Morphing

A Guide to Mathematical
Transformations for
Architects and Designers

Joseph Choma
To Ting-Ting
Morphing
A Guide to Mathematical
Transformations for
Architects and Designers

Joseph Choma
Contents

006 Introduction

014 Transformations 074 Combining 122 Combining

Transformations Shapes

018 Shaping 078 Cutting and Spiralling 126 A Mound

022 Translating 082 Scaling and Spiralling 128 A Meandering Mound

026 Cutting 086 Modulating and Spiralling 130 A Leaning Mound

030 Rotating 090 Spiralling and Ascending 132 A Steeper Mound

034 Reflecting 094 Texturing and Spiralling 134 A Creased Mound

038 Scaling 098 Bending and Spiralling 136 A Creased and

Pinched Mound
042 Modulating 102 Spiralling and Bending 138 A Wedge
046 Ascending 106 Pinching and Spiralling 140 A Ridge and Trench
050 Spiralling 110 Flattening and Spiralling 142 Two Ridges
054 Texturing 114 Spiralling and Flattening 144 Another Ridge and Trench
058 Bending 118 Spiralling and Thickening 146 A Valley
062 Pinching 148 Moguls
066 Flattening

070 Thickening

004
 150 Analyzing 196 Developable 220 Assumptions
Surfaces

154 Japan Pavilion 200 Plane to Cylinder 228 Bibliography

– Shigeru Ban Architects
202 Cylinder with Ascending
160 UK Pavilion
– Heatherwick Studio 204 Cylinder with Texturing 231 Acknowledgments
and Ascending
166 Mur Island
– Acconci Studio 206 Cylinder with Flattening,
Texturing and Ascending
172 Son-O-House
– NOX/Lars Spuybroek 208 Cylinder with Modulating,
Flattening and Texturing
178 Ark Nova
– Arata Isozaki and 210 Plane to Cone
Anish Kapoor
212 Cone with Spiralling
184 Looptecture F
– Endo Shuhei 214 Cone with Spiralling
Architect Institute and Texturing

190 Mercedes-Benz Museum 216 Cone with Spiralling,

– UNStudio Texturing and Modulating

218 Cone with Spiralling,

Texturing and More
Modulating

005
Introduction

‘The way in which a problem is

decomposed imposes fundamental
constraints on the way in which people
attempt to solve that problem.’

(Rodney Brooks, 1999)

006
A shape can be defined as anything with If a shape maintains its topological
a geometric boundary. Yet, when continuity, it can be defined by a single
describing a shape with mathematics, equation. A break in continuity, such as
precision is crucial. a sharp edge, requires another equation
to define the other ‘part’.
Dictionaries define words, but these
words do not necessarily define our Breaking continuity and having sharp
understanding of the world in which we edges can create aesthetic effects
perceive and create. The word ‘cube’ is that allow curves to be expressed in
defined as a shape whose boundary is a more objectified manner. Breaking
composed of six congruent square faces. the continuity of a shape can also
Imagine cutting six square pieces of sometimes facilitate the fabrication
paper and gluing the edges together. of particular geometries out of flat
The cube, in this case, is created by six sheet material. However, the scope
square planes. In mathematics, these of this guide has been constrained to
planes are considered discrete elements. the definition of shapes with a single
Because each plane in the paper cube parametric equation.
meets the others at a sharp edge,
technically they are not connected, but A parametric equation is one way of
are separate parts, each defined by a defining values of coordinates (x, y, z)
unique parametric equation. for shapes with parameters (u, v, w).
All of the mathematical equations in
Now, imagine a ball of clay. Roll it this guide are presented as parametric
around on the tabletop to make it into equations. Think of x, y and z as
a sphere. To flatten it into a cube, the dimensions in the Cartesian coordinate
ball can be simply compressed in system – like a three-dimensional grid.
multiple directions (rather than forming Think of u, v and w as a range of values
six planar sides that are joined together, or parameters rather than a single
as above). Gradually, the sphere could integer. A single integer would be like a
transform into a six-sided shape. single point along a line, while the range
Most physical cubes in the world have (u, v or w) would define the end points
a certain degree of rounded corners. of that line and then draw all the points
If we accept this definition for a cube, between them.
then a cube could be defined with one
parametric equation. The framework
that is used becomes critical to
deciding how to go about defining
a shape mathematically.

007
Introduction

Why trigonometry?

Tools inherently constrain the way The designer is no longer designing

individuals design; however, designers within a black box, but rather within
are often unaware of their tools’ a transparent box.
influences and biases. Digital tools in
particular are becoming increasingly Because mathematical models can be
complex and filled with hierarchical based on a global Cartesian coordinate
symbolic heuristics, creating a black box system, the designer can constantly
in which designers do not understand redefine a shape by redefining its
what is ‘under the hood’ of the tools parametric equations, avoiding the
they ‘drive’. Many contemporary digital chore of telling the computer how to
tools use a fixed symbolic interface, like redraw it every time. For example, a
a visual dictionary. When a designer smooth continuous surface can be
wants to create a sphere, he or she confined to the boundary of a cube with
clicks on the sphere icon and draws a a single transformation. Designers can
radius. The resulting sphere, defined by a begin to think and manipulate in a less
single symbol, can only be manipulated linear fashion and constantly redefine
as a whole. Like a ball of clay, the sphere the ‘world’ that they create and perceive.
can be stretched, twisted and pulled. The Cartesian coordinate system
becomes a blank canvas at which any
If, however, the shape had been defined type of paint can be thrown!
by a parametric equation, it would be
defined by a rule-based logic that This pedagogical guide embraces the
encompasses both the whole sphere thought that all shapes could potentially
and its parts. When the designer be described by the trigonometric
manipulates the shape’s trigonometry functions of sine and cosine. But the
(or ‘DNA’), it becomes clear that he utility of this guide does not depend on
or she has a new range of geometric whether that idea is true or not: this
freedom that could not have been guide does not invent a new field of
imagined in the other framework. mathematics, but develops a cognitive
Since the designer can manipulate the narrative within the existing discipline,
smallest building blocks of the shapes, emphasizing the interconnected and
understanding how each function plastic nature of shapes. Within this
influences a particular transformation guide, sine and cosine are the only
becomes straightforward. functions that are examined.

008
A word of warning: trigonometry may Functions (in mathematics) associate an
seem like the tool of a designer’s input (independent variable) with an
dreams, but just because every shape output (dependent variable). For
could be potentially described by example if x→y, x would be considered
trigonometric functions does not mean the independent variable while y would
that it is necessarily easy to make every be considered the dependent variable.
shape. It is important to remember that The function would be what makes x
all tools have biases, even mathematics. map to y. In trigonometry, sine and
For instance, in order to make a cube cosine are functions. Note that
with a single parametric equation one trigonometric functions are a type of
must first make a sphere; therefore, periodic functions, whose values repeat
shapes that are initially round become in regular periods or intervals.
easier to produce.
A pedagogical guide is neither purely a
A tool is a device that augments an technical reference nor a theoretical text,
individual’s ability to perform a but rather the teaching of an inquiry
particular task. through a series of instructional
frameworks.
In this context, heuristics refers to the
strategies used to solve problems within
software. Think of heuristics as the rules
that govern how a machine ‘thinks’ and
calculates solutions.

009
Introduction

A point of view

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 2π } As we circle around an object, our be difficult to comprehend in their

perceptual understanding of it is entirety because of this singular view.
x = sin(u)10(cos(v))
y = sin(v)+cos(u)10(cos(v)) transformed. We move in dialogue
z = cos(v)+10(sin(v))sin(u) with the observed object, as in a dance In the series above, there are four
performance. Similarly, the pages within distinct shapes. On paper, they look
this book document shapes according different; however, they are defined by
to particular, chosen perspectives. Most the same mathematical formula. As an
of the shapes within this guide are three individual moves around the object
dimensional, but their representation is anti-clockwise, the shape begins to
constrained to the two-dimensional reveal an illusion. Initially, the shape
plane of the page. Some shapes may appears to be rectangles overlapping

010
one another. Then, diamond-like shapes this guide, points of view remain
appear. Eventually, the diamond-like constant within each morphing
shapes shrink and disappear, as the series. However, the selected views
perimeter of the shape transforms into influence the visual documentation of
a circle. each mathematical description.

The selection of a particular view may

seem trivial, but it is not. As with any
scientific recording, the point of view
from which data is presented biases the
understanding of its contents. Within

011
Introduction

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(v)
y = u+u(sin(v)sin(u))
z = sin(v)cos(u)

012
Boundaries

A boundary is anything that defines The shape is not recognizable or defined

a limit. Numerically, determining a within the dictionary, yet it shares the
boundary may be straightforward, but cylinder’s front- and top-view boundary
perceptually it is often more ambiguous. profiles: the top view of the shape is a
rectangle, while its front view is a circle.
Spheres, cylinders, helicoids and cones The seemingly foreign shape appears
are all shapes that, when viewed from familiar because of its profile
one direction, share a circular profile. projections.
Embedded within each of their
mathematical DNA are the same As shapes transform throughout this
functions, which define a circle. guide, visualize the shape’s two-
Throughout this guide, simple, known dimensional projections. Like an
shapes are transformed into many architect’s dissection of a building with
shapes which have never been plan, section and elevation, complex
visualized before. But by starting with shapes can be simplified by analyzing
a basic shape, such as a cylinder or parts of their parametric equation. As
sphere, the boundary condition of the the coordinates (x, y, z) within the
resultant shape could maintain the equation are altered, the projections will
initial signature of the ancestor. change; which coordinate is altered will
determine which projection will change.
For example, the shape on the left
was a sphere which morphed under Mathematical transformations refer to
a spiralling and then ascending the categorized rules for manipulating
mathematical transformation. The shapes with mathematical operations.
result is a self-intersecting surface, Throughout this book, the names of
which is bounded inside a cylinder. transformations and other operations
that are discussed in detail are set in
italics for ease of reference.

