INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY & goal: to maintain a relatively constant internal enviro-

PHYSIOLOGY nment

Anatomy Physiology Four Interacting Components of most Homeostatic

structure of an organism function of an organism Mechanisms:
(what does it look like?) (what does it do?)
Stimulus → Receptor → Control Center → Effector
Structural and Functional Organization
1. Stimulus - Indicates that the value of the variable has
Chemical Atoms combine to form molecules. deviated from the set point/-normal range.
Level 2. Receptor - Monitors the value and sends data to the
Cell Level Molecules form organelles, such as the control center.
nucleus and mitochondria, which make 3. Control Center - Establishes the set point.
up cells. 4. Effector - Acts on the signal from the control center to
Tissue Level A group of similar cells and the materials move the variable back to the set point.
surrounding them.
Organ Level Two or more tissue types that together HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISMS
perform one or more common functions.
Organ A group of organs classified as one unit Negative Feedback Positive Feedback
System Level because of a common function/set of Serves to reduce an Serves to intensify a
functions. excess response and response until endpoint is
Organism Any living thing considered as a whole. keep a variable within the reached.
Level normal range.

Levels of Organization The response stops the The response keeps the
effector. reaction going.
Chemical → Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Ex. Temperature & blood Ex. Childbirth & blood
Organism pressure regulation clotting

8 Necessary Life Functions (Human)

1. maintain boundaries: inside is separate from the

outside
2. movement: whole body and cellular level
3. responsiveness/irritability: sense and respond to
changes in the enviro-nment
4. digestion: breaking down food to nutrients
5. metabolism: breaking down and building molecules
for energy
6. excretion: remove wastes from the body Positive Feedback vs. Negative Feedback
7. reproduction: cellular or organismal level
8. growth: cellular or organismal level
Positive Feedback
initial stimulus produces a response that exaggerates or
Characteristics of Life
enhances its effects; less common
ex) labor and delivery
Organization The scientific interrelationships among
the parts of an organism and how those
parts interact to perform specific
functions.
Metabolism The ability to use energy to perform vital
functions.
Responsiv- The ability of an organism to sense
eness changes in the environment and make
the adjustments that help maintain its
life.
Growth Refers to an increase in size of all or part
of the organism.
Develo- Changes an organism undergoes
pment through time.
Reprod- Formation of new cells or new Positive Feedback (labor & delivery)
uction organisms.
Negative Feedback
Homeostasis when the effector(s) activated by the control center
"homeo-" = same oppose or eliminate stimulus
"-stasis" = standing or status ex) blood sugar regulation
 Negative Feedback (blood sugar regulation)

The Language of Anatomy

Regional Terms: Posterior View

special terminology is used to prevent
misunderstandings
exact terms are used for: cephalic: otic: ear occipital: back of
head head or base of
• position
skull
• regions
acromial: vertebral: spinal scapular:
• direction point of column shoulder blade
• structures shoulder
lumbar: loin brachial: arm olecranal: back
Regional Terms: Anterior View of elbow
dorsum/do- manus: hand sacral: between
axial: head, neck, and trunk rsal: back hips
appendicular: appendages or limbs gluteal: perineal: region femoral: thigh
nasal: nose oral: mouth cervical: neck buttock between anus and
frontal: forehead orbital: eye buccal: cheek external genitalia
mental: chin acromial: point of axillary: armpit popliteal: sural: calf calcaneal: heel
shoulder back of knee
abdominal: sternal: thoracic: chest plantar: sole
abdomen breastbone
mammary: breast umbilical: naval brachial: arm
(belly button)
antecubital: front antebrachial: carpal: wrist
of elbow forearm
pollex: thumb palmar: palm digital: fingers
coxal: hip pelvic: pelvis inguinal: groin
pubic: genital femoral: thigh patellar:
region anterior knee
crural: leg fibular/peroneal: pedal: foot
side of leg
tarsal: ankle digital: toes hallux: big toe

