Semiconductor

Fundamentals – (III)
2.5 Boltzmann approximation & EF, n, p
2.6 Carrier drift and diffusion
Gary Chun Zhao, PhD
[email protected]

Mar 2023

https://www.xjtlu.edu.cn/en/departments/academic-departments/electrical-and-electronic-engineering/staff/chun-zhao
 Semiconductor
Fundamentals – (III)
2.5 Boltzmann approximation & EF, n, p
2.6 Carrier drift and diffusion
Last lecture:
⚫ Negative charges:
➢ Conduction electrons (density = n) mobile
➢ Ionized acceptor atoms (density = NA-) immobile
⚫ Positive charges:
➢ Holes (density = p) mobile
➢ Ionized donor atoms (density = ND+) immobile

⚫ The net charge density (C/cm3) in a semiconductor is

 = q( p − n + N D+ − N A− )
⚫ Law of Mass Action: n×p = ni2

How to deduce the relationship between EF and n/p?

3
2.5 Boltzmann approximation & EF, n, p

➢ Fermi function and Fermi level

➢ Density of States

➢ Boltzmann Approximation

➢ Electron and Hole Concentrations

4
Thermal Equilibrium
⚫ No external forces are applied:
➢ electric field = 0, magnetic field = 0
➢ mechanical stress = 0
➢ no light

⚫ Dynamic situation in which every process is

balanced by its inverse process
➢ Electron-hole pair (EHP) generation rate = EHP
recombination rate

⚫ Thermal agitation → electrons and holes exchange

energy with the crystal lattice and each other
→ Every energy state in the conduction band and valence band
has a certain probability of being occupied by an electron

5
Statistical Thermodynamics: Fermi energy

⚫ The Fermi energy, EF, is the energy associated with a

particle, which is in thermal equilibrium with the
system of interest. The energy is strictly associated
with the particle and does not consist even in part of
heat or work. This same quantity is called the electro-
chemical potential, m, in most thermodynamics texts.

⚫ http://hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/solids/fermi.html#c2
⚫ http://hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/solids/fermi.html#c1

6
Fermi function and Fermi level PL

⚫ Probability that a state at energy level, E, is occupied

by one electron is,
f(E)
1
f (E) = 1
E − EF
1 + exp( ) 0.5
kT

⚫ f(E): Fermi-Dirac function EF E

⚫ An increase in E will reduce f(E)
⚫ EF --- Fermi-level
➢ When E = EF, f(E=EF) = 0.5.

⚫ The first order approximation textbook

➢ f(E)=0 for E>EF E
➢ f(E)=1 for E<EF P.66
7
 Fermi function and Fermi level
⚫ Probability that a state at energy level, E, is occupied
by one electron is,
E
EC
1
f (E) = EF
E − EF
1 + exp( )
kT EV
⚫ f(E): Fermi-Dirac function
⚫ An increase in E will reduce f(E) f(E)
⚫ EF --- Fermi-level
➢ When E = EF, f(E=EF) = 0.5.

1. Simplify Fermi-Dirac function: Boltzmann Approximation

2. What is the states’ density? (Density of States)

8
2.5 Boltzmann approximation & EF, n, p

➢ Fermi function and Fermi level

➢ Density of States

➢ Boltzmann Approximation

➢ Electron and Hole Concentrations

9
 Density of States

g(E)
DE
gc(E)
Ec
gv(E)

Ev

EV EC E
g(E)DE = number of states per cm3 in the energy range between E and E+DE

Near the band edges:

mn* 2mn* (E − Ec )
gc ( E ) = E  Ec
 2 3
density of states in the conduction band
m*p 2m*p (Ev − E )
gv ( E ) = E  Ev
 