013
Transformations
Transformations

‘Evidently, there is scarcely anything that

one can say about a “single sensation”
by itself, but we can often say much more
when we can make comparisons.’

(Marvin Minsky, 1985)

016
We all know what a ball is. A ball is a Although this guide challenges words
sphere. But when a ball is compressed, and definitions, each mathematical
it is no longer a sphere, but a squished transformation is labelled with a verb.
sphere. The known shape has The words are not always perfect, but
transformed into an undefined shape. they are used as placeholders. These
Rather than describing arbitrary shapes placeholders allow me to reference and
with mathematics, known shapes are write about different transformations
utilized as consistent starting-points throughout this guide without explicitly
within this chapter. Think of this restating the mathematics. The words
chapter and the others that follow as a labelling each transformation are more
collection of design experiments. Within like nicknames for the mathematics,
this framework, the sine curve, circle, rather than the mathematics defining
cylinder or sphere is the initial starting the word.
shape for each morphing series.
They are the constants, while the Each of these transformations is
mathematical transformations are revealed through a morphing series; like
the variables. motion-capture photography, each
shape is recorded as it is transformed
Thirteen mathematical transformations iteratively by the same operation. Under
are introduced: translating, cutting, each shape in the series is a parametric
rotating, reflecting, scaling, modulating, equation that defines a particular
ascending, spiralling, texturing, bending, instance. As the shape transforms, look
pinching, flattening and thickening. at the equation below it. In the rule or
logic behind the change in the equation,
you can find the transformation.

017
Transformations

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u)
y = sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v)

018
Shaping

Within shaping, the four starting shapes are introduced:

a sine curve, circle, cylinder and sphere. A sine curve and circle
are defined with two coordinates (x, y), while three-dimensional
shapes (cylinder and sphere) are defined by x, y and z.
A sine curve is simply defined by a function of sine and the
u-parameter. A circle is defined by a function of sine and cosine.
The v-parameter allows the circle to transform into a surface:
a cylinder is an extruded circle, or a circle with a z-coordinate
value of v. A cylinder can easily morph into a helix, helicoid,
cone or sphere.

019
Transformations Shaping

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x=u x=u x=u x = cos(u)

y=0 y = cos(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(u)

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π/3 } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 2π/3 } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(u)
z = v z = v z = v

020
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = v(cos(u)) x = v(cos(u))

y = sin(u) y = sin(u) y = v(sin(u)) y = v(sin(u))
z = v z = u z = u z = v

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u)
z = v z = v z = v z = cos(v)

021
Transformations

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = 1+sin(v)cos(u)
y = 1+sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v)

022
Translating

A coffee mug is lifted off a table. The mug still appears to be

the same shape. Physically, the material of the mug has not
transformed; however, its location is different. According to
mathematics, the location of a shape is part of the shape’s
inherent DNA. Throughout this guide, parametric equations
include: coordinates (x, y, z), parameters (u, v, w) and functions
(sine, cosine). Parameters and functions define the value of the
coordinates, and the coordinates define the locations of the
shape’s points in space. If an integer is added to a particular
coordinate, the shape moves in that direction. Remember, the
parametric equation is the DNA of any given shape. Forget
about words and definitions! If the equation changes, so does
the shape. Not all spheres have the same mathematical
description.

023
Transformations Translating

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x=u x=u x = 1+u x = 1+u

y = sin(u) y = 1+sin(u) y = sin(u) y = 1+sin(u)

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = 1+cos(u) x = 1+cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = 1+sin(u) y = sin(u) y = 1+sin(u)

024
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = 1+cos(u) x = 1+cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = 1+sin(u) y = sin(u) y = 1+sin(u)
z = v z = v z = v z = v

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = 1+sin(v)cos(u) x = 1+sin(v)cos(u)

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = 1+sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u) y = 1+sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

025
Transformations

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u)
y = sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v)

026
Cutting

A curve is defined by a series of points. The points on the curve

are described as a range of values. The limits of this range are
defined by the two end points on the curve. In the parametric
equations that follow, there are two parameters (u, v), which
control these end points. The u-parameter ‘sees’ only the local
curves, which define a particular shape, while the v-parameter
‘sees’ the elevations of the entire shape. For example, in the
case of the cylinder, the v-parameter would see a rectangle,
while the u-parameter would see a circle. Limiting the numerical
range of the parameters (u and v) will effectively cut the shape.

027
Transformations Cutting

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 3π/2 } {u|0≤u≥π} { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ π/2 }

x=u x=u x=u x=u

y = sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(u)

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 3π/2 } {u|0≤u≥π} { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ π/2 }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(u)

028
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 3π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(u)
z = v z = v z = v z = v

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 3π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u)

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

029
Transformations

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u)
y = cos(π/2)sin(v)sin(u)-sin(π/2)cos(v)
z = sin(π/2)sin(v)sin(u)+cos(π/2)cos(v)

030
Rotating

In order to rotate a shape within most software, a rotational

axis must first be defined. Similarly, within mathematics, an
initial geometry is ‘plugged into’ a rotation matrix. Below are a
series of templates to rotate a shape around each axis (x, y, z).
The xa,ya, za within each of the templates below are the initial
descriptions of the original shape, prior to its rotation. For
example, a cylinder is defined by a parametric equation where
xa = cos(u), ya = sin(u), and za = v. To rotate the cylinder, insert
each of these definitions into the templates below.

Typically, we speak and think about rotation in terms of

degrees, not radians. This guide has been written in radians,
but it is easy to move between the two units. Some
common conversions between degrees and radians include:
30 degrees = π/6 radians, 45 degrees = π/4 radians,
60 degrees = π/3 radians, 90 degrees = π/2 radians,
120 degrees = 2π/3 radians, 135 degrees = 3π/4 radians,
150 degrees = 5π/6 radians, 180 degrees = π radians.
Each of the templates below rotates a shape by
π/2 radians (90 degrees).

Rotating around x-axis Rotating around y-axis Rotating around z-axis

x = xa x = cos(π/2)xa+sin(π/2)za x = cos(π/2)xa-sin(π/2)ya
y = cos(π/2)ya-sin(π/2)za y = ya y = sin(π/2)xa+cos(π/2)ya
z = sin(π/2)ya+cos(π/2)za z = -sin(π/2)xa+cos(π/2)za z = za

031
Transformations Rotating

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x=u x = cos(π/6)u-sin(π/6)sin(u) x = cos(π/3)u-sin(π/3)sin(u) x = cos(π/2)u-sin(π/2)sin(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(π/6)u+cos(π/6)sin(u) y = sin(π/3)u+cos(π/3)sin(u) y = sin(π/2)u+cos(π/2)sin(u)

{u|0≤u≥π} {u|0≤u≥π} {u|0≤u≥π} {u|0≤u≥π}

x = cos(u) x = cos(π/6)cos(u)-sin(π/6)sin(u) x = cos(π/3)cos(u)-sin(π/3)sin(u) x = cos(π/2)cos(u)-sin(π/2)sin(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(π/6)cos(u)+cos(π/6)sin(u) y = sin(π/3)cos(u)+cos(π/3)sin(u) y = sin(π/2)cos(u)+cos(π/2)sin(u)

032
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = cos(π/6)sin(u)-sin(π/6)v y = cos(π/3)sin(u)-sin(π/3)v y = cos(π/2)sin(u)-sin(π/2)v
z = v z = sin(π/6)sin(u)+cos(π/6)v z = sin(π/3)sin(u)+cos(π/3)v z = sin(π/2)sin(u)+cos(π/2)v

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u)

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = cos(π/6)sin(v)sin(u)-sin(π/6)cos(v) y = cos(π/3)sin(v)sin(u)-sin(π/3)cos(v) y = cos(π/2)sin(v)sin(u)-sin(π/2)cos(v)
z = cos(v) z = sin(π/6)sin(v)sin(u)+cos(π/6)cos(v) z = sin(π/3)sin(v)sin(u)+cos(π/3)cos(v) z = sin(π/2)sin(v)sin(u)+cos(π/2)cos(v)

033
Transformations

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u)
y = cos(π/2)sin(v)sin(u)+sin(π/2)cos(v)
z = sin(π/2)sin(v)sin(u)-cos(π/2)cos(v)

034
Reflecting

In rotating, an initial shape was inserted into a rotation matrix.

Reflecting utilizes a similar template. When referring back to the
rotating around x-axis template, you will notice subtraction in
the y-coordinate and addition in the z-coordinate definition.
If subtraction is replaced with addition, and addition is replaced
with subtraction, an initial shape will be reflected about a plane
that is rotated (at a defined angle) about the x-axis. However,
the input angle defined is not the angle through which the
shape is reflected, but half the angle reflected.

Imagine a vertical mirror on a wall. This book is closed and

brought perpendicular to the mirror. Within the mirror, the book
reflects and forms a flat plane, π radians (180 degrees). The
angle between the book and mirror on each side is π/2 radians
(90 degrees), or one half the input angle. Each of the templates
below reflects a shape by π/4 radians (45 degrees), but contains
an input angle of π/2 radians (90 degrees).

