlements.

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Table D.4
Soil Classification according to the Unified Soil Classification System (ASTM D-2487)!"'

Group Typical
Major Divisions Symbols Names Classification Criteria

C$
GW
Well-graded gravels and
gravel-sand mixtures.
little or no fines
CX
'
-
E
C. = Dto/Dlo

DIOX D u
Greater than 4
Between I and 3

i; Poorly graded gravels and .-o m

*-
GP gravel-sand mixtures, n,c, $ ! Not meeting both criteria for GW
little or no fines .- W W G
", .- -
&I %e
g%z u
WWU 1
Atterberg limits plot Atterberg limits plot-
Silty gravels, gravel-sand- ci below "A" line or ting in hatched area
GM silt mixtures plasticity index are borderline
:0a6.2
o
u
4
uu
ar.E
u.3
less than 4 classifications re-
quiring use of dual
2 &%y ' Atterberg limits plot symbols
Clayey gravels: gravel- 002 above "A" line and
GC sand-clay mixtures
-8 plasticity index
greater than 7

Well-graded sands and C. = D ~ p / D i o Greater than 6

e m SW gravelly sands.
SB little or no fines D
(D'o)'
Z
Between I and 3
Gd
Poorly graded sands and
SP gravelly sands. little or Not meeting both criteria for SW
no fines
~~ ~

Atterberg limits plot Atterberg limits plot-

Silty sands, sand-silt below "A" lincor ting in hatched area
SM mixturcs plasticity index less are borderline clas-
act. than 4 sifications requiring
3 2 Atterberg limits plot
use of dual symbols
SC Clayey sands. sand-clay above :'"'.line and
mixtures plasticity index
areater than 7
Inorganic silts. very fine
ML sands. rock flour. silty or
clayey fine sands
~

Inorganic clays of low to

medium plasticity, gravelly
CL clays, sandy clays. silty
clays. lean clays
Organic silts and organic
OL silty clays of low plaati-
city
Inorganic silts, micaceous
MH or diatomaceous fine sands
or silts. elastic silts
Inorganic clays of high
CH Dlasticitv. fat clays
Liquid limit
Organic clays of medium
OH to high plasticity

Highly organic soils Peat. muck and other highly

Pt organic soils Visual-manual identification

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Throughout many parts of the United Siates, active soil deposits are present that can either significantiy
swell upon wetting or shrink upon drying. Shallow foundations supported upon these deposits should either be
located below the limit of the moisture content variations, or the area around the foundation should be protected from
an increase or decrease in moisture content.
In the northem portions of the United Scates where cold weather prevails, &zing of the bearing strata can
occur and cause movements of falsework foundations. Sandy and silty soils are more susceptible to frost than other
deposits, so foundations bearing upon these materiais in cold weather shall be protected against frost penetrating into
îhe ground. Protection can be afforded by a cover of fill or insulation such as styrofoam.

Fill deposits can vary widely in foundation support. If the fill was properly compacted in place, the support
can be excellent, similar to a stiff clay or a medium dense sand. On the other hand, loosely dum@ fill without
compaction can be very compressible, similar to deposits consisting of a soft clay or loose sand. If not properly
controlled, the fill can also be variable, with some weak pockets contained within a generally f m soil mass. This
is especially true for cohesive soil deposits, where the water content at the time of placement is crucial to the degree
of compaction that is achieved. For cohesive fill deposits, a thorough exploration program is necessary not only to
determine the properties of the cohesive deposits, but also the uniformity of the entire fill mass.

D.6 Extended Foundations

For ali deposits consisting of peat, organic silts, or very soft clays, and for some deposits with potentiai
problem soils, such as collapsible or frost-susceptible soils, extended foundationswill be necessary to carry the loads
through the weak or problem deposits to more suitable foundation-bearingmaterial. These extended foundationsshall
consist of very deep footings, drilled piers, or piles. Site improvement of organic soils and very soft clays by
compaction or other means is not considered practical.

Where deep foundations will be used, the subsurface exploration shall extend to a depth of at least 10 ft
(3 m) below the planned base of the foundation (unless rock is encountered at shallower depth) so that side Enction
and end-bearing capacity of the extended foundation can be calculated. The deep foundation design shall consider
lateral as well as vertical loads.