2 3

density of states in the valence band

10
Density of States
E
gc(E)
DE
Ec Ec

Ev Ev

gv(E)

g(E)dE = number of states per cm3 in the energy range between E and E+dE

Near the band edges:

mn* 2mn* (E − Ec )
gc ( E ) = E  Ec
 2 3

m*p 2m*p (Ev − E ) E  Ev

gv ( E ) =
 2 3

11
2.5 Boltzmann approximation & EF, n, p

➢ Fermi function and Fermi level

➢ Density of States

➢ Boltzmann Approximation

➢ Electron and Hole Concentrations

12
 1
f (E) =
Boltzmann Approximation E − EF
1 + exp( )
kT

− ( E − E F ) / kT
If E − E F  3kT , f ( E )  e E
EC
EF
because of exp[(E-EF)/(kT)] >> 1
EV

( E − E F ) / kT
If E F − E  3kT , f ( E )  1 − e
EC
EF
EV
Probability that a state is empty:
E
( E − E F ) / kT − ( E F − E ) / kT
1 − f (E)  e =e
Probability that a state is occupied by a hole
13
2.5 Boltzmann approximation & EF, n, p

➢ Fermi function and Fermi level

➢ Density of States

➢ Boltzmann Approximation

➢ Electron and Hole Concentrations

14
 Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons

⚫ Obtain n(E) by multiplying gc(E) and f(E)

Energy band Density of Probability Carrier

diagram States of occupancy distribution

E n(E)
gc(E)

gv(E)

15
 Equilibrium Electron Concentrations

⚫ Integrate n(E) over all the energies in the

conduction band to obtain n:
8
top of conductionband
n= g c(E)f(E)dE
Ec
⚫ By using the Boltzmann approximation, and
extending the integration limit to , we obtain
3/ 2
 2m kT 
*
n = Nce −( Ec − EF ) / kT
where N c = 2 n
2

 h 
Ec
Ev
16
 Equilibrium Distribution of Holes

⚫ Obtain p(E) by multiplying gv(E) and 1-f(E)

Energy band Density of Probability Carrier

diagram States of occupancy distribution

gc(E)

gv(E) p(E)
E

17
 Equilibrium Hole Concentrations

⚫ Integrate p(E) over all the energies in the

valence band to obtain p:
g v(E)1 − f(E)dE
Ev
p=
bottomof valenceband
8
|

⚫ By using the Boltzmann approximation, and

extending the integration limit to -, we obtain
3/ 2
 2m kT 
*

p = Nve −( EF − Ev ) / kT
where N v = 2 
p
 h 2 
 
Ec
Ev
18
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

(
np = N c e − ( Ec − EF ) / kT
)(N e v
− ( EF − Ev ) / kT
)
−( Ec − Ev ) / kT − E g / kT
= Nc Nve = Nc Nve
=n 2
i Law of Mass Action

− Eg / 2 kT
ni = N c N v e

19
 Electron and hole concentrations

 − ( EC − EF ) 
n = N C exp  
At RT
 kT
p = NA
 − ( EF − EV ) 
p = NV exp  
Ec
 kT
n  p = ni2 Ei
EF
p.83,ref1, EFi ≈ Ei Ev

 − ( EC − Ei ) 
ni = NC exp  
 kT At RT
 − ( Ei − EV )  n = ND
ni = NV exp   Ec
 kT EF
 ( E − Ei ) 
n = ni exp  F
 kT 
Ei

 − ( EF − Ei )  Ev
p = ni exp  
 kT 20
HW3: Energy-band diagram
Question: Where is EF for n = 1017 cm-3 ?
 ( E − Ei ) 
n = ni exp  F
 kT 

21
 Semiconductor
Fundamentals – (III)
2.5 Boltzmann approximation & EF, n, p
2.6 Carrier drift and diffusion
2.6 Carrier drift and diffusion
➢ Carrier scattering

➢ Carrier drift:
▪ Carrier mobility
▪ Conductivity & Resistivity
▪ Energy band model

➢ Carrier diffusion
Reading: Chapter 2.6
23
Thermal Motion
⚫ In thermal equilibrium, carriers are
not sitting still:
➢ undergo collisions with vibrating Si
atoms (Brownian motion)
Si Si
➢ electrostatically interact with charged
dopants and with each other
⚫ Characteristic time constant of
thermal motion P+
➢ mean free time between collisions:
➢ tc ≡ collision time [s]
➢ In between collisions, carriers acquire
high velocity: vth ≡ thermal velocity
[cm/s]
➢ ...but get nowhere! (on average)
⚫ Characteristic length of thermal
motion:
➢ l ≡ mean free path [cm], l= vth tc
24
 3 2
1
Carrier Scattering random motion
4 electron
5

