Food Preservation For Developing Countries.

Chapter 4
Food Preservation Techniques

in Developing Countries
Abstract Proper food preservation must be executed in order to overcome the food
waste problem of developing countries. There is a wide range of food preservation
techniques prevailing across the globe nowadays. Individual techniques put impor-
tance on one or more key factors of food waste including microbial proliferation,
enzymatic reaction, chemical reaction, as well as physical damage. Consequently,
the required process conditions vary significantly through the preservation tech-
niques. Several types of preservation techniques are performed on the basis of some
common physical phenomena including heat transfer, moisture removal, and pre-
vention of enzymatic and chemical reaction. A wide range of common food preser-
vation techniques has been discussed in this chapter.
Food spoilage occurs mainly due to microbial, chemical, and enzymatic reactions
and physical factors. Throughout the food chain, food is susceptible to attack,
growth, and reproduction of microorganisms. Similarly, unwanted chemical and
enzymatic reactions that deteriorate food quality can take place in any stage of the
food process [1]. Determination of its severity in terms of quality in food depends
on both the cause of spoilage and its intensity as represented in Fig. 4.1 [2].
Food preservation can be done by controlling the pathogen population and pre-
venting or delaying unfavorable reactions. Apart from these, some other factors
such as measures to prevent mechanical damage should also be considered as a part
of food preservation technique.
On the basis of the fundamental principles as shown in Fig. 4.2, there are many
ways to preserve food including drying, canning, salting, freezing, pickling, sugar-
ing, airtight storage, irradiation, and vacuum packaging. In some particular preser-
vation cases, pre- and/or post-processing may be required depending on the product
and the process type. There are several options available for pretreatment such as
osmotic dehydration, blanching, and soaking, whereas coating, blending, and pack-
aging techniques are used for post-processing.
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 67

M. U. H. Joardder, M. Hasan Masud, Food Preservation in Developing
Countries: Challenges and solutions,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11530-2_4
68 4 Food Preservation Techniques in Developing Countries
Microbiological Enzymatic Chemical Physical Mechanical

• Microorganism • Browning •Color loss -Collapse -Bruising due to
Growth • Color change •Flavor loss -Controlled release vibration
• Off-flavor • Off flavor •Nonenzymatic -Cracking
-Crystallization
• Toxin production browning -Damage due to
-Flavor encapsulation
•Nutrient loss pressure
-Phase changes
•Oxidation-
reduction -Recrystallization
•Rancidity -Shrinkage
-Transport of
component
Fig. 4.1 Major quality loss mechanisms in food
Fig. 4.2 Major principle of food preservation

1 Pretreatment 69
Although most of the preservation techniques have been carried out for a long
time all over the globe, continuous developments are in progress to improve those
preservation techniques. In developed countries, most of the processes are equipped
with modern technology. Although in developing countries there are many preserva-
tion techniques in practice, they are very old-fashioned and far from a scientific
basis. Generally, the following characteristics are common in most of the food pres-
ervation techniques in developing countries.
• Lack of scientific basis
• Low initial, maintenance, and operating cost
• Easy in fabrication with local available materials
• Free from complicated electronic or mechanical system
• Easy to maintain the system
• Energy comes naturally
Most of the developing countries still rely on the traditional food preservation
techniques including open sun drying, salting, smoking, and evaporative cooling.
For example, more than 70% of food in Nigeria is processed traditionally [3].
To maintain the scope of this book, the food preservation techniques presented in
this chapter have been confined to those which are very common and widely prac-
ticed in developing countries across the globe.
1 Pretreatment
1.1 Cooking
Although Spices and herbs are traditionally added to meat products, mostly as fla-
voring and aromatizing agents, however, it is currently also recognized as one of the
contributors to the improvement of food safety and keeping its quality [4–12].
Besides this, cooking also develops the flavor of the food; for example, the flavor
of uncooked flour or sour apples is not very pleasurable, but while the flour is trans-
formed into bread and the apples stewed with sugar, their flavors are greatly
upgraded [4]. Cooking might correspondingly increase the attractiveness of food.
There are different ways to accomplish the process of cooking depending on the
methods of heating the food as presented in Fig. 4.3 [13].
1.2 Blanching
Blanching is the pretreatment of different types of food processing systems includ-

ing drying, canning, and freezing. Blanching generally inactivates enzymes, main-
tains color and freshness, and stabilizes nutritional quality and texture. In addition,
Method of Method of Description

Heating Cooking
Baking • Cooking carried out in an oven

Dry Roasting • Baking with the addition of fat
heat Grilling • Using direct radiant heat
Boiling • Using boiling water

Moist Stewing and poaching • Using hot water below its boiling point
• Using steam from boiling water
heat Steaming • Using water boiling above its normal boiling
Pressure Cooking point
Fat Frying • Using hot fat
Infrared Infrared • Using Infrared radiation
Microw Microwave • Using microwaves

-ave
Fig. 4.3 Different processes of cooking method
blanching destroys microorganism to an appreciable extent and expels intercellular

air. However, improper blanching may deteriorate aroma and some soluble nutri-
tion. For example, foodstuffs such as onions, leeks, and peppers lose substantial
amount of flavor and color during blanching. The overall effect on different quality
attributes of blanching is shown in Fig. 4.4 [14–17].
Removal of intercellular air during blanching plays a critical role in drying,
freezing, and canning process. For instance, the trapped air and metabolic gases are
replaced by water that forms a semicontinuous water phase, which favors further
uniform crystal development during freezing. In addition, the removal of gas is one
of the key advantages of blanching since before canning it permits easier can fill,
decreases strain on can for the period of heating, and diminishes can corrosion [18].
Fruits are typically not blanched or blanched in mild (low-temperature) environ-
ments preceding to freezing since blanching creates adverse texture modifications.
Blanching is sometimes done with fruits and vegetables before drying [19]. To chill
the blanched fruits and vegetables, cold water is sprayed or sometimes conveying
them to a flume of cold water that often serves to transport them to the next part of
the process. Blanching can be done in several ways as displayed in Fig. 4.5.
1 Pretreatment 71
Fig. 4.4 Overall effect on different quality attributes of blanching [14–17]
Fig. 4.5 Types of

blanching Types of Blanching Water Blanching
Steam Blanching
Microwave
Blanching
Gas Blanching
Water blanching is accomplished in hot water at temperatures ranging from

70 °C to 100 °C. Nevertheless, combination of low-temperature long-time (LTLT)
blanching and high-temperature short-time (HTST) blanching have similarly been
considered [19–21]. In general water blanching results in a further even treatment
which permits processing at lower temperature. Blanching using hot water is mostly
practiced in developing countries as shown in Fig. 4.6 that blanching of chili is
being done in traditional oven in Myanmar.
In steam blanchers, the processes are conveyed by a chain or belt conveyor over
a chamber where “food-grade” steam at about 100 °C is straightly injected.
Generally, the flow rate of steam is controlled, and temperature in the headspace is
measured. Steam blanching is typically used for small products and necessitates
fewer time than water blanching. The reason behind this is the heat transfer coeffi-
cient of condensing steam which is larger than that of hot water [22].
Fig. 4.6 Typical blanching

operation in rural area
1.2.1 Microwave Blanching
The study of microwave blanching has started since the 1940s [23]. Microwave
blanching requires very short processing time compared to the conventional water
or steam blanching. In the earlier time in order to use microwave blanching, batch
oven were used, which made it difficult to cool the products. This problem can be
overcome by using continuous oven, which is discovered later on. However, maxi-
mum studies on microwave blanching have been completed by means of commer-
cially obtainable home microwave ovens.
Current researches have used different produces and upgraded instrumentation
such as fiber-optic temperature probes and infrared thermal imaging camere
to observe heat penetration. To reduce the heating time, microwave heating has been
combined with water blanching [24, 25]. It is found that microwave ovens will
reduce the processing time that will result in minimized operating costs and higher-
value products.
Flue gases along with steam is used in gas blanching to increase humidity as well
as prevent product dehydration. This type of blanching is really advantageous to
reducing waste production compared to conventional blanching but often results in
product weight loss. This method is not presently used in the industry and therefore
requires advance research [18].
Apart from the hot water blanching, other types of blanching are not very com-
mon in developing countries due to the requirement of advanced technology to
adopt the blanching in a right way.
2 Canning 73
2 Canning
In developing countries, people seldom consume canned foods. It may be due to

high cost that is beyond the affordability of the consumer. This high cost of canning
is the consequence of huge energy and freshwater requirement. However, enormous
amount of canned food of different types are exported from developing countries to
their developed counterparts as shown in Fig. 4.7. For instance, European countries
import almost 25% of canned fruits and vegetables from developing countries.
Different types of canned fish, vegetables, and fruits contribute a substantial amount
of foreign money for low-income countries.
Canning is a type of food preservation that is accomplished with a combination
of processes including heating and cooling. Canning prevents microorganism
growth and deactivates enzymes. The basic steps involved in canning are repre-
sented in Fig. 4.8.
Initially, the raw materials must be processed appropriately as some foods includ-
ing fishes comprise dangerous microorganism such as Clostridium botulinum. In
canning, all the foodstuffs must not be heated in the same manner. The extent of
time and the temperature required rely on several factors, which is revealed in
Fig. 4.9 [26].
However, the best quality is attained by ensuring the heating conditions and using
fresh, healthy products. The amount of primary microorganisms and the internal
water content is high in fish and meat. However, the pH is almost neutral in those
Intra-EU Developing Countries Rest of the world