Reflecting about a plane (x-axis) Reflecting about a plane (y-axis) Reflecting about a plane (z-axis)

x = xa x = -cos(π/2)xa+sin(π/2)za x = cos(π/2)xa+sin(π/2)ya
y = cos(π/2)ya+sin(π/2)za y = ya y = sin(π/2)xa-cos(π/2)ya
z = sin(π/2)ya-cos(π/2)za z = sin(π/2)xa+cos(π/2)za z = za

035
Transformations Reflecting

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x=u x = cos(π/6)u+sin(π/6)sin(u) x = cos(π/3)u+sin(π/3)sin(u) x = cos(π/2)u+sin(π/2)sin(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(π/6)u-cos(π/6)sin(u) y = sin(π/3)u-cos(π/3)sin(u) y = sin(π/2)u-cos(π/2)sin(u)

{u|0≤u≥π} {u|0≤u≥π} {u|0≤u≥π} {u|0≤u≥π}

x = cos(u) x = cos(π/6)cos(u)+sin(π/6)sin(u) x = cos(π/3)cos(u)+sin(π/3)sin(u) x = cos(π/2)cos(u)+sin(π/2)sin(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(π/6)cos(u)-cos(π/6)sin(u) y = sin(π/3)cos(u)-cos(π/3)sin(u) y = sin(π/2)cos(u)-cos(π/2)sin(u)

036
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = cos(π/6)sin(u)+sin(π/6)v y = cos(π/3)sin(u)+sin(π/3)v y = cos(π/2)sin(u)+sin(π/2)v
z = v z = sin(π/6)sin(u)-cos(π/6)v z = sin(π/3)sin(u)-cos(π/3)v z = sin(π/2)sin(u)-cos(π/2)v

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u)

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = cos(π/6)sin(v)sin(u)+sin(π/6)cos(v) y = cos(π/3)sin(v)sin(u)+sin(π/3)cos(v) y = cos(π/2)sin(v)sin(u)+sin(π/2)cos(v)
z = cos(v) z = sin(π/6)sin(v)sin(u)-cos(π/6)cos(v) z = sin(π/3)sin(v)sin(u)-cos(π/3)cos(v) z = sin(π/2)sin(v)sin(u)-cos(π/2)cos(v)

037
Transformations

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = (sin(v)cos(u))/2
y = (sin(v)sin(u))/2
z = cos(v)/2

038
Scaling

According to basic multiplication, if an integer is multiplied by

another integer, its value increases according to the multiplier.
If an integer is divided by another integer, its value decreases
according to the divider. These same rules apply to scaling
shapes. Multiplying a shape by an integer will scale that shape
accordingly. If only the x-coordinate is multiplied or divided, the
shape will scale only in that axis.

039
Transformations Scaling

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x=u x=u x = u/2 x = u/2

y = sin(u) y = sin(u)/2 y = sin(u) y = sin(u)/2

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u)/2 x = cos(u)/2

y = sin(u) y = sin(u)/2 y = sin(u) y = sin(u)/2

040
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u)/2 x = cos(u)/2

y = sin(u) y = sin(u)/2 y = sin(u) y = sin(u)/2
z = v z = v z = v z = v

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = (sin(v)cos(u))/2 x = (sin(v)cos(u))/2

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = (sin(v)sin(u))/2 y = (sin(v)sin(u))/2 y = (sin(v)sin(u))/2
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)/2

041
Transformations

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u)
y = sin(v)sin(4u)
z = cos(v)

042
Modulating

Within the trigonometric functions (sine, cosine) there are

parameters (u, v). Within cutting, these parameters control the
end points of a curve. However, when these parameters are
scaled while embedded inside a trigonometric function [for
example, sin(A(u)), where A is a scaling factor], they control the
frequency of the curve defined. For example, if the parameter is
doubled, the output would yield double the number of periods
over the same length. Multiplying the parameter also multiplies
the frequency of the curve.

043
Transformations Modulating

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x=u x=u x=u x=u

y = sin(u) y = sin(2u) y = sin(3u) y = sin(4u)

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(2u) y = sin(3u) y = sin(4u)

044
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(2u) y = sin(3u) y = sin(4u)
z = v z = v z = v z = v

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u)

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(2u) y = sin(v)sin(3u) y = sin(v)sin(4u)
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

045
Transformations

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u+sin(v)cos(u)
y = u+sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v)

046
Ascending

Imagine a piece of graph paper with an x-axis and a y-axis.

If a sine curve was drawn on the x-axis, its period would start
and end on the x-axis. Plotting a sine curve is much like plotting
a horizontal line, with undulations of a specific amplitude and
frequency. Adding a u-parameter outside the trigonometric
function [for example, u+sin(u)] is much like plotting a diagonal
line at an angle to the horizontal. For every cycle the function
completes, it incrementally moves vertically. The centre of the
sine curve would no longer follow the x-axis; instead, it would
follow the newly plotted diagonal line. Adding an integer
to a function would give a linear translation, while adding
a u-parameter would shift the shape and produce a
diagonal trajectory.

047
Transformations Ascending

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x=u x=u x = u+u x = u+u

y = sin(u) y = u+sin(u) y = sin(u) y = u+sin(u)

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = u+cos(u) x = u+cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = u+sin(u) y = sin(u) y = u+sin(u)

048
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = u+cos(u) x = u+cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = u+sin(u) y = sin(u) y = u+sin(u)
z = v z = v z = v z = v

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = u+sin(v)cos(u) x = u+sin(v)cos(u)

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = u+sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u) y = u+sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

049
Transformations

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u))
y = u(sin(v)sin(u))
z = cos(v)

050
Spiralling

As stated in ascending, adding the u-parameter is much like

plotting a diagonal line. The operation of adding is a means of
displacing a shape, like shifting a sine curve from the x-axis to a
diagonal trajectory. Multiplication is quite different. If the
u-parameter is multiplied outside the trigonometric function
[for example, u(sin(v))], the radius of the curve drawn from the
centre origin increases incrementally. The curve is not being
displaced; it is being stretched iteratively outward according to
the u-parameter.

051
Transformations Spiralling

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x=u x=u x=u x=u

y = sin(u) y = u(sin(u)) y = cos(u) y = u(cos(u))

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u))

y = sin(u) y = u(sin(u)) y = sin(u) y = u(sin(u))

052
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u))

y = sin(u) y = u(sin(u)) y = sin(u) y = u(sin(u))
z = v z = v z = v z = v

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u))

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = u(sin(v)sin(u)) y = sin(v)sin(u) y = u(sin(v)sin(u))
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

053
Transformations

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(4u)/4+sin(v)cos(u)
y = sin(4u)/4+sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v)

054
Texturing

When adding two trigonometric functions of different

frequencies, one frequency is drawn inside the other. Like a
curve undulating within the envelope formed by another curve,
the two functions independently control different parameters
of the resulting curve. Although this seems straightforward, a
curve inside a curve can get out of control easily. It is highly
recommended that if the frequency of a curve is increased by
a certain value, its amplitude should be decreased by that same
amount. This will maintain the amplitude of the overall curve
(the envelope) while independently increasing the frequency
of the texture (the inner curve).

055
Transformations Texturing

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x=u x=u x=u x=u

y = sin(u) y = sin(2u)/2+sin(u) y = sin(3u)/3+sin(u) y = sin(4u)/4+sin(u)

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(2u)/2+cos(u) x = cos(3u)/3+cos(u) x = cos(4u)/4+cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(2u)/2+sin(u) y = sin(3u)/3+sin(u) y = sin(4u)/4+sin(u)

056
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(2u)/2+cos(u) x = cos(3u)/3+cos(u) x = cos(4u)/4+cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(2u)/2+sin(u) y = sin(3u)/3+sin(u) y = sin(4u)/4+sin(u)
z = v z = v z = v z = v

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = cos(2u)/2+sin(v)cos(u) x = cos(3u)/3+sin(v)cos(u) x = cos(4u)/4+sin(v)cos(u)

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(2u)/2+sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(3u)/3+sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(4u)/4+sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

057
Transformations

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u)
y = sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v)

058
Bending

Within shaping, a cylinder was squished into a sphere by

multiplying trigonometric functions. In ascending, a curve was
plotted according to a diagonal trajectory. In the case of
bending, an entire shape is swept along a curve. This is more
like ascending than the squishing transformation portrayed
in shaping. The geometry of the initial shape is not squished
and deformed, but instead is plotted to follow a path other
than a straight line. Adding a trigonometric function to a
cylinder will not distort the circle that composes it. Rather,
the circle, instead of extruding vertically in a straight line, will
follow a curve and bend.

059
Transformations Bending

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x=u x=u x = cos(v)+u x = cos(v)+u

y = sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(u)

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(v)+cos(u) x = cos(v)+cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(u)

060
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(v)+cos(u) x = cos(v)+cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(u)
z = v z = v z = v z = v

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = cos(v)+sin(v)cos(u) x = cos(v)+sin(v)cos(u)

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

061
Transformations

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u)7
y = sin(v)sin(u)7
z = cos(v)

062
Pinching

By raising a trigonometric function to an exponent, the

degree of curvature will increase, emphasizing the outermost
boundaries of that particular shape. The higher the power,
the steeper the apex of the shape will be. If a shape is raised
to an even power, its orientation will be mirrored. For example,
if all odd powers point upwards, all even powers will point
downward. Although pinching will give the illusion of an edge,
the edge will have a slight rounding to maintain the property
of continuity.

063
Transformations Pinching

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x=u x=u x=u x=u

y = sin(u) y = sin(u)3 y = sin(u)5 y = sin(u)7

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u)3 x = cos(u)5 x = cos(u)7

y = sin(u) y = sin(u)3 y = sin(u)5 y = sin(u)7

064
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u)3 x = cos(u)5 x = cos(u)7

y = sin(u) y = sin(u)3 y = sin(u)5 y = sin(u)7
z = v z = v z = v z = v

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u)3 x = sin(v)cos(u)5 x = sin(v)cos(u)7

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u)3 y = sin(v)sin(u)5 y = sin(v)sin(u)7
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

065
Transformations

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(sin(sin(sin(v)cos(u))))
y = sin(sin(sin(sin(v)sin(u))))
z = sin(sin(sin(cos(v))))

066
Flattening

As an equation is placed inside a function of sine, its degree of

curvature decreases. The more recursions of sine functions that
are embedded inside each other, the more flattened the shape
will become. Like smashing a ball of clay into a cube, as the
sphere is smashed material is compressed. Flattening a shape
also gradually scales the shape. The more cube-like the sphere
becomes, the smaller it grows. A sphere can transform into a
cube with one parametric equation, if slightly rounded corners
are acceptable. Discrete edges would break the continuity and
would require additional equations.