⚫ Mobile electrons and atoms in the Si lattice are always in

random thermal motion.
➢ Average velocity of thermal motion for electrons in Si:
~107 cm/s @ 300K
➢ Electrons make frequent “collisions” with the vibrating
atoms
▪ “Lattice Scattering” or “Phonon Scattering” Si Si
➢ Other scattering mechanisms:
▪ deflection by ionized impurity atoms
P+
▪ deflection due to Coulombic force between carriers

⚫ The average current in any direction is zero, if no

electric field is applied.
25
Effective Mass
⚫ Under an externally applied force, Fext, the movement of
electrons (or holes) is influenced by the positively charged
protons and by negatively charged electron in the lattice. So, the
movement in the crystal is different from that in vacuum.
⚫ The total force Ftotal 2
3 1
Ftotal = Fext + Fint = ma 4 electron
5
where a is the acceleration, Fint is the
internal force. We can write E
Fext = m*a
Fext= -qE
where m* is called effective mass.

Notation: m n* for electrons, m*p for holes,

26
Electrons as Moving Particles
In vacuum In semiconductor

F = (-q)E = moa Fext = (-q)E = mn*a

where mn* is the electron effective mass.
If tcn is electron mean free time between collisions,
|a| = dv/dt ≈ ve/tcn qt cn E qt cp E
| a |= qE / mn*  ve = *
, vh =
mn m*p
average drift velocity 27
2.6 Carrier drift and diffusion

➢ Carrier scattering

➢ Carrier drift:
▪ Carrier mobility
▪ Conductivity & Resistivity
▪ Energy band model

➢ Carrier diffusion
28
Carrier Drift
⚫ When an electric field (e.g., due to an externally applied
voltage) is applied to a semiconductor, mobile charge-
carriers will be accelerated by the electrostatic force. This
force superimposes on the random motion of electrons:
2
3 2 3 1
1
4 electron
4 electron
5
5
E=0 E
• Electrons drift in the direction opposite to the E-field
→ Current flows
❖ Because of scattering, electrons in a semiconductor do not achieve
constant acceleration. However, they can be viewed as classical particles
moving at a constant average drift velocity.

29
 Carrier Drift
⚫ The process in which charged particles move because
of an electric field is called drift.
⚫ Charged particles within a semiconductor move with an
average velocity proportional to the electric field.
➢ The proportionality constant is the carrier mobility.
+ -
→ →
Hole velocity vh =  p E
h+
→ →
Electron velocity ve = −  n E

x
30
Carrier Drift
qt cn E qt cp E
ve = *
, vh = *

mn m p

qt cn qt cp
n = * ,  p = *
mn mp
+ - → →
Hole velocity vh =  p E
→ →
h+ Electron velocity ve = −  n E
Notation:
p  hole mobility (cm2/V·s)
x n  electron mobility (cm2/V·s)
31
1/  = 1/ L + 1/ I

 L  T −3 / 2

 I  T +3 / 2 / N I
32
Drift Velocity and Carrier Mobility
Mobile charge-carrier drift velocity is proportional to applied E-field:

|v|=E  is the mobility (Units: cm2/V•s)

n
Note: Carrier
mobility depends
on total dopant
concentration (ND
+ NA) !
p

33
 Drift Current
⚫ Drift current is proportional to the carrier velocity
and carrier concentration:
P-type
1) p---hole density
sem.
2) q =1.610-19 C
--- One electron charge
3) Charges passing through
‘A’ per second
--- The definition of current.

vh t A = volume from which all holes cross plane in time t

p vh t A = # of holes crossing plane in time t
q p vh t A = charge crossing plane in time t
q p vh A = charge crossing plane per unit time = hole current