4.5
4
3.5
In 1000 tones
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Year
Fig. 4.7 Different types of exported canned food from developing countries to their developed
counterparts. Adapted from [27]
Fig. 4.8 Steps in canning of fish
Fig. 4.9 Factors affecting the required temperature and time for canning
foods. Eventually, elementing all existing microorganisms and obtaining a harmless

product is really a challenging task. However, persistent heating in a pressure steril-
izer in temperatures which can reach higher than 100 °C can be a harmless option.
As the canning of fish and meat requires huge amount of energy, freshwater, and
investment in equipment, typically it is only practiced at a small-scale industrial
level [26].
After heating protein-rich foods, the commodities are sealed hermetically in cans
or jars. Plant-based food materials do not require heating prior to sealing in cans. In
order to prevent growth of microorganisms, vinegar, acetic acid, or even oil is used
in the can; eventually, canned foodstuffs may be stored for an extended time without
refrigeration.
3 Low-Temperature Techniques 75
3 Low-Temperature Techniques
Microbial growth is significantly affected by temperature. Below the lower opti-

mum temperature, microbial encounters hurdle growth and propagation. Low tem-
peratures can abate enzymatic action, chemical reaction, and growth of
microorganisms in foods. Even a low enough temperature can completely stop the
growth of microorganisms. In addition, at lower temperature, the chemical reaction
is slowed down, and enzyme action is also reduced. Apart from these, the low-
temperature method provides the following benefits for foods:
• Less perishability due to reduced respiration
• Less shriveling and water loss
• Less ripening due to reduced ethylene actions
• Reduced browning reaction result in less color changes
• More nutrient retention
There are many ways to achieve low temperature including chilling and freezing
as shown in Fig. 4.10.
Although all of the listed techniques are associated with low temperature, the
temperature and cooling rate are not identical. Consequently, the change in struc-
tural, nutritional, and energy consumption varies between techniques.
Immersion chilling
Chilling
(0.6 to -2.2°C)
Air Chilling
Deep or quick freezing
Low Freezing
Temperature (-8 to -40°C) Freeze drying
Techniques
Filleting and freezing
Cold storage Bulking

using cold room
(-15 to -25°C)
Shelving
Boxing
Fig. 4.10 Types of low-temperature techniques

3.1 Cold Storage Using Cold Room
The temperature in cold storage is maintained not far above freezing point. The
cooling in this process is attained by ice or mechanical refrigerator. Although cold
storage can be used for most of the types of food materials, fish is mainly preserved
in cold storage in the developing countries. However, we will further discuss on the
fish preservation to compare the procedure of different techniques associated with
cold room including boxing and bulking.
3.1.1 Boxing
Boxing is accomplished by laying fish on a thick ice at the lowermost section of a

container followed by alternating layers of ice and fish [28, 29]. The top layer of the
box is filled with ice in boxing. There are distinct advantages of boxing fish over
bulking and shelving such as the fish might effortlessly be separated into species
and sizes; as well as removing fish boxes from fishing vessels. Boxing confers sev-
eral advantages as shown in Fig. 4.11.
Most of the developing countries adopt the various boxing techniques for short
fish preservation. Different types of boxing are used that are made of foam, paper,
and plastic as shown in Fig. 4.12. Poor quality of boxing containers may result in
quick melting of ice.
High
quality
Minimal
easy to
care weight
loss
Advantages
of boxing
Rapid and
efficient
Minimal
unloading
damage
and
handling
Fig. 4.11 Advantages of proper boxing

Fig. 4.12 Practical
pictorial view of boxing
3.1.2 Bulking
This is laying fish on a bed of thick ice and placing alternate layers of ice and fish at
a fish-to-ice ratio of 1:1 or 1:2 up to a total height of 1 meter. However, bulking stor-
age may cause damage and shrinkage of fish for the pressure developed due to layer
of fishes [30]. A practical pictorial view of bulking typically used in developing
countries is represented in Fig. 4.13.
3.2 Freezing
For preserving food, freezing is one of the most ancient and extensive approaches.
Food that is preserved by freezing retains higher taste, texture, and nutritional value
in comparison with any other techniques. Freezing is a low-temperature technique
in which microorganisms cannot reproduce, chemical reactions are reduced, and
cellular metabolic reactions are hindered [31].
Freezing preservation maintains the excellence of food products over an exten-
sive period of time. As a technique of long-standing preservation for food materials,
freezing is usually considered as superior to canning and dehydration [32].
Freezing has been efficaciously engaged for the long-standing preservation of
many foods, providing an expressively prolonged shelf life. The process includes
dropping the product temperature usually to −18 °C or lower than this [33]. When
energy is detached by cooling below freezing temperature, then the physical state of
food material is transformed. However, if the temperature is extremely cold, then it
Fig. 4.13 Food preservation by bulking. Adapted from [30]
modestly hinders the advancement of microorganisms and decelerates the chemical

changes that affect the attributes for which food spoils [34].
Despite the excellent performance of preservation along with ensuring the high
quality, frozen food has not commonly prevailed in developing countries. However,
domestic-level freezer is common in the affluent and higher middle-class people in
developing countries. In general, people of developing countries are not fond of
frozen foods. Eventually, it is one of the least industrialized food preservation tech-
niques in perspective of the developing countries.
Food preservation by freezing is becoming popular in recent times for several
types of food commodities including fruits and vegetables. The scenario of imple-
menting freezing techniques is similar in both developed and developing countries.
Freezing of fruits and vegetables in small- and medium-scale operations is repre-
sented in Fig. 4.14 [35].
However, besides fruits and vegetables, meat and fish are also some of the main
foods whose characteristics are retained after the process of freezing [36]. Meat
comprises of 50–75% water weight, depending on the species, and the method of
freezing transforms the maximum percentage of that water into ice [37]. The phe-
nomenon of meat freezing is very quick, and nearly 75% of tissue fluid freezes at
−5 °C. While the temperature is decreased, the rate of freezing is increased, and
around 98% of water freezes at −20 °C. However, widespread crystal formation
takes place at −65 °C [36, 38]. Table 4.1 illustrates the storage life of meat at differ-
ent temperatures [36, 39].
Raw Materials
(Choice of
Cultivar)
Maturity assessment
Harvesting and transportation
Factory gate inspection
Utensils for Preparation

pre-freezing (Cleaning / washing, peeling, slicing, dicing)
Hot water Blanching

Steam or Microwave (Vegetables only)
Freezing
Freezer Packages Cold-storage and packaging
Transportation
Fig. 4.14 A general flowchart for frozen fruits and vegetables. adapted from [35]
3.3 Chilling
Chilling needs lower temperature than the cold storage and higher than the freezing
process. The temperature in chiller is maintained with a range of −1 °C to
4 °C. Lower temperature in chiller can be provided by ice or mechanical refrigera-
tor. Chilling does not cause any hardening of fish due to the relatively low tempera-
ture persisting in chilling chamber.
Even though it is an effective technique of preservation of highly perishable and
protein-rich foods such as fish and meat, getting ice might be problematic and costly
for the people of lower-income countries [40].
A higher rate of cooling is essential to ascertain the good quality and the increased
shelf life of chilled product. Chilling is only effective for short-duration preservation,
Table 4.1 Storage life of Temperature

meat at different temperatures Product (°C) Storage life
[36, 39]
Cooling beef −1 3–5 weeks
Pork −1 1–2 weeks
Freezing beef −18 12 months
−30 24 months
Ground beef (wrapped) −18 6 months
−24 8 months
Beefsteaks (vac. Packed) 18 months
24 months
Lamb and mutton −18 16 months
−24 18 months
Pork −18 6 months
−30 15 months
Liver −18 12 months
−24 18 months
for example, transportation of landed fish to nearby markets or to canning factories,

etc. [36, 41].
There are two types of chilling, namely, immersion chilling and air chilling [36].
In immersion chilling the product is immersed in chilled (0–4 °C) water. On the
other hand, in the air chilling, the foodstuffs are misted with water in a room with
circulating chilled air [42]. By air chilling food surface temperature is minimized at
quicker rate that increases drying rate and diminishes microbial spoilage [43].
Maximum quality attributes such as microbial quality of the food in the air-chilled
produce are superior than that of a water-chilled product [44, 45].
3.4 Superchilling
Superchilling is one of the low-temperature preservation systems that maintains