067
Transformations Flattening

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x=u x=u x=u x=u

y = sin(u) y = sin(sin(u)) y = sin(sin(sin(u))) y = sin(sin(sin(sin(u))))

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = cos(u) x = sin(cos(u)) x = sin(sin(cos(u))) x = sin(sin(sin(cos(u))))

y = sin(u) y = sin(sin(u)) y = sin(sin(sin(u))) y = sin(sin(sin(sin(u))))

068
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = sin(cos(u)) x = sin(sin(cos(u))) x = sin(sin(sin(cos(u))))

y = sin(u) y = sin(sin(u)) y = sin(sin(sin(u))) y = sin(sin(sin(sin(u))))
z = v z = v z = v z = v

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(sin(v)cos(u)) x = sin(sin(sin(v)cos(u))) x = sin(sin(sin(sin(v)cos(u))))

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(sin(v)sin(u)) y = sin(sin(sin(v)sin(u))) y = sin(sin(sin(sin(v)sin(u))))
z = cos(v) z = sin(cos(v)) z = sin(sin(cos(v))) z = sin(sin(sin(cos(v))))

069
Transformations

{ (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π,
0≤w≥π}

xo = 0 xw = xo +sin(v)cos(u)
yo = 0 yw = yo +sin(v)sin(u)
zo = 0 zw = zo +cos(v)

070
Thickening

A three-dimensional grid in space comprises the x-, y- and

z-coordinates in a parametric equation. Imagine a sphere within
this three-dimensional grid. On the sphere itself is another grid,
formed by the u- and v-parameters. In order to give a sphere
thickness, an additional parameter must be introduced. The
w-parameter is like an arrow coming off the surface of a
sphere. It relates to w as z relates to x and y (or, to put it a
different way, w is like the z-coordinate of u and v).

Because a sphere with thickness has two boundary conditions,

an inner and an outer, two different sets of x, y and z must be
established. One set describes the inner boundary of the sphere
and the second defines its thickness (and therefore implicitly
also describes its outer boundary).

The w-parameter controls the thickness of the shape. Note that

thickness is used to describe the two boundary conditions. The
shape is still a single-thickness geometry but the geometry
itself bounces back and forth between two boundary
conditions, giving the illusion of thickness.

071
Transformations Thickening

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { (u,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ w ≥ π/3 } { (u,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ w ≥ 2π/3 } { (u,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ w ≥ π }

x=u xo = 0 xw = xo +u xo = 0 xw = xo +u xo = 0 xw = xo +u
y = sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo +sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo +sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo +sin(u)

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { (u,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ w ≥ π/3 } { (u,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ w ≥ 2π/3 } { (u,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ w ≥ π }

x = cos(u) xo = 0 xw = xo +cos(u) xo = 0 xw = xo +cos(u) xo = 0 xw = xo +cos(u)

y = sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo +sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo +sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo +sin(u)

072
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π, { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π, { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π,
0 ≤ w ≥ π/3 } 0 ≤ w ≥ 2π/3 } 0≤w≥π}

x = cos(u) xo = 0 xw = xo +cos(u) xo = 0 xw = xo +cos(u) xo = 0 xw = xo +cos(u)

y = sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo +sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo +sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo +sin(u)
z = v zo = 0 zw = zo +v zo = 0 zw = zo +v zo = 0 zw = zo +v

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π, { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π, { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π,

0 ≤ w ≥ π/3 } 0 ≤ w ≥ 2π/3 } 0≤w≥π}

x = sin(v)cos(u) xo = 0 xw = xo +sin(v)cos(u) xo = 0 xw = xo +sin(v)cos(u) xo = 0 xw = xo +sin(v)cos(u)

y = sin(v)sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo +sin(v)sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo +sin(v)sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo +sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v) zo = 0 zw = zo +cos(v) zo = 0 zw = zo +cos(v) zo = 0 zw = zo +cos(v)

073
Combining
Transformations
Combining
Transformations

‘The forces coming from without which

transform the point into a line, can be very
diverse. The variation in lines depends
upon the number of these forces and upon
their combinations.’

(Wassily Kandinsky, 1947)

076
Red, yellow and blue are considered As in the previous chapter – or, indeed,
primary colours. If the colour desired is any experiment – there must be both
a shade or tint of those primary colours, constants and variables. The starting
black or white can be added. But, if shapes throughout this chapter will be
green was a desired output, yellow and a spiral and spiralled sphere. In addition
blue would have to combine. The to morphing series, which show a linear
mathematical transformations in the progression, this chapter also introduces
previous chapter establish a palette of taxonomies. Taxonomies are like tables
tools to manipulate shapes. When or graphs of transformations, where the
shapes are transformed with only one left-most column uses only one type of
rule, they can only transform iteratively. transformation and the bottom-most
After a single transformation, it becomes row uses another, while the shapes
quite predictable how a shape will along the table’s diagonal transform
continue to change with repetitions of under both.
the same transformation. Mathematical
transformations may seem trivial or In order to combine transformations
limited in possibilities, but when they with control, it is imperative to
combine, shapes can morph in much remember that the order of operations
less predictable and more complex in an equation will have a determining
manners. It seems possible to generate effect on the shape created. For
almost any shape imaginable. example, a sphere could be spiralled and
then flattened or could be flattened and
then spiralled; the change in order will
produce a change in the resulting shape.

077
Combining
Transformations Cutting and spiralling

The period of a shape is controlled by cutting. Since cutting

controls how much a particular shape is expressed (by limiting
the numerical ranges of u and v), all transformations occur in
parallel with cutting. Here, the parallel transformation is the
incremental increase in the radius of a sphere through spiralling.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 3π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u))
y = u(sin(v)sin(u))
z = cos(v)

078
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u))
y = u(sin(v)sin(u))
z = cos(v)

079
Combining Cutting and spiralling
Transformations

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 3π/2 } {u|0≤u≥π} { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ π/2 }

x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u))

y = u(sin(u)) y = u(sin(u)) y = u(sin(u)) y = u(sin(u))

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 3π/2 } {u|0≤u≥π} { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ π/2 }

x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u))

y = sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(u)

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 3π/2 } {u|0≤u≥π} { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ π/2 }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(u)

080
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 3π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u))

y = u(sin(v)sin(u)) y = u(sin(v)sin(u)) y = u(sin(v)sin(u)) y = u(sin(v)sin(u))
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 3π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u))

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 3π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u)

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

081
Combining
Transformations Scaling and spiralling

After a sphere’s size is altered through scaling, its radius is

incrementally increased (spiralling  ). The order of operations
does not matter for spiralling and scaling; either can transform
the shape first.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u))
y = (u(sin(v)sin(u)))/2
z = cos(v)

082
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = (u(sin(v)cos(u)))/2
y = (u(sin(v)sin(u)))/2
z = cos(v)/2

083
Combining Scaling and spiralling
Transformations

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u)) x = (u(cos(u)))/2 x = (u(cos(u)))/2

y = u(sin(u)) y = (u(sin(u)))/2 y = u(sin(u)) y = (u(sin(u)))/2

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u)) x = (u(cos(u)))/2 x = (u(cos(u)))/2

y = sin(u) y = sin(u)/2 y = sin(u) y = sin(u)/2

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u)/2 x = cos(u)/2

y = sin(u) y = sin(u)/2 y = sin(u) y = sin(u)/2

084
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = (u(sin(v)cos(u)))/2 x = (u(sin(v)cos(u)))/2

y = u(sin(v)sin(u)) y = (u(sin(v)sin(u)))/2 y = (u(sin(v)sin(u)))/2 y = (u(sin(v)sin(u)))/2
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)/2

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = (u(sin(v)cos(u)))/2 x = (u(sin(v)cos(u)))/2

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = (sin(v)sin(u))/2 y = (sin(v)sin(u))/2 y = (sin(v)sin(u))/2
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)/2

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = (sin(v)cos(u))/2 x = (sin(v)cos(u))/2

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = (sin(v)sin(u))/2 y = (sin(v)sin(u))/2 y = (sin(v)sin(u))/2
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)/2

085
Combining
Transformations Modulating and spiralling

In addition to the spiralling transformation, the frequency

of the shape is altered through modulating. First, the shape’s
frequency increases and then the shape’s radius incrementally
increases.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u))
y = u(sin(v)sin(2u))
z = cos(v)

086
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u))
y = u(sin(v)sin(4u))
z = cos(v)

087
Combining Modulating and spiralling
Transformations

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u))

y = u(sin(u)) y = u(sin(2u)) y = u(sin(3u)) y = u(sin(4u))

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u))

y = sin(u) y = sin(2u) y = sin(3u) y = sin(4u)

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(2u) y = sin(3u) y = sin(4u)

088
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u))

y = u(sin(v)sin(u)) y = u(sin(v)sin(2u)) y = u(sin(v)sin(3u)) y = u(sin(v)sin(4u))
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u))

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(2u) y = sin(v)sin(3u) y = sin(v)sin(4u)
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u)

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(2u) y = sin(v)sin(3u) y = sin(v)sin(4u)
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

089
Combining
Transformations Spiralling and ascending

After the shape’s radius incrementally increases, the shape is

iteratively plotted according to a diagonal trajectory. Since
ascending is occurring after spiralling, some of the resulting
shapes are self-intersecting.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u))
y = u+(u(sin(v)sin(u)))
z = cos(v)

090
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u+(u(sin(v)cos(u)))
y = u+(u(sin(v)sin(u)))
z = cos(v)