➔ Hole current per unit area (i.e. current density) Jp,drift = q p vh

34
 Negatively

Electrical Conductivity s
charged electron
Direction of
electron drift

When an electric field is applied, current flows due to

drift of mobile electrons and holes:

electron current density: J n = ( − q ) nve = qn n E

hole current density: J p = (+ q ) pvh = qp p E

E
total current density: J = J n + J p = (qn n + qp p ) E
J = sE
conductivity s  qn n + qp p Units: (W•cm)-1
35
Electrical Resistivity 

1 1
 =
s qn n + qp p
1
 for n-type material
qn n
1
 for p-type material
qp p
(Units: ohm•cm)

36
HW4
⚫ Estimate the resistivity
of a Si sample doped
with phosphorus to a
concentration of 1015
cm-3 and boron to a
concentration of 1017
cm-3.

⚫ The electron mobility and hole mobility are 700 cm2/Vs

and 350 cm2/Vs, respectively. (Why??)
37
 Example 1
Consider a Si sample doped with 1016/cm3 Boron.
What is its resistivity?

Answer:
NA = 1016/cm3 , ND = 0 (NA >> ND → p-type)
→ p  1016/cm3 and n  104/cm3
1 1
= 
qnn + qp p qp p
 −19
= (1.6 10 )(10 )(450)
16

−1
= 1.4 W  cm

From  vs. ( NA + ND ) plot

38
 Example n

Consider a Si sample doped with 1016/cm3 Boron.

What is its resistivity?

Answer:
NA = 1016/cm3 , ND = 0 (NA >> ND → p-type)
p
→p 10 /cm3
16 and n  104/cm3
1 1
= 
qnn + qp p qp p
 −19
= (1.6 10 )(10 )(450)
16

−1
= 1.4 W  cm

From  vs. ( NA + ND ) plot

39
Example 2
Consider the same Si sample, doped additionally
with 1017/cm3 Arsenic. What is its resistivity?

Answer:
NA = 1016/cm3, ND = 1017/cm3 (ND>>NA → n-type)
→ n  9x1016/cm3 and p  1.1x103/cm3
1 1
= 
qn n + qp p qn n

= (1.6  10 −19
)(9  10 )(700)
16

−1
= 0.10 W  cm
The sample is converted to n-type material by adding more donors than
acceptors, and is said to be “compensated”.

From  vs. ( NA + ND ) plot 40

Example 2 n

Consider the same Si sample, doped additionally

with 1017/cm3 Arsenic. What is its resistivity?

Answer:
NA = 1016/cm3, ND = 1017/cm3 (ND>>NA → n-type)
→ n  9x1016/cm3 and p  1.1x103/cm3
p
1 1
= 
qn n + qp p qn n

= (1.6  10 −19
)(9  10 )(700)
16

−1
= 0.10 W  cm
The sample is converted to n-type material by adding more donors than
acceptors, and is said to be “compensated”.

41
Electrons and Holes (Band Model)

Increasing electron energy

Increasing hole energy
electron kinetic energy
Ec

Ev
hole kinetic energy

⚫ Electrons and holes tend to seek lowest-

energy positions
➢ Electrons tend to fall
➢ Holes tend to float up (like bubbles in water)
42
Potential vs. Kinetic Energy

increasing electron energy electron kinetic energy

increasing hole energy

Ec

Ev
hole kinetic energy

Ec represents the electron potential energy:

P.E. = Ec − Ereference

43
 + –
Si
Electrostatic Potential, V
(a)

0.7V
V(x)

0.7V
E
L x
+ N- –
Si 0
L x (b)
0
• The potential(a)energy of a particle with charge -q is related
E
toV(x)
the electrostatic potential V(x): E (x)- c
Ec Ef(x)
P.E. = −qV
0.7V
1 x
Ereference
0
is V = ( Ereference
x −E )
c
Ev(x)
constant (b)
q 0.7V
+
E x 44
 + –

e
Si
dV
Electric Field, e =−
dx (a)

0.7V
V(x)