lower temperature than freezing temperature. Superchilling is more feasible for cer-
tain foods over refrigeration and freezing, which eventually decreases storage and
transport costs.
The development of microorganisms is highly influenced by the temperature of
the food materials [46–50]. Microbial activity and the growth of most bacteria can
be reduced remarkably at superchilling temperatures.
The superchilling method incorporates low temperatures along with transform-
ing of water present in food into ice that makes food water unavailable for the
growth of microbial [47–49]. The formed ice will absorb heat from the interior
surface, which eventually reaches the equilibrium condition. In superchilling an
internal ice reservoir is served to the food products that is why there is no need for
Fig. 4.15 Temperature
range of different food
storage technologies [51]
external ice around the product during its short-time transportation or storage. As
the preliminary freezing points for maximum foods range from −0.5 °C to −2.8 °C,
the superchilling temperature is maintained below that [51]. The various tempera-
ture ranges of different low-temperature food storage technologies such as chilling,
superchilling, and freezing are represented in Fig. 4.15.
3.4.1 Superchilling Technologies
Different types of freezer can be used in the process of supercoiling. The most com-
mon types are mechanical freezers, cryogenic freezers, and impingement freezers.
Mechanical freezers use a circulating refrigerant to attain lower temperature and
cool food through heat exchanger. Mechanical freezers require greater processing
time due to its lower heat transfer coefficients (h ≪ 50 W/m2K). Eventually, inferior
quality of product is attained in this superchilling process [52]. Due to its low cost,
the superchilling process in developing countries consists of mechanical freezer.
Besides mechanical freezing, cryogenic freezer is used in case of extensively
low-temperature requirement. Generally, nitrogen liquid (−196 °C) or carbon diox-
ide (−78 °C as a solid) is used directly to the foodstuffs to attain pretty lower tem-
perature. Due to the high-temperature gradient between the cryogen and the food
product surface, cryogenic freezing is a faster cooling process than conventional air
freezing [53].
Despite of having quick freezing rate, cryogenic freezing is a costly option Zhou
et al. [52–54]. Moreover, profound alternation of food structure occurs during this
freezing technique. Therefore, only the expensive foods can be considered to be
frozen in this process. Subsequently, cryogenic freezing is less prevalent in develop-
ing countries.
In impingement freezers there are multiple freezing chambers separated in dif-
ferent temperature zones in order to maximize utilization of thermal energy. The
required temperature of every zone is automatically controlled. Heat transfer rate is
higher in the impingement freezer compared to the conventional freezers [55–58].

The processing time of impingement freezers is lesser than the time necessary in
conventional belt tunnel freezers [52]. Furthermore, the freezing times for impinge-
ment freezing are alike to that of cryogenic freezing at a markedly lesser operating
cost.
In summary, frozen foods in particular fish, meat, and fruits are not popular for
consumption in developing countries. However, many developing countries attain
foreign share in exporting frozen foods to the developed countries. For example,
Vietnam exports basa frozen fish fillets to different developed countries including
the United States and Australia.
4 Drying
Drying is one of the oldest even ancient food preservation techniques. Therefore, it
is still one of the most dominating food preservation techniques, which is practiced
in developing countries across the globe.
Accessible water is essential for the growth of microorganisms in food materials.
Most of the raw food materials are high in water content and make it susceptible
to growth of microorganisms. Drying is basically a water-removing process.
Simultaneous heat and mass transfer take place during drying process. In addition
to the prevention of microorganisms, drying offers an ease in handling, packaging,
shipping, and consumption.
There are many types of drying process available which are basically classified
on the basis of heat-supplying strategy. The most widely used drying methods in
developing countries are solar drying, sun drying, hot-air drying, and spray drying.
Fig. 4.16 represents the different types of drying system that are usually used.
4.1 Sun Drying
Sun drying is a process which is practiced throughout the world where food is
exposed to the wind and sunrays. In solar drying process, the direct heat energy that
comes from the sun is used to dry food materials. In this process, the foods are
spread in a thin layer all over the ground or over the trays as per the indication in
Figs. 4.17 and 4.18.
In this process the heat is transferred to the food in two ways: one is by convec-
tion process and another by the direct solar radiation process. This increases the
inner temperature of the foods and results in evaporation of the water from the food.
The surface water generally is removed by the natural airflow.
As his process runs under the ambient pressure condition, higher drying time is
required slow. During sun drying, the crop can either be dried or rewetted while the
humidity increases with the decreasing ambient temperature [80].
4 Drying 83
Fig. 4.16 Classification of food drying
Fig. 4.17 Heat transfer

during sun drying [80]
Open sun drying is the most prevalent food preservation technique in the devel-
oping countries. It is reported that about 95% respondents in a survey in Uganda and
80% of their Nigerian counterparts used sun drying as a method of food preserva-
tion [59, 60].
In developing countries, spreading of foods is kept on the roadsides, bare
grounds, or rooftops during drying. All sorts of foods including grains, fruits, meat,
and fish are dried in open sun drying. Counties in South Africa mainly depend on
the open sun drying process for all sorts of food materials including high-moisture-
content agro-products such as tomatoes, mangoes, and banana [61].
Fig. 4.18 Sun drying of food
4.2 Spray Drying
Spray drying is less common in developing countries. It is usually used for making
powder of certain heat-sensitive product including milk and coffee. The high cost
associated with the spray drying is the main hurdle of extensive uses in low-income
countries.
In spray drying, the fluid-state feed is converted into a dried particulate form by
spraying the feed into a hot drying medium [62]. A spray dryer generally operates
on the principle of convection heat and mass transfer.
Spray drying facilitates high evaporation rate due to the increased surface area of
the liquid feed drops. Liquid feed flowing in the spray dryer experiences a sequence
of conversions before it becomes powder. The modifications are caused by the effect
of each of the four stages involved in spray drying, namely, atomization of the feed
solution, contact of spray with the hot gas, evaporation of moisture, and particle
separation, which is shown in Fig. 4.19.
Atomization is the heart of spray drying and is the first phase conversion process
that the liquid feed experiences in the course of spray drying. As the shape, struc-
ture, and velocity and size distribution of the droplets along with the particle size
and nature of the ultimate product affect drying rate, proper atomization is essential.
Then, the droplets pass through hot gas, and this causes quick evaporation of mois-
ture from the surface of all the droplets uniformly.
After evaporation of moisture from the droplets, two stages of separation take
place. Powder of the raw liquid is eventually collected after these separation stages.
4 Drying 85
Fig. 4.19 Process steps of spray drying. (1) Atomization. (2) Spray-hot air contact. (3) Evaporation
of moisture. (4) Product separation. Adapted from [63]
4.3 Hot-Air Drying
Solar radiation is a great source of heat; however, there is uncertainty of energy

availability. For continuous and substantial supply of hot air, electrical or other con-
ventional fuel can be used. When the hot air is produced by using energy source
other than the sun, it is known as hot-air convective drying system. The cost of this
system depends on the nature of fuel or energy used for heating the air. Hot-air dry-
ing is for drying different fruits and vegetables, for example, banana, mango, and
pineapple, tea leaves, and herbs such as basil, lemon balm, and bay leaves. In some
developing countries, hot-air drying is also used in drying grain, and Fig. 4.20
shows such type of dryer [64].
This type of simple dryer basically contains an axial fan, an electric heater, and
a bamboo-mat drying bin. The drying bin is constructed out of two concentric
bamboo-mat fabricated cylinders. Sometimes, a waste heat that is carried by the
exhaust of coal stove may be integrated as an auxiliary heating system to the dryer
promoting the efficiency of drying significantly without any additional cost.
4.4 Solar Drying
Solar drying system is the improved version of sun drying. Generally, food is placed
in an enclosed chamber in solar drying system. This enclosed chamber ensures the
safety of foods from the outside damage and contaminations caused by birds,
insects, dust, and unexpected rainfall.
Fig. 4.20 Construction of SRR-1 dryer with coal stove. Adapted from [64, 65]
In the solar drying system shown in Fig. 4.21, the heated airflow is circulated
over the product to reduce the moisture content of the body. There are trays
inside the dryer where the washed and prepared foods are placed. At the lower
part of the solar dryer, there is an air inlet through which the dry air enters into
the chamber. The rays from the sun directly enter into the cabinet and stuck
there. Then the solar thermal radiation causes increase of the inside temperature.
This heat drives the moisture away from the food materials. Eventually, the
heated air takes drives moisture away from the food to the atmosphere through
the air outlet.
Despite the enormous benefits of solar dryer over sun dryer, farmers rarely use
solar system to dry their valuable commodities.
5 Fermentation
In food processing fermentation can be considered as a process, whereby using