091
Combining Spiralling and ascending
Transformations

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u)) x = u+(u(cos(u))) x = u+(u(cos(u)))

y = u(sin(u)) y = u+(u(sin(u))) y = u(sin(u)) y = u+(u(sin(u)))

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u)) x = u+(u(cos(u))) x = u+(u(cos(u)))

y = sin(u) y = u+sin(u) y = sin(u) y = u+sin(u)

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = u+cos(u) x = u+cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = u+sin(u) y = sin(u) y = u+sin(u)

092
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u+(u(sin(v)cos(u))) x = u+(u(sin(v)cos(u)))

y = u(sin(v)sin(u)) y = u+(u(sin(v)sin(u))) y = u(sin(v)sin(u)) y = u+(u(sin(v)sin(u)))
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u+(u(sin(v)cos(u))) x = u+(u(sin(v)cos(u)))

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = u+sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u) y = u+sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = u+sin(v)cos(u) x = u+sin(v)cos(u)

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = u+sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u) y = u+sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

093
Combining
Transformations Texturing and spiralling

Before the shape is spiralled, it is transformed through

texturing. When a textured sphere’s radius incrementally
increases under spiralling, its texture also incrementally
becomes larger.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(cos(2u)/2+sin(v)cos(u))
y = u(sin(2u)/2+sin(v)sin(u))
z = cos(v)

094
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(cos(4u)/4+sin(v)cos(u))
y = u(sin(4u)/4+sin(v)sin(u))
z = cos(v)

095
Combining Texturing and spiralling
Transformations

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(2u)/2+cos(u)) x = u(cos(3u)/3+cos(u)) x = u(cos(4u)/4+cos(u))

y = u(sin(u)) y = u(sin(2u)/2+sin(u)) y = u(sin(3u)/3+sin(u)) y = u(sin(4u)/4+sin(u))

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(2u)/2+cos(u)) x = u(cos(3u)/3+cos(u)) x = u(cos(4u)/4+cos(u))

y = sin(u) y = sin(2u)/2+sin(u) y = sin(3u)/3+sin(u) y = sin(4u)/4+sin(u)

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(2u)/2+cos(u) x = cos(3u)/3+cos(u) x = cos(4u)/4+cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(2u)/2+sin(u) y = sin(3u)/3+sin(u) y = sin(4u)/4+sin(u)

096
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(cos(2u)/2+sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(cos(3u)/3+sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(cos(4u)/4+sin(v)cos(u))

y = u(sin(v)sin(u)) y = u(sin(2u)/2+sin(v)sin(u)) y = u(sin(3u)/3+sin(v)sin(u)) y = u(sin(4u)/4+sin(v)sin(u))
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(cos(2u)/2+sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(cos(3u)/3+sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(cos(4u)/4+sin(v)cos(u))

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(2u)/2+sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(3u)/3+sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(4u)/4+sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = cos(2u)/2+sin(v)cos(u) x = cos(3u)/3+sin(v)cos(u) x = cos(4u)/4+sin(v)cos(u)

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(2u)/2+sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(3u)/3+sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(4u)/4+sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

097
Combining
Transformations Bending and spiralling

In this instance, the shape is first transformed through

bending and then the bent shape is transformed through
spiralling. The order of operations is very important with
these two transformations.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u))
y = u(sin(v)+sin(v)sin(u))
z = cos(v)

098
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(cos(v)+sin(v)cos(u))
y = u(sin(v)+sin(v)sin(u))
z = cos(v)

099
Combining Bending and spiralling
Transformations

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(v)+cos(u)) x = u(cos(v)+cos(u))

y = u(sin(u)) y = u(sin(v)+sin(u)) y = u(sin(u)) y = u(sin(v)+sin(u))

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(v)+cos(u)) x = u(cos(v)+cos(u))

y = sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(u)

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(v)+cos(u) x = cos(v)+cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(u)

100
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(cos(v)+sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(cos(v)+sin(v)cos(u))

y = u(sin(v)sin(u)) y = u(sin(v)+sin(v)sin(u)) y = u(sin(v)sin(u)) y = u(sin(v)+sin(v)sin(u))
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(cos(v)+sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(cos(v)+sin(v)cos(u))

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = cos(v)+sin(v)cos(u) x = cos(v)+sin(v)cos(u)

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

101
Combining
Transformations Spiralling and bending

In this iteration, the shape is first spiralled and then bent.

By spiralling the shape first, the bending operation becomes
more subtle than it is in the previous combination.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u))
y = sin(v)+(u(sin(v)sin(u)))
z = cos(v)

102
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(v)+(u(sin(v)cos(u)))
y = sin(v)+(u(sin(v)sin(u)))
z = cos(v)

103
Combining Spiralling and bending
Transformations

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u)) x = cos(v)+(u(cos(u))) x = cos(v)+(u(cos(u)))

y = u(sin(u)) y = sin(v)+(u(sin(u))) y = u(sin(u)) y = sin(v)+(u(sin(u)))

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u)) x = cos(v)+(u(cos(u))) x = cos(v)+(u(cos(u)))

y = sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(u)

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(v)+cos(u) x = cos(v)+cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(u)

104
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = cos(v)+(u(sin(v)cos(u))) x = cos(v)+(u(sin(v)cos(u)))

y = u(sin(v)sin(u)) y = sin(v)+(u(sin(v)sin(u))) y = u(sin(v)sin(u)) y = sin(v)+(u(sin(v)sin(u)))
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = cos(v)+(u(sin(v)cos(u))) x = cos(v)+(u(sin(v)cos(u)))

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u) x = cos(v)+sin(v)cos(u) x = cos(v)+sin(v)cos(u)

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)+sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

105
Combining
Transformations Pinching and spiralling

When a shape is first transformed under pinching and then

with spiralling, its pinched edges exponentially increase.
As with texturing and spiralling, the underlying spiral order
is maintained.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)3)
y = u(sin(v)sin(u)3)
z = cos(v)

106
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)7)
y = u(sin(v)sin(u)7)
z = cos(v)

107
Combining Pinching and spiralling
Transformations

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u)3) x = u(cos(u)5) x = u(cos(u)7)

y = u(sin(u)) y = u(sin(u)3) y = u(sin(u)5) y = u(sin(u)7)

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = u(cos(u)) x = u(cos(u)3) x = u(cos(u)5) x = u(cos(u)7)

y = sin(u) y = sin(u)3 y = sin(u)5 y = sin(u)7

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u)3 x = cos(u)5 x = cos(u)7

y = sin(u) y = sin(u)3 y = sin(u)5 y = sin(u)7

108
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)3) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)5) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)7)

y = u(sin(v)sin(u)) y = u(sin(v)sin(u)3) y = u(sin(v)sin(u)5) y = u(sin(v)sin(u)7)
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)3) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)5) x = u(sin(v)cos(u)7)

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u)3 y = sin(v)sin(u)5 y = sin(v)sin(u)7
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(v)cos(u)3 x = sin(v)cos(u)5 x = sin(v)cos(u)7

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(v)sin(u)3 y = sin(v)sin(u)5 y = sin(v)sin(u)7
z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v) z = cos(v)

109
Combining
Transformations Flattening and spiralling

Before the shape spirals, it is transformed through flattening.

Because spiralling is the last operation, the global order is a
spiral with locally flattened edges. The order of operations
is critical.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(sin(v)cos(u)))
y = u(sin(sin(v)sin(u)))
z = sin(cos(v))

110
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(sin(sin(sin(v)cos(u)))))
y = u(sin(sin(sin(sin(v)sin(u)))))
z = sin(sin(sin(cos(v))))

111
Combining Flattening and spiralling
Transformations

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = u(cos(u)) x = u(sin(cos(u))) x = u(sin(sin(cos(u)))) x = u(sin(sin(sin(cos(u)))))

y = u(sin(u)) y = u(sin(sin(u))) y = u(sin(sin(sin(u)))) y = u(sin(sin(sin(sin(u)))))

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = u(cos(u)) x = u(sin(cos(u))) x = u(sin(sin(cos(u)))) x = u(sin(sin(sin(cos(u)))))

y = sin(u) y = sin(sin(u)) y = sin(sin(sin(u))) y = sin(sin(sin(sin(u))))

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = cos(u) x = sin(cos(u)) x = sin(sin(cos(u))) x = sin(sin(sin(cos(u))))

y = sin(u) y = sin(sin(u)) y = sin(sin(sin(u))) y = sin(sin(sin(sin(u))))

112
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(sin(v)cos(u))) x = u(sin(sin(sin(v)cos(u)))) x = u(sin(sin(sin(sin(v)cos(u)))))

y = u(sin(v)sin(u)) y = u(sin(sin(v)sin(u))) y = u(sin(sin(sin(v)sin(u)))) y = u(sin(sin(sin(sin(v)sin(u)))))
z = cos(v) z = sin(cos(v)) z = sin(sin(cos(v))) z = sin(sin(sin(cos(v))))

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = u(sin(sin(v)cos(u))) x = u(sin(sin(sin(v)cos(u)))) x = u(sin(sin(sin(sin(v)cos(u)))))

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(sin(v)sin(u)) y = sin(sin(sin(v)sin(u))) y = sin(sin(sin(sin(v)sin(u))))
z = cos(v) z = sin(cos(v)) z = sin(sin(cos(v))) z = sin(sin(sin(cos(v))))

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(sin(v)cos(u)) x = sin(sin(sin(v)cos(u))) x = sin(sin(sin(sin(v)cos(u))))

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(sin(v)sin(u)) y = sin(sin(sin(v)sin(u))) y = sin(sin(sin(sin(v)sin(u))))
z = cos(v) z = sin(cos(v)) z = sin(sin(cos(v))) z = sin(sin(sin(cos(v))))