E
0.7V
N-
+ – x
Si 0
(b)
1
V = ( Ereference − Ec )
(a)
E
V(x) q - Ec(x)
Ec Ef(x)

e
0.7V =−
dV 1 dEc
=
dx q dx x x
Ev(x)
0
(b) 0.7V
+
• Variation
E of Ec with position is called “band bending.” 45
x
 HW 5: Carrier Drift (Band Diagram Visualization)

e =−
dV 1 dEc
=
dx q dx

Ec

Ev
Q1: what is the direction of electric field?
Q2: what is the direction of carriers' drift?
46
2.6 Carrier drift and diffusion

➢ Carrier scattering

➢ Carrier drift:
▪ Carrier mobility
▪ Conductivity & Resistivity
▪ Energy band model

➢ Carrier diffusion
47
 Diffusion
⚫ Diffusion occurs when there exists a concentration
gradient
⚫ In the figure below, imagine that we fill the left
chamber with a gas at temperate T
⚫ If we suddenly remove the divider, what happens?
⚫ The gas will fill the entire volume of the new
chamber.
⚫ How does this occur?
•• • •••
•• •• •
• •• ••
•• •• • •
48
Diffusion
⚫ Particles diffuse from higher concentration
to lower concentration locations.

49
Carrier Diffusion
⚫ Due to thermally induced random motion, mobile
particles tend to move from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration.
➢ Analogy: ink droplet in water
⚫ Current flow due to mobile charge diffusion is
proportional to the carrier concentration gradient.
➢ The proportionality constant is the diffusion
constant.
dp
J p = −qD p
dx
Notation:
Dp  hole diffusion constant (cm2/s)
Dn  electron diffusion constant (cm2/s)
50
Carrier Diffusion
⚫ Current flow due to mobile charge diffusion is
proportional to the carrier concentration gradient.
➢ The proportionality constant is the diffusion
constant.

dp
J p = −qD p
dx

51
 Diffusion Examples
Linear concentration profile Non-linear concentration profile
→ constant diffusion current → varying diffusion current
 x −x
p = N 1 −  p = N exp
 L Ld

dp dp
J p ,diff = −qDp J p ,diff = −qD p
dx dx
N qD p N −x
= qDp = exp
L Ld Ld

52
 Total Diffusion Current
⚫ Due to the non-uniform distribution of carriers
dn
J n = qDn
dx
⚫ Dn --- electron diffusion constant
⚫ Driving force: thermal energy, not electric field
⚫ dn/dx--- density gradient
⚫ Total diffusion current

➢ J = Jn + J p

53
Total Diffusion Current
⚫ Diffusion current within a semiconductor
consists of hole and electron components:
dp dn
J p , d iff = − qD p J n , d iff = qDn
dx dx
dn dp
J to t, d iff = q ( Dn − Dp )
dx dx

54
Total current
⚫ The total current flowing in a semiconductor is
the sum of drift current and diffusion current:

J tot = J p ,drift + J n ,drift + J p ,diff + J n ,diff

J p ,drift = qp p E , J n ,drift = qn n E

dp dn
J p ,diff = − qDp , J n ,diff = qDn
dx dx
55
 Einstein Relation
⚫ The characteristic constants for drift and diffusion are
related:

D kT
=
 q

kT
⚫ Note that  26mV at room temperature (300K)
q
➢ This is often referred to as the “thermal voltage”.

56
 Important Constants

⚫ Electronic charge, q = 1.610-19 C

⚫ Permittivity of free space, eo = 8.85410-
14 F/cm

⚫ Boltzmann constant, k = 8.6210-5 eV/K

⚫ Planck constant, h = 4.1410-15 eV•s
⚫ Free electron mass, mo = 9.110-31 kg
⚫ Thermal voltage kT/q = 26 mV, at
T=300K

57
HW3: Energy-band diagram
Question: Where is EF for n = 1017 cm-3 ?
 ( E − Ei ) 
n = ni exp  F
 kT 

58
HW4

⚫ The electron mobility and hole mobility are 700 cm2/Vs

and 350 cm2/Vs, respectively.
59
 HW5: Carrier Drift (Band Diagram Visualization)

- Ec +
Ev
x
Q1: what is the direction of electric field?
Q2: what is the direction of carriers' drift? 60