microorganisms like yeasts or bacteria—under anaerobic conditions—carbohy-
drates are converted into alcohol or organic acids [67]. The natural sugar existing
in the raw foods as well as the added sugar is converted into acid during this
period of time. By the action of lactic acid bacteria, flavor, texture, and all the
other characteristics are formed. In this way products can be preserved throughout
the year [68].
In developing countries, fermentation of food materials is especially used in cir-
cumstances where drying of fish is impossible in the absence of the sun and in the
5 Fermentation 87
Air
Outlet
Acrylic
Glass
Solar PV
Cell
Dryer
Cabinet
Air Inlet
Battery Glass Wool
Insulation
Fig. 4.21 Schematic diagram of a solar dryer [66]
Table 4.2 The benefits of fermentation
Raw materials Stability Safety Nutritive Acceptability

value
Meat
Fish
Milk
Vegetables
Fruits
Legumes
Cereals
Definite Usually some Some cases of No

improvement improvement improvement improvement
wet climate. For preserving perishable food materials, fermentation can be a sus-
tainable and an energy-efficient option that offers several benefits as shown in
Table 4.2 [68].
From Table 4.2, the benefits of fermentation for different foods such as meat,
fish, vegetables, cereals, and fruits vary differently. Here the effect of fermentation
is shown in terms of stability, safety, nutritive value, and acceptability. A definite
improvement in stability of meat, fish, and milk can be attained by fermentation
process.
It has been projected that almost 13 million infants and children under 5 years of
age die annually in the tropical areas of the world. The most common and negative
reason behind this is the diarrheal diseases. Foods prepared under unhygienic condi-
tions and frequently being heavily contaminated with pathogenic organisms
cause diarrheal, nutrient malabsorption, and malnutrition. In every food, there is
huge amount of different microorganisms, which varies depending on the several
factors. However, fermented meat, fish, dairy, cereal products, and vegetables are
not regarded as a vital source of microbial food poisoning [69]. Eventually, fermen-
tation becomes one of the cheapest and the safest food preservation techniques for
the people of developing countries. For this reason, greater details on the fermenta-
tion process practiced in developing countries need to be discussed.
Fermentations can be categorized broadly as solid state or submerged cultures as
shown in Fig. 4.22. In solid-state fermentation, the microorganisms grow on moist
solid in the absence of free water. However, insignificant amount of capillary water
may present. Mushroom cultivation, bread making, processing of cocoa, and manu-
facturing of some traditional foods, e.g., miso (soy paste), soy sauce, sake, and
soybean cake, are some common examples of solid-state fermentation.
On the other hand, dissolved substrate including sugar solution and solid sub-
strate that is suspended in a large amount of water to form slurry are usually used in
submerged fermentation process. Pickling vegetable producing wine alcohol,
yoghurt, and soy sauce is the very common example of submerged fermentation in
developing countries. Both types of fermentation can be carried out in the presence
or absence of oxygen.
Oxygen Requiring
Anaerobic Process
Solid-State
Anaerobic process
in the absence of
Oxygen
Fermentation
Oxygen Requiring
Anaerobic Process
Submerged
Anaerobic process
in the absence of
Oxygen
Fig. 4.22 Types of fermentation

5 Fermentation 89
In the fermentation of food, sugars, and other carbohydrates, they are generally
converted into three products, namely, carbon dioxide, alcohol, and preservative
organic acid. The use of these three products is shown in Fig. 4.23 [70].
Although fermentation is an easy and less expensive process, it offers different
benefits as represented in Fig. 4.24.
Fermentation is a proven sustainable food process that has been practiced in
developing countries. It is economically viable as it demands less cost and simple in
nature. In addition to this, longer shelf life of the fermented food is obvious than the
processed foods from other processes.
Fermented foods prevail among almost all of the developing countries. Moreover,
in all of these countries, fermented foods are consumed either as main dishes or as
condiments [71]. Fig. 4.25 represents an example of fermentation of a specific prod-
Fermentation of
Food
Organic
CO2 Alcohol
acid
Used to leaven Alcohol based Exploited to

bread end products preserve and
flavor vegetables
and dairy products
Fig. 4.23 Use of fermented products
• By developing diverse flavora, aromas, Enrich the Diet

and textures in food substrates
• By the fermentation of lactic acid, Preserve substantial

alcohol, acetic acid and alkaline amount of food
• By producing essential amount of
Enrich food substrate
protein, amino acid and vitamins
• By rising the soluble fraction in foods

Eliminate antinutrients
• By reducing the cooking time Reduce the requirement of

cooking fuel
Fig. 4.24 Main purposes of fermentation

Fig. 4.25 Flowchart for the manufacture of soy sauce and soybean paste [72, 73]
uct in the developing countries. Moreover, Fig. 4.26 represents the ancient fermen-
tation techniques of Africa [72, 73].
Fermentation is one of the most significant and energy-efficient food preserva-
tion options in developing countries. For instance, around 60% of foods consumed
in famine as survival foods in Sudan is fermented foods. Moreover, there are many
other countries which utilized fermentation to preserve diverse types of food as
shown in Table 4.3 [68, 74].
6 Pasteurization
Pasteurization is the method of heating food, precisely liquids, to a certain tempera-

ture to slow down the microbial growth in the food. Generally, milk and fruit juices
are pasteurized in developing countries. Both proper heating and cooling are associ-
ated in pasteurization as shown in Fig. 4.27 (a). Moreover, Fig. 4.27 (a) displayed
the steps of pasteurization in pictorial form.
6 Pasteurization 91
Fig. 4.26 (a) Ancient technique of fermentation [72, 73]. (b) Fermentation of fish in Africa [72,
73]
Table 4.3 List of countries which utilized fermentation to preserve different types of food [68, 74]
Name of fermented foods
Area (Some of the names are kept as local people recognized them)
Worldwide Alcohol (beer, wine), vinegar, olives, yogurt, bread, cheese
Asia East and Amazake, atchara, bai-ming, belacan, burong mangga, com ruou, dalok,
Southeast doenjang, douchi, jeruk, lambanog, kimchi, kombucha, leppet-so, narezushi,
Asia miang, miso, nata de coco, nata de pina, natto, naw-mai-dong, oncom,
pak-siam-dong, paw-tsaynob, prahok, ruou nep, sake, seokbakji, soju, soy
sauce, stinky tofu, szechwan cabbage, tai-tan tsoi, chiraki, tape, tempeh,
totkal kimchi, yen tsai, zha cai
Central Asia Kumis (mare milk), kefir, shubat (camel milk)
South Asia Achar, appam, dosa, dhokla, dahi (yogurt), idli, kaanji, mixed pickle, ngari,
hawaichaar, jaand (rice beer), sinki, tongba, paneer
Africa Fermented millet porridge, garri, hibiscus seed, hot pepper sauce, injera,
lamounmakbouss, laxoox, mageu, mauoloh, msir, mslalla, oilseed, ogi,
ogili, ogiri, iru
Fig. 4.27 (a) Steps of pasteurization. (b) Steps of pasteurization in pictorial form [75, 76]
Table 4.4 Different types of pasteurization [77]

Types of Temperature
pasteurization requirement (°C) Property
Normal 118 Protein begins to denatured
Low temperature 119–150 More enzymes and proteins remain intact when milk is
heated below these temperatures
High temperature 150–200 Kills enzymes, much of the healthy microorganisms,
and denatures the proteins. This milk is difficult to
digest
Ultra 201–280 Kills potentially harmful bacteria in the milk, but also
damages all the vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients
originally contained in the milk
However, if milk is heated past 150 °C, it becomes unsafe for health. The heating
of pasteurization might be done by means of steam, hot water, and the products
are ready after successive cooling treatment [3].
Table 4.4 shows the different types of pasteurization with their shelf life, prop-
erty, and pasteurization temperature.
Although pasteurization is an effective way of liquid food preservation, it dete-
riorates the thermal-sensitive nutrients including fatty acids; vitamins A, B6, B12,
C, and D; and minerals. In addition to this, pasteurization inactivates the naturally
occurring enzymes that are vital in milk digestion.
7 Osmotic Dehydration
Osmotic dehydration has gained better consideration in current years as an efficient

technique for preservation of fruits and vegetables. Banana, pineapple, mango, and
leafy vegetables are the few examples that are generally preserved by osmotic dehy-
dration in developing countries. During osmotic dehydration fresh qualities of fruits
and vegetables such as color, aroma, and nutritional compounds are preserved
7 Osmotic Dehydration 93
effectively [78]. The requirement of energy is relatively low in osmotic dehydration

in comparison with the other drying processes; it can also be accomplished at low
or ambient temperature.
Osmosis dehydration is sometimes considered as pretreatment of other drying
techniques. In that case, food drying is accomplished in two stages: removal of
water using an osmotic agent such as sugar syrups and subsequent dehydration in a
hot-air dryer where moisture content is further reduced [63].
Osmotic dehydration works on the principle of water transportation via a semi-
permeable membrane from a low-concentration solution to a high-concentration
solution. Food slices are immersed in concentrated solutions of salts or sugars.
Eventually, osmotic pressure allows the transport of water toward the outside of
food. Solutes such as sugar or salt enter into the food due to the difference in osmotic
pressure.
However, Fig. 4.28 reveals the processes comprising of the typical osmosis dehy-
dration of fruits and vegetables in developing countries of the world [79].
Moreover, there are several advantages of osmotic dehydration, which are writ-
ten as follows [80]:
1. Less thermal sensitive quality degradation
2. High color and flavor retention resulting in the product having greater organo-
leptic features.
3. It raises resistance to quality during further heat treatment.
4. The process is relatively simple and economical.
5. It inhibits the enzymatic browning.
6. It develops good the texture and rehydration characteristics.
7. The blanching method can be excluded by adopting this process.
Fig. 4.28 Basic steps of osmosis dehydration of fruits and vegetables. (Adapted from Hossain
et al. [79])
Table 4.5 Osmosis in developing countries