If piles are to be used, the driving criteria shall be selected on the basis of a wave equation analysis or an
accepted driving formula. The penetration data of the last 5 ft (1.5 m) of driving shall be recorded and submitted
to the designer of the falsework foundations. Guidelines for the design of pile foundations are presented in chapter 4
of AASHTO Standard Specijïcations for Highway Bridgesj3)

If drilled piers are used, the base of each of the drilled piers shall be monitored to see that the proper
bearing stratum has been reached and that the base of the drilled pier excavation is clean and free of sloughing and
water prior to being filled with concrete. The strength of the bearing stratum shall be tested by the monitoring
person and the results submitted to the designer of the falsework foundations. Guidelines for the design of drilled
piers are presented in the American Concrete Institute publication Suggested Design and Construction Procedures
for Pier Foundations, AC1 336.3R-72jM’

D.7 AASHTO and ASTM Reference Standards

Standard Method of Test for Density of Soil In-Place by the Sand-Cone Method, (AASHTO T191)
Standard Method for Penetration Test and Split-Barrel Sampling of Soils, (AASHTO “206)
Standard Method for í%in-Walled Tube Sampling of Soils, (AASHTO “207)
Standard Method of Test f o r Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil, (AASHTO T208)
Standard Method of Test for Laboratory Determination of Moisture Content of Soils, (AASHTO T265)
Method of Deep, Quasi-Static, Cone and Friction-Cone Penetration Tests of Soil, (ASTM D-3441)
Test Method for Pressuremeter Testing in Soils, (ASTM D-4719)

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APPENDM E

CONVERSION OF EQUATIONS FROM US. CUSTOMARY U N I T S TO S.1 METRIC UNJTS

US. CUSTOMARY METRIC

Section 2.133

Tension, axial, and flexural . . . . . . . . . 22,000psi Tension, axial,and flexural ..... 152,000Nimm2

Compression, axial . . . . . . 16,000 - 0.38(L/r)2psi, Compression, axial . . . 110,ûûû - 2.62(Llr)2N/mm2

except Ur shall not exceed 120. except Ur shall not exceed 120.

Shear on gross section of web of rolled Shear on gross section of web of rolled
shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,500psi shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 100,000Nhnm2

Web crippling for roileú shapes . . . . . . 16,000psi Web crippiing for roiled shapes .. 110,000 N/mm2

Compression, flexural . . . . 12,000,OOO/(Ld/bt) psi, Compression, flexural . . 83,000,000/(Ld/bt)N/mm2

but not more than 22,000psi. but not more îhan 152,000N h 2

Section 235.2

P, = KV2 (2-1) P, = 515 KV2

P, in psf; P, in N h 2 ;
v in fps. v in d s .

Section 3 3 3

P = (WXh) (3-1) P = íwXh)

p in psc p in kN/mz;
Winpcf; w in kNh3;
h in ft. h in m.

Section 3 3 3 3

For columns: For columns:

p = 150 + 9,000IUT (3-2) p = 7,200 + 1,414,000lU(1.8T +32)

with a maximum of 3,000 psf, a minimum of 600psf, with a maximum of 144,OOO N/m2, a minimum of
but in no case greater than 150 h. 29,000 N/m2, but in no case greater than 23,600h.

For walls with a rate of piacement less than 7 ft per For w a s with a rate of placement less than 2.1 m per
hour: hour:

p = 150 + 9,ooO IUT (3-3) p = 7,200 +1,414,000lU(1.8T +32)

with a maximum of uxx) psf, a minimum of 600psf, with a maximum of %,000N/m2, a minimum of
but in no case greater than 150 h. 29,000 N h 2 , but in no case greater îhan 23,600 h.

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U.S.CUSTOMARY METRIC
For wails with a rate of pîacement of 7 to 10 ft per For walls with a rate of placement of 2.1 to 3.0 m pet
hour: hour:

p = 150 + 43,400E + 2,80OR/T (3-4) p = 7,200 + (2,078,000 + 440,000R)/(1.8T + 32)

with a maximum of 2,000 psf, a minimum of 600 psf, with a maximum of %,OOON/m', a minimum of
but in no case greater than 150 h. 29,000 Nh', but in no case greater than 23,600 h.
p in psf; p in N/m$
R in fvhr; R in m/hr,
T in OF. T in OC.

Section 43.1.2

Pa = KyH (4-1) Pa = KyH

Pa in psf; Pa in kN/mz;
y in pcf; y in W h 3 ;
H in ft. H in m.

Pa = $4 - 2 c (4-2) Pa = $4- 2 c
Pa in psf; Pa in kN/m'
y in pcf; y in W h 3
H in ft; H in m;
C in psf; C in W/m2;
Qu in psf. Q,in kNhn2.

p. = Karn - 2% (4-3) Pa = Kam- 2 C , F

Pa in psf; Pa in kN/m';
y i n pcf; y in kN/m3;
H in ft; H in m;
C in psf; C in kN/m';
Qu in psf. Qu in kN/m2.

Section 43.13

Po = KPYH (4-4) Po = KoyH

Po in psf; Po in kN/m';
y in pcf; y in kN/m3;
H in ft. H in m.