113
Combining
Transformations Spiralling and flattening

Since the last operation is a flattening transformation,

the spiralled sphere is contained to the boundary of a cube.
The overall boundary of the shape is determined by the
last operation.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(u(sin(v)cos(u)))
y = sin(u(sin(v)sin(u)))
z = sin(cos(v))

114
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(sin(sin(u(sin(v)cos(u)))))
y = sin(sin(sin(u(sin(v)sin(u)))))
z = sin(sin(sin(cos(v))))

115
Combining Spiralling and flattening
Transformations

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = u(cos(u)) x = sin(u(cos(u))) x = sin(sin(u(cos(u)))) x = sin(sin(sin(u(cos(u)))))

y = u(sin(u)) y = sin(u(sin(u))) y = sin(sin(u(sin(u)))) y = sin(sin(sin(u(sin(u)))))

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = u(cos(u)) x = sin(u(cos(u))) x = sin(sin(u(cos(u)))) x = sin(sin(sin(u(cos(u)))))

y = sin(u) y = sin(sin(u)) y = sin(sin(sin(u))) y = sin(sin(sin(sin(u))))

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = cos(u) x = sin(cos(u)) x = sin(sin(cos(u))) x = sin(sin(sin(cos(u))))

y = sin(u) y = sin(sin(u)) y = sin(sin(sin(u))) y = sin(sin(sin(sin(u))))

116
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = sin(u(sin(v)cos(u))) x = sin(sin(u(sin(v)cos(u)))) x = sin(sin(sin(u(sin(v)cos(u)))))

y = u(sin(v)sin(u)) y = sin(u(sin(v)sin(u))) y = sin(sin(u(sin(v)sin(u)))) y = sin(sin(sin(u(sin(v)sin(u)))))
z = cos(v) z = sin(cos(v)) z = sin(sin(cos(v))) z = sin(sin(sin(cos(v))))

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) x = sin(u(sin(v)cos(u))) x = sin(sin(u(sin(v)cos(u)))) x = sin(sin(sin(u(sin(v)cos(u)))))

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(sin(v)sin(u)) y = sin(sin(sin(v)sin(u))) y = sin(sin(sin(sin(v)sin(u))))
z = cos(v) z = sin(cos(v)) z = sin(sin(cos(v))) z = sin(sin(sin(cos(v))))

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(sin(v)cos(u)) x = sin(sin(sin(v)cos(u))) x = sin(sin(sin(sin(v)cos(u))))

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(sin(v)sin(u)) y = sin(sin(sin(v)sin(u))) y = sin(sin(sin(sin(v)sin(u))))
z = cos(v) z = sin(cos(v)) z = sin(sin(cos(v))) z = sin(sin(sin(cos(v))))

117
Combining
Transformations Spiralling and thickening

Thickening introduces a new parameter, w, and a second subset

of x, y and z. Thickening does not transform the spiralling order;
instead, it allows a different range of its shape to be expressed.

{ (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π,
0 ≤ w ≥ π/3 }

xo = 0 xw = xo +u(sin(v)cos(u))
yo = 0 yw = yo +u(sin(v)sin(u))
zo = 0 zw = zo +cos(v)

118
{ (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π,
0≤w≥π}

xo = 0 xw = xo +u(sin(v)cos(u))
yo = 0 yw = yo +u(sin(v)sin(u))
zo = 0 zw = zo +cos(v)

119
Combining Spiralling and thickening
Transformations

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { (u,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ w ≥ π/3 } { (u,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ w ≥ 2π/3 } { (u,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ w ≥ π }

x = u(cos(u)) xo = 0 xw = xo+u(cos(u)) xo = 0 xw = xo+u(cos(u)) xo = 0 xw = xo+u(cos(u))

y = u(sin(u)) yo = 0 yw = yo+u(sin(u)) yo = 0 yw = yo+u(sin(u)) yo = 0 yw = yo+u(sin(u))

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { (u,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ w ≥ π/3 } { (u,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ w ≥ 2π/3 } { (u,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ w ≥ π }

x = u(cos(u)) xo = 0 xw = xo+u(cos(u)) xo = 0 xw = xo+u(cos(u)) xo = 0 xw = xo+u(cos(u))

y = sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo+sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo+sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo+sin(u)

{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { (u,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ w ≥ π/3 } { (u,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ w ≥ 2π/3 } { (u,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ w ≥ π }

x = cos(u) xo = 0 xw = xo+cos(u) xo = 0 xw = xo+cos(u) xo = 0 xw = xo +cos(u)

y = sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo+sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo+sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo +sin(u)

120
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π, { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π, { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π,
0 ≤ w ≥ π/3 } 0 ≤ w ≥ 2π/3 } 0≤w≥π}

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) xo = 0 xw = xo +u(sin(v)cos(u)) xo = 0 xw = xo +u(sin(v)cos(u)) xo = 0 xw = xo +u(sin(v)cos(u))

y = u(sin(v)sin(u)) yo = 0 yw = yo +u(sin(v)sin(u)) yo = 0 yw = yo +u(sin(v)sin(u)) yo = 0 yw = yo +u(sin(v)sin(u))
z = cos(v) zo = 0 zw = zo +cos(v) zo = 0 zw = zo +cos(v) zo = 0 zw = zo +cos(v)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π, { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π, { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π,

0 ≤ w ≥ π/3 } 0 ≤ w ≥ 2π/3 } 0≤w≥π}

x = u(sin(v)cos(u)) xo = 0 xw = xo +u(sin(v)cos(u)) xo = 0 xw = xo +u(sin(v)cos(u)) xo = 0 xw = xo +u(sin(v)cos(u))

y = sin(v)sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo +sin(v)sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo +sin(v)sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo +sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v) zo = 0 zw = zo +cos(v) zo = 0 zw = zo +cos(v) zo = 0 zw = zo +cos(v)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π, { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π, { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π,

0 ≤ w ≥ π/3 } 0 ≤ w ≥ 2π/3 } 0≤w≥π}

x = sin(v)cos(u) xo = 0 xw = xo +sin(v)cos(u) xo = 0 xw = xo +sin(v)cos(u) xo = 0 xw = xo +sin(v)cos(u)

y = sin(v)sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo +sin(v)sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo +sin(v)sin(u) yo = 0 yw = yo +sin(v)sin(u)
z = cos(v) zo = 0 zw = zo +cos(v) zo = 0 zw = zo +cos(v) zo = 0 zw = zo +cos(v)

121
Combining
Shapes
Combining
Shapes

‘For the artist communication with nature

remains the most essential condition. The
artist is human, himself nature; part of
nature within natural space.’

(Paul Klee, 1944)

124
If you imagine a particular shape as a Within this chapter, a cylinder’s and a
species with a specific DNA, think of the sphere’s x-, y- and z-coordinates are
previous two chapters as manipulating defined as the parts to calculate with.
or mutating a shape’s DNA. This chapter Initially, the parts of the cylinder and
is akin to geometric breeding. Here, it is sphere are utilized to generate a barrel
the shapes that combine with one vault and a dome. Then elements
another. Instead of simply using sine defining these two shapes are used to
and cosine as inputs, the shapes that form a mound-like shape similar to a hill
are defined by sine and cosine become or a slope. This landscape-like mound
the inputs. Calculating with pieces becomes the constant starting shape
larger than sine and cosine gives a throughout the rest of the chapter. As
different type of geometric deformation the shape transforms, the resultants
to calculating with sine and cosine suggest other natural land formations.
themselves. The manner in which a
shape distorts is more like moulding Throughout this chapter, a cylinder’s
with a ball of clay. The periodic nature x, y and z are defined as cx, cy and cz
of trigonometry is slightly less obvious and a sphere’s x, y and z are defined
within these types of combinations. as sx, sy and sz.

125
Combining
Shapes A mound

Reversing the x and z of a shape alters that shape’s orientation,

making it perpendicular to its previous orientation. Here, a
cylinder and a sphere are reorientated along the horizontal axis,
and cut into a barrel vault and dome. By combining parts of the
cylinder and the sphere, a mound is generated. The mound is
confined to either a square or a rectangular plan, depending on
which shape’s x-coordinate is expressed.

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx
cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz
y = cy
z = sx

126
{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = 0 x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cy y = cy y = 0 y = cy
z = sx z = 0 z = sx z = sx

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz x = sz x = sz x = cz
y = cy y = sy y = cy y = cy
z = cx z = sx z = sx z = sx

127
Combining
Shapes A meandering mound

Adding parts of shapes together in the y-coordinate transforms

a shape’s plan-view figure. For instance, adding the y-coordinate
of a sphere would bulge the plan of the mound. Adding the
z-coordinate of a sphere forms a meandering mound.

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx
cy = sin(u) sy = sin(v)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz
y = cy+sz
z = sx

128
{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = 0 x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cy+sz y = cy+sz y = 0 y = cy+sz
z = sx z = 0 z = sx z = sx

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cy y = cy+cz y = cy+sy y = cy+sz
z = sx z = sx z = sx z = sx

129
Combining
Shapes A leaning mound

Adding a sphere’s x-coordinate to the y-coordinate of a mound

causes it to lean. The lean increases as duplicates of the sphere’s
x-coordinate are added, but its rectilinear base is never altered.

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx
cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz
y = cy+sx+sx+sx
z = sx

130
{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = 0 x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cy+sx+sx+sx y = cy+sx+sx+sx y = 0 y = cy+sx+sx+sx
z = sx z = 0 z = sx z = sx

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cy y = cy+sx y = cy+sx+sx y = cy+sx+sx+sx
z = sx z = sx z = sx z = sx

131
Combining
Shapes A steeper mound

Multiplying the x-coordinate of a sphere in the z-coordinate

of a mound increases its steepness. As more x-coordinates
of a sphere are multiplied, the mound becomes even steeper.