Foods Countries Solution Reference
Jackfruit Bangladesh Sugar [81]
Pumpkin India Sugar, salt [82]
Litchi India Sugar [83]
Okra Cameroon Salt [84]
8. Increases the taste and acceptability.

9. The process might demonstrate to be decent for production of the ready-to-eat
foods
10. The process the cost of processing, storage, and transport by reducing food
volume.
11. Output products from this process retain better color.
12. This process defends against the structural collapse of the product.
Table 4.5 represents the osmosis dehydration of different food materials in the dis-
similar parts of the developing world.
8 Salting
Salting is one of the oldest preservation techniques which is still being practiced
across the globe. As the name of the process reflects, it is accomplished using edible
salt. Salted fish and salt-cured meat are very common processed foods that are avail-
able in almost all of the developing countries due to its simplicity and low cost of
processing. However, vegetables such as runner beans and cabbages are also often
preserved in this manner. Owing to the hypertonic nature of salt, most bacteria,
fungi, and other potentially pathogenic organisms cannot survive in food materials
since they die through the salting process. Through the osmosis process generated
by salting, all the living cells become dehydrated and die or become temporarily
inactive [85].
For salting, it is significant that the fish or meat has been arranged in such a man-
ner that the salt assimilated may swiftly enter into the flesh, and the moisture could
leave the fish or meat.
The methods of salting meat and fish are very much identical. The common types
of salting described are shown in Fig. 4.29.
In dry salting, meat or fish is packed in dry salt; otherwise, foods may be rubbed
with a coating of salt. Dry salting method cannot ensure a longer shelf life as wet
salting offers.
On the other hand, food is firstly rubbed with salt prior to pouring brine over the
packed salted meat in wet salting or pickling. In this process, the food is kept sub-
merged in a brine solution. Wet salting or pickling does not leave the meat as salty
8 Salting 95
as in dry salting, but it is still necessary to presoak the preserved food, which take
away surplus salt, before cooking [26, 86].
Wet pickling can also be classified as chemical pickling (brining) and fermenta-
tion pickling.
Sometimes, the process in which food is preserved by using an edible antimicro-
bial liquid is known as pickling. Brine, vinegar, alcohol, and vegetable oil including
olive or mustard oil may be used as pickling agents. Heating or boiling is also
involved in chemical pickling in order to increase shelf life of the preserved food
with the help of pickling agent. Cucumbers, peppers, corned beef, herring, and eggs
are the common chemically pickled foods.
However, in fermented pickling, the food itself creates the preservation agent,
usually by a method that yields lactic acid.
Figure 4.30 shows the practical pickling processes in food preparation and
preservation.
Figure 4.31 shows the pickling process of meat [26]. There are several steps by
which the total pickling process is completed.
Dry salting
Salting Brining
Pickling
Fermented
pickling
Fig. 4.29 Types of salting
Fig. 4.30 Practical processed food by pickling and salting

Fig. 4.31 Pickling process of meat. Adapted from [26]
8.1 Method of Working
Figure 4.32 shows the general methods and the principles of the pickling of meat.
However, Fig. 4.33 shows the pickling of fish, where the process or method of work-
ing is almost similar to meat [26, 87].
9 Smoking
Smoking is one of the oldest practiced food preservation techniques for fish and
meat [88]. Smoking is the method of flavoring along with cooking of food by reveal-
ing it to smoke from burning of wood. Smoking is a widespread traditional tech-
nique for food preservation in most of the developing countries. People from all
cultures across the globe have relied on the smoke curing of fish and meat for long-
term storage [89].
9 Smoking 97
Fig. 4.32 Method of

working of pickling 1 • Cutting into small strips
process
2 • Spreading salt
• Pressing and keeping it for

3
weeks
4 • Washing in cold fresh water
5 • Putting into brine solution
Fig. 4.33 Pickling process of fish [26, 87]. 1. Splitting, 2. Rubbing with salt, 3. Preparing thick
layer of salt, 4. Placing fish, 5. Filling the bucket by repeating same phenomena, 6. Cover the
bucket with plastic
Fig. 4.34 Effect of smoking on the final product
Smoking is associated with heat transfer and dissipation of volatile composition

on the surface. Smoke encompasses phenols, which has potential effect on killing of
bacteria. Moreover, the high temperature of smoke also helps in cooking of food
samples. Smoked food products have extensive shelf life, which has been attributed
to the combined bacteria destruction, drying, and cooling effects. Moreover, smok-
ing ensures persistent shelf life and reasonably appealing appearance of the food
[90]. Overall, smoking encompasses six important effects in the product, which is
described in Fig. 4.34 [91].
On the basis of the smoke temperature and duration, smoking can be classified as
shown in Fig. 4.35 [26].
Cold Smoking Cold-smoked product and the fresh fish or meat have almost the
same storage life. Additionally, it is problematic to regulate the process in high
ambient temperatures because the temperature may not increase above 30 °C
(86 °F). The cold-smoked process cannot extend the shelf life of food products. This
is only done to get the smoky flavor of the foods. Due to these shortcomings, cold
smoking is not used extensively as a process of food preservation. Sawdust is usu-
ally used to accomplish this type of smoking.
Hot Smoking During hot smoking, the storage life is prolonged at most 2 days. In
this process, the fish or meat is heated without being dried. Clean dry wood is
9 Smoking 99
Cold
smoke Smoke emperature 30 °C Not cooked
method
Hot
Product get
Smoking smoke Smoke temperature 65 to 100 °C
cooked
method
Smoke Temperatures vary between 45-85 °C

Fisrt cooked , then
drying dried
Fig. 4.35 Types of smoking and their related criteria
c ommonly used to accomplish this type of smoking. In this type of smoking, flame
and smoke are equally required. In this type of smoking, chemical plays minor
roles.
Smoke Drying Maximum traditional smoked products are in this third category. In
smoke drying, hot smoke is used subsequently; the foodstuffs are dried under con-
tinued smoking. It takes almost 12–18 hours or even days, depending on the product
nature and smoke quality. Occasionally, the product is salted and/or pre-dried before
being smoke-dried.
The amount of smoke particles absorbed by the foods to be smoked greatly
depends on the surface area of food such as fish or meat. It is also preferable to dry
the raw product for an hour in the sun before smoking, which helps to avoid case
hardening of the fish or meat. By doing this, the outer layer of the fish or meat would
no longer permit moisture to pass through, and therefore the inside of the food
would not be able to dry properly.
For obtaining the best result from smoking, it is better to do it in a dry environ-
ment. Therefore, it is better to work in a smokehouse rather than in the open air.
There are different types of traditional smoking ovens available in the developing
countries as shown in Fig. 4.36.
Traditional mud ovens and kilns are used in producing smoke in developing
countries. The reason behind the popularity of mud ovens in developing countries is
the low cost of construction along with the availability of materials. The capacity of
traditional oven is small and there is much loss of smoke.
Apart from the traditional mud oven, oil-drum smoking ovens are also popular in
some developing countries. In these types of oven, the control of temperature is
challenging and eventually results in nonuniformly smoked food products. Also,
these types of oven are very much sensitive to wind and rain.
In some cases, smoking is incorporated with salting and drying. In this combina-
tion, higher shelf life of fish has been reported in literature [94].
Fig. 4.36 Traditional pictorial view of smoking [41, 92–94]. (a) Practical view of smoking meat
and fish. (b) Smoked freshwater fish at local market
10 Steeping
From the ancient time, steeping preservation has been practiced, which is done by
using brine solution. In steeping, sodium chloride performs as a preserving, flavor-
improving, conditioning, and taste-enhancing agent. After leaching out the salt and
acid, the preserved vegetables by steeping may be used for pickling or home cook-
ing. The animal-based foods like meat, fish, and poultry; vegetables such as toma-
toes, carrot, cauliflower, cabbage, bitter gourd, peas, and mushroom; and fruits like
green mango, olive, and golden apple can be preserved in an acidified sulphited
brine solution [79, 95].
The steps followed by the process of steeping in order to preserve green mango
are shown in Fig. 4.37 [79].
The shelf life of mango slices in brine solution is almost 8 months. PRAN group
also steeps the mango slices by using the same procedure. In brief, steeping process
is a combination of blanching, submerging in species, and preserving in airtight
container.
The preservation techniques for olive and golden apple are almost similar as
green mango, except that the blanching must be done for 3 minutes here, whereas it
was only 2 minutes for mangoes. Moreover, the shelf life is also the same, that is,
8 months [79].
11 Packing
During storage and transportation, usually, two comprehensive types of damage are
sustained by the fresh and the processed foods. One is physical damage for instant
shock, vibration, and compressive forces. The other one is the environmental
11 Packing 101
Cooling Soaked Stored in