Superior (Orientation and Directional Term)

toward the head end or upper part of a structure of the

body; above
ex) the forehead is superior to the nose
Inferior (Orientation and Directional Term) Superficial (Orientation and Directional Term)

also known as caudal toward or at the body surface

away from the head end or toward the lower part of a ex) the skin is superficial to the skeleton
structure or the body; below
ex) the navel is inferior to the breastbone Deep (Orientation and Directional Term)

Anterior (Orientation and Directional Term) away from the body surface; more internal
ex) the lungs are deep to the rib cage
also known as ventral
toward or at the front of the body; in front of Body Cavities
ex) the breastbone is anterior to the spine
dorsal body cavity ventral body cavity
Posterior (Orientation and Directional Term) ~cranial cavity (brain) ~thoracic cavity (lungs)

also known as dorsal ~spinal cavity (spinal ~abdominopelvic cavity

toward or at the backside of the body; behind cord)
ex) the heart is posterior to the breastbone
~~abdominal cavity
Medial (Orientation and Directional Term) (abdomen)
~~pelvic cavity (pelvis)
toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side
of
ex) the heart is medial to the arm

Lateral (Orientation and Directional Term)

away from the midline of the body; on the outer side

of
ex) the arms are lateral to the chest

Intermediate (Orientation and Directional Term)

between a more medial and a more lateral structure

ex) the armpit is intermediate between the breastbone
and shoulder
Planes

Sagittal Plane Divides the body into left and right

sides (vertically)
Median Passes through the midline of the
Plane/Mid-Sa- body; divides the body into left and
gittal Plane right halves
Parasagittal Parallel to the sagittal plane, but off
Plane to one side
Frontal/Coronal Divides the body into front and
Plane back (vertically)
Transverse/Hori- Divides the body into top and
zontal Plane bottom (horizontally)
Proximal (Orientation and Directional Term)

close to the origin of the body part or the point of

attachment of a limb to the body trunk
ex) the elbow is proximal to the wrist (elbow is closer to
shoulder or attachment point of arm than wrist is)

Distal (Orientation and Directional Term)

farther from the origin of a body part or the point of

attachment of a limb to the body trunk
ex) the knee is distal to the thigh
Body Planes
 INTERGUMETARY SYSTEM
anatomy: physiology:
skin 1) barrier against infection (first line
of defense)
~epidermis 2) helps regulate body temperature
~dermis 3) removes excretory waste (urea,
water)
~~sweat gland 4) protects against sun's UV rays
~~sebaceous 5) produces vitamin D
gland
~~hair follicle
~~blood vessels
~~nerves

Abdominal Quadrants & Regions

Serous Membranes

• Serous membranes - Secrete fluid that fills the space

between the parietal and visceral membranes. The
serous membranes protect organs from friction.
• Serous membranes lining the thoracic cavity:
• Heart: Pericardial cavity - visceral & parietal perica-
rdium - pericardial fluid
• Lungs: Pleural cavity - visceral & parietal pleura -
pleural fluid. MUSCULAR SYSTEM
• Serous membranes lining the abdominopelvic
cavity: anatomy: physiology:
• Peritoneal cavity - visceral & parietal cardiac muscle 1) allows for movement by contracting
• Peritoneum - peritoneal fluid smooth muscle
skeletal muscle
tendons
\

Mesenteries & Retroperitoneal Organ

• Mesenteries - Are parts of the peritoneum that hold the
abdominal organs in place and provide a passageway
for blood vessels and nerves to organs.
• Retroperitoneal organs - Are found behind the parietal
peritoneum and consists of the kidneys, adrenal glands,
pancreas, parts of the intestines, and the urinary
bladder.