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx
cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz
y = cy
z = sxsxsxsx

132
{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = 0 x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cy y = cy y = 0 y = cy
z = sxsxsxsx z = 0 z = sxsxsxsx z = sxsxsxsx

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cy y = cy y = cy y = cy
z = sx z = sxsx z = sxsxsx z = sxsxsxsx

133
Combining
Shapes A creased mound

A mound is pinched or combed into a mohawk-like crease.

As the y-coordinate of a cylinder is multiplied iteratively in
the y-coordinate of the mound, the crease increases in depth.

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx
cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz
y = cycycycycycycy
z = sx

134
{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = 0 x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cycycycycycycy y = cycycycycycycy y = 0 y = cycycycycycycy
z = sx z = 0 z = sx z = sx

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cy y = cycycy y = cycycycycy y = cycycycycycycy
z = sx z = sx z = sx z = sx

135
Combining
Shapes A creased and pinched mound

A mound is creased and pinched in elevation and plan.

The pinching increases as the y-coordinate of a sphere is
multiplied more times in the y-coordinate of the mound.

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx
cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz
y = cysysysysysysy
z = sx

136
{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = 0 x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cysysysysysysy y = cysysysysysysy y = 0 y = cysysysysysysy
z = sx z = 0 z = sx z = sx

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cy y = cysysy y = cysysysysy y = cysysysysysysy
z = sx z = sx z = sx z = sx

137
Combining
Shapes A wedge

By multiplying the x-coordinate of a sphere in the y-coordinate

of a mound, its underside is pinched. The rectilinear base,
previously defined by two lines, is transformed into a single line.

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx
cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz
y = cysxsxsx
z = sx

138
{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = 0 x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cysxsxsx y = cysxsxsx y = 0 y = cysxsxsx
z = sx z = 0 z = sx z = sx

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cy y = cysx y = cysxsx y = cysxsxsx
z = sx z = sx z = sx z = sx

139
Combining
Shapes A ridge and trench

When cutting through the apex of a mound, an arched section

is revealed. After the y-coordinate of a sphere is multiplied
in the z-coordinate of the mound, the section transforms to
a sine-curve-like profile. The mound is transformed into a ridge
and trench.

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx
cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz
y = cy
z = sxsysysysysy

140
{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = 0 x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cy y = cy y = 0 y = cy
z = sxsysysysysy z = 0 z = sxsysysysysy z = sxsysysysysy

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cy y = cy y = cy y = cy
z = sx z = sxsy z = sxsysysy z = sxsysysysysy

141
Combining
Shapes Two ridges

Multiplying the y-coordinate of a sphere an even number of

times in the z-coordinate of a mound transforms it into two
ridges. If an odd number of the y-coordinate are multiplied,
as on the previous page, the result is a ridge and trench.

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx
cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz
y = cy
z = sxsysysysysysy

142
{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = 0 x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cy y = cy y = 0 y = cy
z = sxsysysysysysy z = 0 z = sxsysysysysysy z = sxsysysysysysy

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cy y = cy y = cy y = cy
z = sx z = sxsysy z = sxsysysysy z = sxsysysysysysy

143
Combining
Shapes Another ridge and trench

By multiplying the z-coordinate of a sphere in the z-coordinate

of a mound, another ridge and trench is formed. This ridge and
trench is orientated perpendicular to the previous one.

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx
cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz
y = cy
z = sxszszszszsz

144
{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = 0 x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cy y = cy y = 0 y = cy
z = sxszszszszsz z = 0 z = sxszszszszsz z = sxszszszszsz

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cy y = cy y = cy y = cy
z = sx z = sxsz z = sxszszsz z = sxszszszszsz

145
Combining
Shapes A valley

When multiplying the z-coordinate of a sphere in the

z-coordinate of a mound an even number of times, it is
transformed into another set of two ridges, which together
define a valley. If an odd number of these z-coordinates are
multiplied, the result is a ridge and trench.

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx
cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz
y = cy
z = sxszszszszszsz

146
{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = 0 x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cy y = cy y = 0 y = cy
z = sxszszszszszsz z = 0 z = sxszszszszszsz z = sxszszszszszsz

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cy y = cy y = cy y = cy
z = sx z = sxszsz z = sxszszszsz z = sxszszszszszsz

147
Combining
Shapes Moguls

If the y- and z-coordinates of a sphere are multiplied in the

z-coordinate of a mound, it is transformed into moguls. The
y- and z-coordinates independently produce ridges and trenches
in opposite orientations. When they are combined, a saddle-like
curvature arises.

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx
cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz
y = cy
z = sxsysz

148
{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = 0 x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cy y = cy y = 0 y = cy
z = sxsysz z = 0 z = sxsysz z = sxsysz

{ (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | -π/2 ≤ u ≥ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = cz x = cz x = cz x = cz
y = cy y = cy y = cy y = cy
z = sx z = sxsy z = sxsz z = sxsysz

149
Analyzing
Analyzing

‘If the essentials of architecture lie in

spheres, cones and cylinders, the
generating and accusing lines of these
forms are on a basis of pure geometry.’

(Le Corbusier, 1931)

152
Precedent studies have become a Mathematics is a very specific analytical
tradition in architectural education; tool. Typically, buildings are categorized
however, these analytical studies rarely according to their type, such as a library
translate directly into useful design or a museum. When analyzing buildings
devices. This chapter is a unique through mathematics, they become
catalogue of architectural designs categorized according to their plastic
analyzed using mathematical equations. shape. As catalogued in this chapter,
The chapter not only presents the built buildings may relate to one another
shape and its equation, but transforms according to their mathematical DNA,
each building’s most basic topological but not necessarily according to their
ancestor (cylinder or sphere) into materiality or typology.
the building’s final shape. After the
final built shape is generated, the Each of the buildings within this chapter
morphing process projects a series of expresses a particular periodic function.
mathematical variations beyond the After each building was analyzed,
building’s form. This emphasizes that design variations were generated. The
the act of studying precedents can be consistent design objective was to break
a generative mechanism. the symmetrical relationships in the
transverse and longitudinal axis of each
Tools can constrain the way an project, without removing the elegant
individual designs. Similarly, the tool rhythmic nature. These design variations
that is used to analyze a precedent could not have been imagined without
study will influence how an individual trigonometric functions. The choice of
constructs an understanding of that tool or medium will always help
building. It may be possible to determine the set of possible design
understand the spatial hierarchies, solutions. This is not necessarily the best
symmetries, proportions or generative way to analyze precedents, but one
rules behind a plan or section. However, particular way – a method that should
a curved surface is significantly more perhaps be considered especially when
difficult to analyze with conventional there is an interest in the formal
architectural tools. qualities of a project.

153
Japan Pavilion in Hanover, Germany, 2000
Shigeru Ban Architects, Tokyo, Japan

Shigeru Ban collaborated with architect Frei Otto to design

a gridshell structure 72 m (235 ft) in length. The tunnel-arch
geometry was primarily made out of paper tubing. After Expo
2000 concluded, the structure was recycled to paper pulp.

Interior and exterior photographs by Hiroyuki Hirai. Courtesy of Shigeru Ban Architects.

155
Analyzing
Japan Pavilion a mathematical recipe

First, transform a cylinder into a barrel vault by cutting the

period of the u-parameter. Second, multiply both the y- and
z-coordinates by a function of sine. A sine curve can be read in
both plan and longitudinal elevations. Third, add an integer in
front of the newly added sine functions. Adding this integer will
increase the radius of the tube. Finally, divide the v-parameter
within the sine functions, to control the curvature of each
sine-curve profile.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 5π }

x=v
y = (2+sin(v)/4)cos(u)
z = (2+sin(v)/4)sin(u)

156
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 5π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 5π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 5π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 5π }

x=v x=v x=v x=v

y = cos(u) y = sin(v)cos(u) y = sin(v)cos(u) y = (1+sin(v))cos(u)
z = sin(u) z = sin(u) z = sin(v)sin(u) z = (1+sin(v))sin(u)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 5π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 5π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 5π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 5π }

x=v x=v x=v x=v

y = (2+sin(v))cos(u) y = (2+sin(v)/2)cos(u) y = (2+sin(v)/3)cos(u) y = (2+sin(v)/4)cos(u)
z = (2+sin(v))sin(u) z = (2+sin(v)/2)sin(u) z = (2+sin(v)/3)sin(u) z = (2+sin(v)/4)sin(u)

157
Analyzing
Japan Pavilion design variations

First, add u to v within the sine function in the y-coordinate,

transforming the symmetrical plan into a meandering tube.
Second, add u to the x-coordinate, shifting the grain of the tube
according to a diagonal (ascending  ). Third, replace the integer
in front of the sine function in the y- and z-coordinates with u.
As the radius of the arch gradually increases, a spiral-like
transverse section appears. Finally, increase the frequency of
the sine function in the z-coordinate (modulating  ), bifurcating
the rhythm between the elevation and plan.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 5π }

x = u+v
y = (u+sin(u+v)/4)cos(u)
z = (u+sin(4v)/8)sin(u)

158
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 5π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 5π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 5π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 5π }

x=v x=v x = u+v x = u+v

y = (2+sin(v)/4)cos(u) y = (2+sin(u+v)/4)cos(u) y = (2+sin(u+v)/4)cos(u) y = (u+sin(u+v)/4)cos(u)
z = (2+sin(v)/4)sin(u) z = (2+sin(v)/4)sin(u) z = (2+sin(v)/4)sin(u) z = (u+sin(v)/4)sin(u)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 5π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 5π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 5π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 5π }

x = u+v x = u+v x = u+v x = u+v

y = (u+sin(u+4v)/4)cos(u) y = (u+sin(u+4v)/8)cos(u) y = (u+sin(u+4v)/8)cos(u) y = (u+sin(u+v)/4)cos(u)
z = (u+sin(4v)/4)sin(u) z = (u+sin(4v)/8)sin(u) z = (u+sin(v)/4)sin(u) z = (u+sin(4v)/8)sin(u)

159
UK Pavilion in Shanghai, China, 2010
Heatherwick Studio, London, UK

Heatherwick Studio designed a ‘Seed Cathedral’, 15 m (50 ft)

high and 10 m (33 ft) tall. The pavilion was composed of 60,000
clear acrylic rods, each measuring 7.5 m (25 ft) in length. More
than 8 million people visited it during Expo 2010.