with
Washing Cutting after different air tight
blancing elements container
Fig. 4.37 Steeping of mango
Fig. 4.38 Packaging of food materials [96]
damage that occurs due to exposure to water, light, gases, odors, and microorgan-
isms. Packaging system may successfully reduce these types of damages. For
instance, an optimum barrier packaging can easily reduce the evaporation or oxida-
tion of the flavor or aroma of coffee or juice. Moreover, if proper packaging is pro-
vided for protection, a shelf-stable food in a can or a pouch may maintain its
stability. In addition, packaging may correspondingly enhance certain level of pro-
tection to slow down temperature changes [96].
Packing some time is deployed for short-term preservation of fresh cut fruits at
room temperature and controlled low temperature depending on the expected shelf
life. The way by which fresh cut fruits can be preserved for 3–4 days at 14–16 °C is
presented in Fig. 4.38.
11.1 Types of Packing Materials
From the earliest times, for domestic storage and local sales of foods, many types of
packaging materials have been used. A summary of the key types of packaging
materials is represented in Fig. 4.39 [97].
Physical properties, gas permeability, water vapor transmission rate, type of
package, and sealing reliability are the key characteristics that are needed to be
taken into consideration while selecting packaging films for equilibrium modified
Packaging Materials
Traditional materials Industrial materials
• Leaves, vegetable fibres • Metal Containers

and textiles • Glass
• Wood • Paper and cardboard
• Plastic • Flexible plastic films
• Leather • Cellulose
• Earthenware • Polyethylene (or
polythene)
• Polypropylene
• Films (Coated films/
Laminated films/
Coextruded films)
Fig. 4.39 Types of packaging materials
atmosphere packaging of fruits. Even though an increasing choice of packaging

materials exists in the MAP industry, maximum of those packages are still made
from four basic polymers: polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene terephthalate
(PET), polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene (PE), for packaging of fruits [98–
107]. Among these packaging materials, polyethylene has been extensively used for
modified atmosphere packaging of fruits and vegetables [100, 108–114].
11.2 Vacuum Packaging
Vacuum packaging exemplifies a static form of hypobaric storage method that is

extensively used in food industry owing to its efficacy in decreasing oxidative reac-
tions and prevention of microorganism entrance in the product at comparatively
small costs [115]. In vacuum packaging, the product is sealed in a package having
low air permeability. This low permeability allows very slow diffusion of atmo-
spheric O2. The tiny amount of diffused oxygen is eventually absorbed in chemical
reactions that usually occur within the food product [96].
However, in the meantime contents of carbon dioxide and acidity are increased,
which substantially reduces the growth of aerobic spoilage microorganisms. The
residual levels of CO2 ranging from 10% to 20% in the packages are attained because
of the metabolism of the product tissue and existing microorganisms [49, 116].
Moreover, the accurate balance of O2 and CO2 in the vacuum packaging saves
foods from desiccation and rancidity during storage [117].
11 Packing 103
Due to the three oxygen barrier properties of the packaging material, inhibition
in the development of aerobic spoilage organisms and slowing down of deleterious
oxidative reactions in the food during storage are achieved. There are several fac-
tors, as mentioned in Fig. 4.40, that are needed to be maintained for the films used
for vacuum packaging in large-scale production methods, particularly, in the case of
films used in pasteurization.
Most of the fruits and vegetables can be preserved using vacuum packaging as
shown in Fig. 4.41 [118]. However, the extension of shelf life significantly depends
on the types of food materials and its moisture distribution. For longer life, food
materials should be dried enough to prevent proliferation of microorganisms.
Requirements of film used in

vacuum Packaging
Manufactured
Retention of Impermeability from non- Capability to
to liquids, Near
High flexibility toxic, food resist heating
comprising oils Impermeability
durability even at low and fats and
acceptable, to gases to at least
temperatures macromolecules odorless 150°C
materials
Fig. 4.40 Requirements for film used in vacuum packaging
Fig. 4.41 Practical application of vacuum packaging [118]

12 Evaporative Cooling
Cooling processes such as refrigeration are not also affordable to small farmers,
retailers, and wholesalers [119, 120]. Moreover, several tropical fruits and vegeta-
bles like banana, tomatoes, orange, leafy vegetables, etc. cannot be stored in the
refrigerator because they sustain chilling injury and color change [121, 122]. The
use of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) refrigerants
in refrigeration system is partly responsible for ozone layer depletion and global
warming [123]. Because of these reasons, its application has become limited.
Evaporative cooling storage structure is an alternative of mechanical refrigeration
system [124].
Evaporative cooling storage system has numerous advantages over refrigeration
system, as it does not use refrigerant so it is eco-friendly (reduces CO2). It has also
some other advantages as discussed below:
• It does not make noise as there is no moving part.
• It does not use electricity, i.e., it saves energy.
• It does not require high initial investment, and operational cost is negligible.
• It can be quickly and easily installed as this is simple in design. Moreover, its
maintenance is easy.
• It can be constructed with locally available materials in remote area, and most
importantly, it is eco-friendly as it does not need chlorofluorocarbons
[124–127].
• Evaporative cooling decreases temperature and increases humidity, which is
a suitable combination of parameters for storage of agriculture produce [127,
128].
Evaporation is a simultaneous heat and mass transfer process. During evapora-
tion, moisture migrates from the surface of the food sample to its surrounding. The
water molecules with higher kinetic energy evaporate from the surface.
Consequently, the average energy of the remaining water molecules decreases sig-
nificantly that leads to a lower temperature at the exposed surface of the sample.
Due to this special consequence of decreasing temperature, this phenomenon is
coined as evaporative cooling.
12.1 Methods of Evaporative Cooling
The two common approaches consist of direct and indirect evaporative cooling.
12 Evaporative Cooling 105
12.1.1 Direct Cooling
Cooling air passes through a moist material where evaporation takes place and cool-
ing effect occurs in direct evaporative cooler (DEC). Then the cooled moist air is
directly permitted to transfer into the conditioned space. In contrary to this, in indi-
rect cooling practices, a certain form of heat exchanges that use the cool moist air is
produced through the evaporative cooling to lower the temperature of the drier air.
Then the exhaust from the indirect evaporative cooler, that is, the cool dry air, is
used to cool the environment, and after that the cool moist air is expelled [129].
To cool the water, direct evaporative cooling is usually used. This method typi-
cally uses a porous clay vessel or a watertight canvas bag in which water is kept.
These vessels are then either hung or placed so that the wind can flow over them.
This process of evaporation slowly cools the water. The mechanism of direct evapo-
rative cooling is displayed in Fig. 4.42.
12.1.2 Indirect Evaporative Cooling
The level of humidity in the air obtained from the direct cooling is very high, which
is unwanted for several applications. Indirect evaporative cooling can be utilized to
resolve this problem. In this method, the evaporative-cooled moist air cool the drier
air through heat exchanger. The resulting cool air is then used to cool the condi-
tioned space [130]. Each of the systems of indirect evaporative cooling necessitates
power to run both water pump and fans. Therefore, indirect evaporative cooling has
inadequate applications. The mechanism of indirect evaporative cooling is dis-
played in Fig. 4.43.
Fig. 4.42 Direct
evaporative cooling (DEC)
Wet pad
Warm air Cool air