Human Body Systems

Integumentary Lymphatic
Skeletal Circulatory SKELETAL SYSTEM
Muscular Respiratory anatomy: physiology:
Immune Digestive bones 1) protects organs
Nervous Reproductive cartilage 2) provides shape, support
Endocrine Excretory ligaments 3) stores materials (fats, minerals)
4) produces blood cells
5) allows movement
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
anatomy: physiology:
glands (produce 1) regulates body activities using
hormones) hormones. slow response, long
lasting
~hypothalamus
~pituitary
~thyroid
~thymus
~adrenal
~pancreas
~ovaries
~testes

NERVOUS SYSTEM
anatomy: physiology:
brain 1) gathers and interprets information
spinal cord 2) responds to information
nerves 3) helps maintain homeostasis
hypothalamus

IMMUNE SYSTEM
anatomy: physiology:
white blood 1) fights off foreign invaders in the
cells body
~T cells
~B cells (produce antibodies)
~macrophages
skin

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
anatomy: physiology:
lymph (liquid part of 1) stores and carries white blood
blood - plasma, when cells that fight disease
it is in lymph vessels)
lymph vessels 2) collects excess fluid and
returns it to blood (second circul-
atory system - reaches places
other one can't - between cells)
lymph nodes
contain white blood cells
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
anatomy: physiology:
mouth 1) take in food (ingestion)
esophagus 2) digest food into smaller molecules and
absorb nutrients
small 3) remove undigested food from body
intestine (feces)
large intestine
rectum
anus
salivary glands
pancreas
liver
gallbladder

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
anatomy: physiology:
heart 1) transport materials to and from
cells
veins
arteries
capillaries
blood

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
anatomy: physiology:
ovaries 1) allows organisms to reproduce which
(produce eggs) prevents their species from becoming
extinct
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM testes (produce sperm)
anatomy: physiology:
nose 1) takes in oxygen and removes
carbon dioxide and water
trachea
bronchi
bronchioles
alveoli
lungs

EXCRETORY SYSTEM
anatomy: physiology:
kidneys 1) removes waste products from
cellular metabolism (urea, water,
carbon dioxide)
ureters 2) filters blood
bladder
urethra
lungs
skin (sweat glands)
liver (produces urea)
 MRI
full name: magnetic resonance imaging
how does it work? magnetic energy causes the spin of
hydrogen molecules, and their energy is enhanced by
radio waves; when the radio waves are turned off,
energy is released and translated by a computer into a
visual image
what does it show? dense structures do not show and
soft tissue, like the brain, can be evaluated
when is it used? to evaluate soft tissue, brain, intervert-
ebral pads and cartilage to detect degenerative disease

COMMON DIAGNOSTIC TESTS

ULTRASOUND
full name: ultrasonography
how does it work? high frequency sound waves are its
energy source; the sound waves go through the tissues
without harming them, and the echoes are recorded
what does it show? it shows visual images of body
organs
when is it used? preferred method for fetal evaluation

FMRI
full name: functional magnetic resonance imaging
how does it work? follows blood flow in the brain in real
time
what does it show? shows brain activity
when is it used? to diagnose brain disease; cannot be
used in the presence of metal in the body, pacemakers,
and tooth fillings

CT SCAN
full name: computed tomography
how does it work? different tissues absorb the electr-
omagnetic radiation in various amount
what does it show? shows cross sectional pictures of the
body region scanned
when is it used? used to evaluate brain and abdominal
problems without the need of exploratory surgery

X-RAY
full name: radiograph
how does it work? shadowy negative image of internal
structures produced by directing electromagnetic waves
of very short wavelength at the body
what does it show? best to visualize hard, body
structures and locate abnormally dense structures
(tumors, tuberculosis nodules) in the lungs and breasts
when is it used? to diagnose fractures and dense tumors

PET SCAN
full name: positron emission tomography
how does it work? requires an injection of short-lived
radioisotopes that have been tagged to biological
molecules (ie. glucose) in order to view metabolic
processes
what does it show? provides insights into brain activity
in people affected by mental illness, Alzheimer's
disease, and epilepsy
when is it used? to diagnose areas of impairment in the
brain