Section 43.1.4

Pp = q y H (4-5) PP = E$IIK
P* in psf; Pp in kN/m$
y in pcf; y in kN/m3;
H in ft. H in m.

Pp = yH + 2 c (4-6) Pp = yH + 2 c
Pp in psf; Pp in kN/m';
Yinpcf; y in icNhm3;
H in ft; H in m;
c in psf. C in W/m'.

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Pp = KpyH + 2 q K p (4-7) Pp = KpyH + 2 C A

Pp in psf; P, in irN/m2;
yinm y'in w/m3;
H in ft; H in m;
C in psf. C in kN/m2.

P, = Kg (4-8) P, = 515 KV'

P, in psf; P, in N/m2;
v in fps. Y in m/s.

. Appendix B, Section 2

0 . 4 YC
j F (Kl-1) 0 . 4 dY C F

FYein ksi; F,, in N/mm2;

Pbfin kips; Pb,in N
in in. 4 in mm.

I 0.6óFy (Kl-2) 5 0.ó6Fy

tw(N + 5k) tw(N + 5k)
R in kips; R in N;
f, in in.; t, in mm;
N in in.; N in mm;
k in in.; h in mm;
Fy in ksi. Fyin N/mm2.

I0.66Fy (Kl-3) 5 0.66Fy

tw(N + 2.5k) tw(N + 2.5k)
R in kips; R in N;
t, in in.; f, in m;
N in in.; N in mm;
k in in.; k in mm;
Fyin ksi. Fyin Nimm2.

Appendix B, Section 4

t, in in.; ,,t in mm;

N in in.; N in mm;
d in in.; dinmm;
& in in.; c,inmm;
FF in ksi. FP in N h d .

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 U.S.CUSTOMARY METRIC

t, in in.; t, in mm;
N in in.; N in mm;
d in in.; d in mm;
t in in.; 4 in mm;
Fw in ksi. Fw in N h '

Appendix B, Section 5

r 1 r 1

R = ,?li
R in kips;
+ 0.4[%]] (Kl -6) R =
I[?.
R in N,
+ CI.^[^;,:]
f, in in.; f, in mm;
h in in.; h in mm;
4 in in.; dc in mm;
1 in in.; linmm;
b, in in. bf in mm.
r 1 r 1

f, in in.; f, in mm;
h in in.; h in mm;
dc in in.; d, in mm;
1 in in.; linIlUn;
bf in in. bf in mm.

Appendix B, Section 6

, *
D
'bf
dc in in.; dc in mm;
C, in in.; tp, in mm;
FYcin ksi; Fycin Nh';
Pbfin kips. Pb,in N.

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Appendix B, Section 8

A, in in.) 4 in mm2;
Pbfin kips; Pbfin N,
Fycin ksi; Fycin N b 2 ;
kcin in.; k c in mm;
in in.; tinmm;
k in in.; k in mm;
i
FyI1in ksi. Fy,,in N h 2 .
Appendix C, Section 2316

P = C,C@ (16-1) P = C,C&I

P in psf; P in N h 2 ;
98 in psf. 98 in N/m2.
Appendix C, Section 65.2

F = q$3,CfAf F = &G,CfAf
F in lb; F in N,
9,in psf; e in N/m2;
A, in fe. A, in m2.

= 0.00256 K, (IV)2 98 = 0.0473 K, (IV)2

einPUf; q, in Nh2;
v in mph, V in k m h .
Appendix C, Section 1112.3

% Appendur D, Section D.2

C, = 0.77 log,, 20
- C, = 0.77 log,, 1920
-
P P
5 in tsf. p in kNh2.

13

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 AASHTO T I T L E GDSBTW 95 0639804 0033743 765 H

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51-1.06, Caltrans, Sacramento, CA, 1988.

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1975), Rexdaie, Ontario, Canada, 1975.

10. BRïïiSH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, Code of Practice for Falsework (BS 5975:1982), London,
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11. WORKS AND DEVELOPMENT SERVICES CORPORATION (NZ)Ltd.,Code ofpractice for Falsework,
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Volume 2 - Commentary,CDP 70WA (internai document), Wellington, New Zealand, 1988.

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16. SCAFFOLDING, SHORING, AND FORMING L N S m , INC.,Guidelinesfor Safely Requirementsfor

Shoring Concrete Formwork; Publication No. SH306, Cleveland, OH, 1990.

75

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17. SCAFFOLDING, SHORING, AND FORMING INSTITUTE, ïNC., Recommended Procedure for
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32. NATIONAL FOREST PRODUCTS ASSOCIATION, NationalDesignSpecijicationfor Wood Construction,

1991 Edition, Washington DC, 1991.

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33. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUL.TURE. Forest Service, Wood Handbook: Wood as un
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77 *UsS. G.P.0.:1993-301-717:80354

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