Fig. 4.43 Indirect evaporative cooling (IDEC)
12.2 Application of Evaporative Cooler in Food Storage
Evaporative cooling has been used to store food products by numerous companies.
Both of the two methods of evaporative cooling are used to design the storage sys-
tem in different cases.
12.2.1 DEC for Preservation of Food
DEC is a very ancient method of cooling. This method is simply passing the inlet air
through a wet porous humidifier. Both dropping of the temperature and increasing
the humidity of the inlet air can be obtained by the direct evaporative cooling sys-
tem. There are numerous simple passive evaporative coolers that are accessible for
local farmers to preserve agricultural product [131]. Some of these cooling tech-
niques are pot in pot, static cooling chamber, charcoal cooler, and cabinet cooler.
Pot in Pot
As evaporative coolers consist of a wet porous bed, cooled and humidified air can
be attained to preserve food in a pot in pot arrangement [120]. An example of pot in
pot that is designed and developed by the Food and Nutrition Board of
12 Evaporative Cooling 107
Fig. 4.44 Schematic
diagram of an evaporative
cooling using wet porous
bed. Adapted from [133]
India has been shown in Fig. 4.44 [132]. The fundamental design comprises of a

storage pot positioned inside a bigger pot. The inner pot stores food; whereas, the
larger pot contain water to facilitate evaporative cooling phenomenon as dem-
ostrated in Fig. 4.45.
Static Cooling Chamber
The Indian Agricultural Research Institute constructs a cooling scheme that can be
constructed using locally obtainable materials, which is called static cooling system
[132]. Bricks and river sand are the basic components used to make this type of
cooler. However, a cover made from cane or other plant materials and sacks or cloth
can also be used in this type of cooler as represented in Fig. 4.46. Also, there must
be a close source of water. After completing the construction of the walls and floor,
the sand in the cavity is systematically saturated with water. When the chamber is
entirely wet, two-time daily scattering of water is done that is sufficient to sustain
the wetness and temperature of the chamber.
Charcoal Cooler
The charcoal cooler is made from an open timber frame as shown in Fig. 4.47. The
wooden frame of the system encompasses charcoal between two meshes. The char-
coal is sprayed with water; hence, the wetness provides an evaporative cooling
[135]. The top of the box is usually made from any solid and thatched to keep safe
the food from flying insects.
All cooling chambers should be placed in a shaded area with ensuring enogh expo-
sure of dry air. Airflow can be artificially created using a chimney the resulting draft
draws cool air into the cabinet situated below the chimney. Wire mesh shelves and
holes in the bottom of the raised cabinet ensure the free movement of air passing
over the stored food as shown in Fig. 4.47.
Fig. 4.45 Evaporative
cooling using wet porous
bed [133]
Fig. 4.46 A static cooling system [134]
Fig. 4.47 Charcoal cooler [136]

13 Frying 109
12.2.2 IDEC for Preservation of Food
By the help of the equipment design, the draft air is processed twice or more in
indirect evaporative cooling. They normally use precooler for the primary air before
passing it to the next stage of cooling [137]. Fundamentally, there are two categories
of indirect evaporative coolers. They are the dry and wet surface type. They are
categorized depending on the mode of heat and mass transfer process in the heat
exchangers [138].
Two-Stage Evaporative Cooler
A researcher developed an improved evaporative cooler named two-stage evapora-

tive cooler (TSEC) that can increase the efficiency of evaporative cooling for high
humidity and low-temperature air conditioning, which is represented in Fig. 4.48
and Fig. 4.49 [139]. In TSEC there are two evaporative cooling chambers and a heat
exchanger. There are several factors such as temperature drop, efficiency of the
evaporative cooling, and effectiveness of TSEC over a single evaporation, upon
which the performance of cooler has been evaluated. TSEC can reduce the tempera-
ture ranging from 8 °C to 16 °C.
It was detected that TSEC can decrease the temperature up to wet-bulb depres-
sion of ambient air. The effectiveness of the two-stage evaporative cooling was
found to be 1.1–1.2 over single evaporation. The two-stage evaporative cooler deliv-
ered the room conditions as 17–25 °C temperature and 50–75% relative humidity,
which may increase the shelf life of the extensive variety of fruits and vegetables
with reasonable respiration rates.
13 Frying
Frying is one of the extensively used and cost-effective food preservation tech-
niques [140]. Shelf life of foods including fruits and vegetables is extended along
with enriched flavors in frying process. Conversely, improper frying oil may have
injurious effects on the consumers’ health [141].
To maintain the quality and the shelf life of fruit and vegetables are converted
into chips by frying. Low moisture content makes the Chips long-lasting than fresh
fruits or vegetables [142]. Fruits which are turned into chips require technologi-
cal consideration to make the processed chips suitable for consumers. Vacuum fry-
ing is one of the ways which can produce healthy food without changing its original
form [143].There are generally two common types of frying that are practiced to
process foods, namely, traditional deep-fat frying and vacuum frying [144].
Fig. 4.48 Schematic diagram of a Two-stage evaporative cooler (TSEC). Adapted from [139]
Fig. 4.49 Two-stage
evaporative cooler (TSEC)
[139]
13 Frying 111
13.1 Deep-Fat Frying
Deep-fat frying is one of the ancient food preparation methods and is extensively
practiced in the food industries. Frying is a technique that is fundamentally the
immersion of food pieces in hot vegetable oil, at a temperature of above the boiling
point of water [145]. This condition enables higher proportions of heat transfer, to
facilitate water evaporation. Also, during the frying an oil layer covering the product
surface is created [146, 147]. To define the moisture evaporation and oil absorption
in deep-fat frying, numerous models have been formed [148–150]. There are differ-
ent frying operation variables controlling mass transfer in deep-fat frying, such as
oil temperature and frying time [151]. To retain all the flavors and juices by a crisp
crust, deep-fat frying seals the food by immersing it into hot oil [152, 153]. Frying
is usually done in atmospheric pressure at a high temperature. Throughout the deep-
fat frying process, food is rapidly cooked and browned, and the texture and flavor
are generated [154]. Consequently, deep-fat frying is frequently designated as a
technique for producing exceptional flavors, colors, and textures in processed foods.
Owing to the higher heat treatment, surface darkening and various additional
adverse responses could happen before the food is completely cooked [155].
Usually, frying temperature may range from 130 °C to 190 °C, but the most com-
mon temperatures are 170–190 °C.
Fish is preserved after deep frying in many developing countries including
Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, and Nigeria, which is shown in Fig. 4.50 [157–159].
13.2 Vacuum Frying
Vacuum frying is a favorable tool which can be a significant option for the produc-
tion of novel snacks, for instance, fruit and vegetable chips, that deliver the desired
quality attributes and respond to new health trends [160]. Although fruits and veg-
etables are the essential sources of vitamins and antioxidants, the average
Fig. 4.50 Preservation of food by deep frying [156]

consumption rate of these foods is decreasing in modern societies due to the early
decay and rather high price [161]. Fruits and vegetables have higher sugar content
and are heat sensitive; therefore, they are typically burned in the temperature of
normal frying process. These foods lose their normal colors and tastes if they are
fried at low temperature [162].
To solve this problem, vacuum frying can be a substantial option as it can be
performed at low temperatures and minimal exposure to oxygen [163]. By doing
this, the anticipated crispy texture and higher nutritional value products can be
obtained [163]. Food is heated in a low pressure to attain reduced boiling points of
frying oil [152]. When the oil temperature reaches the boiling point of water, then
the water may be removed from the fried food quickly. As the food is heated at a
lower temperature and oxygen content, colors and tastes may be preserved in supe-
rior condition in vacuum-fried food [164, 165]. The nonexistence of air throughout
the frying process may constrain the oxidation comprised of lipid oxidation and
enzymatic browning; hence, the color and nutrients of food may be extensively
preserved [166, 167].
Dehydrated food produced by vacuum frying may have crunchy texture, decent
color, taste, and better retention of nutrients. Moreover, vacuum frying reduces the
negative effects caused by the oil [168]. Fig. 4.51 shows the schematic of the vac-
uum frying system.
In many developing countries, frying is followed after sun drying. For instance,
sun-dried camel meats are cut into small pieces before frying for long-time preser-
vation in Somalia.
Fig. 4.51 Schematic of the vacuum frying system [169]

14 Storage 113
14 Storage
Many varities of food storage techniques are practiced in individual and commercial
scale in the developing countries of the world [87–89]. However, most of modern
storage facilities are highly energy-intensive and not sustainable for the food stor-
age in developing countries. On the other hand, there are some traditional systems
used in the developing countries of the world, where food can be left without special
storage arrangements up to less than a day to several months depending on their
perishability as shown in Table 4.6 [170].
Probably as old as drying, it is one of the ways the villagers in Ha-Makuya used
to preserve farm products. Usually, onions, tomatoes, mangoes, oranges, and sweet
potatoes are kept under the shade after harvesting, particularly by hanging them
under the tree to ensure maximum shade cover [171].
14.1 Underground Storage
There are some indigenous techniques of food storage comprised of storing in bas-
kets, and storing cocoyam and potatoes in the soil to inhibit spoilage. Diverse tradi-
tional approaches of storage, for instance, heap storage, in-ground storage, and
platform and pit storage systems, have been practiced in Nigeria and other African
countries. However, the most common traditional technique is the pit storage. Pit
storage of food including sweet potatoes has been reported in Indonesia, Zimbabwe,
and Malawi by Woolfe [172] and in Nigeria by Awojobi [173]. Pit storage is com-
monly considered economical for the rural communities since it necessitates least
amount of materials.
Sandifolo et al. [174] stated that the chemical composition of sweet potatoes is
not much affected after 4 months of storage. According to Yakubu [175], the pit
storage technique seemed to be the best traditional process because deteriorations
such as sprouting moisture loss and pathological losses are minimal compared with
other storage approaches. This approves the earlier results of Mbeza and Kwapata
(1995) who correspondingly specified that in Malawi the pit storage technique is the
most common traditional technique of sweet potato storage [176]. This pit is called
Table 4.6 Storage life of some fresh foods at normal atmospheric conditions [171]
Food Terminology Storage life
Meat, fish, and milk Perishable 1–2 days
Fruits and vegetables Semi-perishable 1–2 weeks
Root crops Semi-perishable 3–4 weeks
Grains, pulses, seeds, and nuts Nonperishable 12 months
Fig. 4.52 Traditional storage structures commonly used by the farmers in Bangladesh [170]
nkhuti, and they facilitate the preservation of their sweetness and might be used for
storage for 1 year [177]. Fig. 4.52 presents the traditional storage structures that are
generally used by farmers in the developing countries of the world like Bangladesh.
However, in the following section, a snapshot of the available food storage tech-
niques of Bangladesh has been presented. The people of remote areas are the main
practitioner of traditional food storage systems. Container, mud silos, and bamboo
silos are also introduced in different parts of Bangladesh hoping to receive better
storing results.
Moreover, implementation of silo also helps to protect the preserved foods from
insects. Among the different types of silos, mud silos are mainly used in the rural
areas of Bangladesh as represented in Fig. 4.53. Mud silos are more suitable for the
dry tropics as these allow moisture migration from outside through the wall, which
may increase the possibility of fungal growth. The moisture injection into the silos
14 Storage 115
Fig. 4.53 Silos (a) mud (b) bamboo
can be prohibited by mixing cement with the clay. Additionally, painting or coating

of the outer wall can offer the same better outcome.
Mud silos should be protected from the heavy rainwater; otherwise, it will be
damaged. Mud silos are easy to construct compared with the other silos. To store the
commodities in dry and wet season properly, brick and cement silos are used. They
also need the roof support and the protection from the floor [178]. The bamboo silos
are suitable for maize cobs are made of bamboo for leg and side support and for roof
support, palm leaf, as well as thatching grass, are used. This construction is suitable
during the time when the moisture level is decreasing daily by 70% especially dur-
ing the low rainfall season. In this case, the drying process is occurring continuously
due to the natural ventilation. But it is not so safe from the attacks of the insects
[178].
Taken all the limitations into consideration, warehouses and godowns are now
available in the different cities of Bangladesh [179]. Cold storage, as shown in
Fig. 4.54, is the most implemented and preferable method for storing perishable
commodities including dairy products in Bangladesh [180, 181].
In recent years, so many government and private warehouses, silos, and depots
have been installed in Bangladesh. Every warehouse is designed for particular types
of commodities depending on their storage time and the type of product, although
their ultimate goal of preserving the commodities remains the same.
More or less the country is provided with warehouses for the seasonal and emer-
gency storing purpose. There is a total of 5 silos, 13 central storage depots (CSD),
and 600 local supply depots (LSD) situated at strategic locations all across the coun-
try [182].
Fig. 4.54 Cold warehouses. Adapted from [181]
15 Jam and Jelly
Jam and jellies are products prepared mainly from fruits; however, they may corre-
spondingly be prepared from some vegetables such as sweet potatoes, tomatoes,
carrots, and some legumes. Jam and jelly making are also known as homemade heat
treatment-based food preservation method. Jam is cooked fruit that is usually boiled
with 65% sugar. The basic principle of preserving food by sugar is described in the
subsequent section
• Sugar dissolved in food forms a solution with a low water concentration.
• Microbial cells have a high water concentration, and the cells are enclosed by a
semipermeable membrane.
• The water is drawn out of the microbial cells by osmosis, and the cells are dehy-
drated and destroyed.
Figure 4.55 represents the principles of preservation of food by sugar. In jam
making four basic principles are usually followed:
• High temperatures are used to destroy enzymes and microbes in the fruit.
• Jam is sealed in pots to prevent reentry of microbes.
• 65% sugar prevents microbes from growing in jam once opened.
• Pectin, acid, and sugar make jam set.
A simple formula is used to calculate the formulation to attain a jam or a jelly.
The mass of product attained for a particular mixture of fruit or fruit juice and sugar
is calculated by the following equation. Typically, an identical amount of fruit and
sugar is mixed at the start of the method: if less sugar is used, more water must be
evaporated, and a reduced yield will be attained.
However, jam and jelly are not a suitable product for patients who have glycemic
problems, obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases as these are very high
energy-intensive products. Therefore, producing jam and jelly with low sugar con-
tents can be a substantial solution to this issue. However, special types of pectin are
required without which there would have been a significant problem in product
texture, stability, and uniformity.
References 117
Fig. 4.55 Principle of preservation of food by sugar. Adapted from [183]
There are various food preservation techniques practiced in developing coun-

tries. These techniques are based on trial-and-error experiments that have taken
place for generations. Although there are many advantages in traditional preserva-
tion systems, huge scope of improvement prevailed. The challenges in traditional
food preservation techniques and their potential solutions are discussed in the pro-
ceeding chapters.
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Chapter 4

Food Preservation Techniques

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 67

Microbiological Enzymatic Chemical Physical Mechanical

Fig. 4.1 Major quality loss mechanisms in food

Fig. 4.2 Major principle of food preservation

Blanching is the pretreatment of different types of food processing systems includ-

Method of Method of Description

Baking • Cooking carried out in an oven

Boiling • Using boiling water

Fat Frying • Using hot fat

Infrared Infrared • Using Infrared radiation

Microw Microwave • Using microwaves

Fig. 4.3 Different processes of cooking method

blanching destroys microorganism to an appreciable extent and expels intercellular

Fig. 4.4 Overall effect on different quality attributes of blanching [14–17]

Fig. 4.5 Types of

Water blanching is accomplished in hot water at temperatures ranging from

Fig. 4.6 Typical blanching

1.2.1 Microwave Blanching

In developing countries, people seldom consume canned foods. It may be due to

Intra-EU Developing Countries Rest of the world

Fig. 4.8 Steps in canning of fish

foods. Eventually, elementing all existing microorganisms and obtaining a harmless

Microbial growth is significantly affected by temperature. Below the lower opti-

Deep or quick freezing

Cold storage Bulking

Fig. 4.10 Types of low-temperature techniques

3.1 Cold Storage Using Cold Room

Boxing is accomplished by laying fish on a thick ice at the lowermost section of a

Fig. 4.11 Advantages of proper boxing

Fig. 4.13 Food preservation by bulking. Adapted from [30]

modestly hinders the advancement of microorganisms and decelerates the chemical

Harvesting and transportation

Factory gate inspection

Utensils for Preparation

Hot water Blanching

Freezer Packages Cold-storage and packaging

Table 4.1 Storage life of Temperature

for example, transportation of landed fish to nearby markets or to canning factories,

Superchilling is one of the low-temperature preservation systems that maintains

3.4.1 Superchilling Technologies

higher in the impingement freezer compared to the conventional freezers [55–58].

4.1 Sun Drying

Fig. 4.16 Classification of food drying

Fig. 4.17 Heat transfer

Fig. 4.18 Sun drying of food

4.2 Spray Drying

4.3 Hot-Air Drying

Solar radiation is a great source of heat; however, there is uncertainty of energy

4.4 Solar Drying

In food processing fermentation can be considered as a process, whereby using

Fig. 4.21 Schematic diagram of a solar dryer [66]

Table 4.2 The benefits of fermentation

Raw materials Stability Safety Nutritive Acceptability

Definite Usually some Some cases of No

Fig. 4.22 Types of fermentation

Used to leaven Alcohol based Exploited to

Fig. 4.23 Use of fermented products

1.2.1 Microwave Blanching

3.1 Cold Storage Using Cold Room

3.4.1 Superchilling Technologies

4.1 Sun Drying

4.2 Spray Drying

4.3 Hot-Air Drying

4.4 Solar Drying

8.1 Method of Working

11.1 Types of Packing Materials

11.2 Vacuum Packaging

12 Evaporative Cooling

12.1 Methods of Evaporative Cooling

12.1.1 Direct Cooling

12.1.2 Indirect Evaporative Cooling

12.2 Application of Evaporative Cooler in Food Storage

12.2.1 DEC for Preservation of Food

12.2.2 IDEC for Preservation of Food

13.1 Deep-Fat Frying

13.2 Vacuum Frying

14.1 Underground Storage

15 Jam and Jelly