Interior photograph by Charlie Xia. Exterior photograph by Katarina Stübe.

161
Analyzing
UK Pavilion a mathematical recipe

First, transform a sphere into a rounded cube by flattening its

curvature. Second, divide the z-coordinate by 13/10, scaling the
height of the shape. Third, introduce thickening. The first set of
xo, yo, zo is embedded with the initial sphere, while the second
set of xw , yw , zw contains the flattening transformation. As the
shape flattens inward, it simultaneously thickens inward.

{ (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π,
0 ≤ w ≥ 2π }

xo = sin(v)cos(u) xw = sin(sin(xo))
yo = sin(v)sin(u) yw = sin(sin(yo))
zo = cos(v)/(13/10) zw = sin(sin(zo))

162
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(v)cos(u) x = sin(sin(v)cos(u)) x = sin(sin(sin(v)cos(u))) x = sin(sin(sin(v)cos(u)))

y = sin(v)sin(u) y = sin(sin(v)sin(u)) y = sin(sin(sin(v)sin(u))) y = sin(sin(sin(v)sin(u)))
z = cos(v) z = sin(cos(v)) z = sin(sin(cos(v))) z = sin(sin(cos(v)))/(13/10)

{ (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π, { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π, { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π, { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π,

0 ≤ w ≥ π/2 } 0≤w≥π} 0 ≤ w ≥ 3π/2 } 0 ≤ w ≥ 2π }

xo = sin(v)cos(u) xw = sin(sin(xo)) xo = sin(v)cos(u) xw = sin(sin(xo)) xo = sin(v)cos(u) xw = sin(sin(xo)) xo = sin(v)cos(u) xw = sin(sin(xo))

yo = sin(v)sin(u) yw = sin(sin(yo)) yo = sin(v)sin(u) yw = sin(sin(yo)) yo = sin(v)sin(u) yw = sin(sin(yo)) yo = sin(v)sin(u) yw = sin(sin(yo))
zo = cos(v)/(13/10) zw = sin(sin(zo)) zo = cos(v)/(13/10) zw = sin(sin(zo)) zo = cos(v)/(13/10) zw = sin(sin(zo)) zo = cos(v)/(13/10) zw = sin(sin(zo))

163
Analyzing
UK Pavilion design variations

First, introduce spiralling to the x-coordinate, opening the

closed shape. Second, also apply spiralling to the y-coordinate,
causing the thickened box to gradually twist at its core.

{ (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π,
0 ≤ w ≥ 2π }

xo = u(sin(v)cos(u)) xw = sin(sin(xo))
yo = u(sin(v)sin(u)) yw = sin(sin(yo))
zo = cos(v)/(13/10) zw = sin(sin(zo))

164
{ (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π, { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π, { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π, { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π,
0 ≤ w ≥ 2π } 0 ≤ w ≥ 2π } 0 ≤ w ≥ 2π } 0 ≤ w ≥ 2π }

xo = sin(v)cos(u) xw = sin(sin(xo)) xo = u(sin(v)cos(u)) xw = sin(sin(xo)) xo = sin(v)cos(u) xw = sin(sin(xo)) xo = sin(v)cos(u) xw = sin(sin(xo))

yo = sin(v)sin(u) yw = sin(sin(yo)) yo = sin(v)sin(u) yw = sin(sin(yo)) yo = u(sin(v)sin(u)) yw = sin(sin(yo)) yo = sin(v)sin(u) yw = sin(sin(yo))
zo = cos(v)/(13/10) zw = sin(sin(zo)) zo = cos(v)/(13/10) zw = sin(sin(zo)) zo = cos(v)/(13/10) zw = sin(sin(zo)) zo = u(cos(v)/(13/10)) zw = sin(sin(zo))

{ (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π, { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π, { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π, { (u,v,w) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π,

0 ≤ w ≥ 2π } 0 ≤ w ≥ 2π } 0 ≤ w ≥ 2π } 0 ≤ w ≥ 2π }

xo = u(sin(v)cos(u)) xw = sin(sin(xo)) xo = sin(v)cos(u) xw = sin(sin(xo)) xo = u(sin(v)cos(u)) xw = sin(sin(xo)) xo = u(sin(v)cos(u)) xw = sin(sin(xo))

yo = u(sin(v)sin(u)) yw = sin(sin(yo)) yo = u(sin(v)sin(u)) yw = sin(sin(yo)) yo = sin(v)sin(u) yw = sin(sin(yo)) yo = u(sin(v)sin(u)) yw = sin(sin(yo))
zo = u(cos(v)/(13/10)) zw = sin(sin(zo)) zo = u(cos(v)/(13/10)) zw = sin(sin(zo)) zo = u(cos(v)/(13/10)) zw = sin(sin(zo)) zo = cos(v)/(13/10) zw = sin(sin(zo))

165
Mur Island in Graz, Austria, 2003
Acconci Studio, New York, USA

Acconci Studio designed an artificial floating island on the

Mur River. The building measures 47 m (150 ft) in length and
is reached by two pedestrian bridges. The twisting of the steel
and glass structure forms an outdoor ampitheatre.

Interior photograph by Acconci Studio. Exterior photograph by Harry Schiffer.

167
Analyzing
Mur Island a mathematical recipe

First, orientate a sphere’s poles along the x-axis and scale the
sphere by ten in each coordinate. Scaling the sphere will make
for subtler ascending transformations. Second, transform a
closed sphere into a sphere that peels open by adding a
u-parameter to the y-coordinate (ascending  ). Next, multiply the
u- and v-parameters; when u(v) is added to the x-coordinate, the
shape twists. Finally, as the v-parameter shifts half a period, π to
2π (cutting  ), the shape grows to an appropriate proportion.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π ≤ v ≥ 2π }

x = u(v)+10(cos(v))
y = u+10(sin(v)cos(u))
z = 10(sin(v)sin(u))

168
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = 10(cos(v)) x = 10(cos(v)) x = 10(cos(v)) x = 10(cos(v))

y = 10(sin(v)cos(u)) y = (u/3)+10(sin(v)cos(u)) y = (u/2)+10(sin(v)cos(u)) y = u+10(sin(v)cos(u))
z = 10(sin(v)sin(u)) z = 10(sin(v)sin(u)) z = 10(sin(v)sin(u)) z = 10(sin(v)sin(u))

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π ≤ v ≥ 2π }

x = (u/2)+10(cos(v)) x = u+10(cos(v)) x = u(v)+10(cos(v)) x = u(v)+10(cos(v))

y = u+10(sin(v)cos(u)) y = u+10(sin(v)cos(u)) y = u+10(sin(v)cos(u)) y = u+10(sin(v)cos(u))
z = 10(sin(v)sin(u)) z = 10(sin(v)sin(u)) z = 10(sin(v)sin(u)) z = 10(sin(v)sin(u))

169
Analyzing
Mur Island design variations

Continue to transform the shape through cutting, by changing

the period of the v-parameter from (π to 2π) to (2π to 4π). As the
shape grows, it continues to loop and twist around itself,
without any self-intersections.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 2π ≤ v ≥ 4π }

x = u(v)+10(cos(v))
y = u+10(sin(v)cos(u))
z = 10(sin(v)sin(u))

170
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π ≤ v ≥ 2π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π ≤ v ≥ 5π/2 } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π ≤ v ≥ 3π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π ≤ v ≥ 7π/2 }

x = u(v)+10(cos(v)) x = u(v)+10(cos(v)) x = u(v)+10(cos(v)) x = u(v)+10(cos(v))

y = u+10(sin(v)cos(u)) y = u+10(sin(v)cos(u)) y = u+10(sin(v)cos(u)) y = u+10(sin(v)cos(u))
z = 10(sin(v)sin(u)) z = 10(sin(v)sin(u)) z = 10(sin(v)sin(u)) z = 10(sin(v)sin(u))

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π ≤ v ≥ 4π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π ≤ v ≥ 9π/2 } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 3π/2 ≤ v ≥ 4π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 2π ≤ v ≥ 4π }

x = u(v)+10(cos(v)) x = u(v)+10(cos(v)) x = u(v)+10(cos(v)) x = u(v)+10(cos(v))

y = u+10(sin(v)cos(u)) y = u+10(sin(v)cos(u)) y = u+10(sin(v)cos(u)) y = u+10(sin(v)cos(u))
z = 10(sin(v)sin(u)) z = 10(sin(v)sin(u)) z = 10(sin(v)sin(u)) z = 10(sin(v)sin(u))

171
Son-O-House in Son en Breugel, Netherlands, 2004
NOX, Rotterdam, Netherlands

Lars Spuybroek designed a ‘house where sound lives’. The public

pavilion contains 23 motion sensors that indirectly influence the
music. Sound artist Edwin van der Heide composed and
programmed the system of sounds.

Interior and exterior photographs courtesy of NOX/Lars Spuybroek.

173
Analyzing
Son-O-House a mathematical recipe

First, combine parts of shapes to transform a cylinder into a

mound. Second, multiply the x-coordinate of a sphere in the
z-coordinate of a mound, creating a steeper mound.  Third,
multiply the x-coordinate of a sphere in the y-coordinate,
creating a wedge. Fourth, add a sine function to the
y-coordinate, creating a meandering mound that follows the
curve. Finally, apply a subtle texturing to ripple the surface.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx
cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = (3/2)cz
y = (13/10)sin(60cz /240)-sin(-5cz /2)/6
+sxcy
z = (13/10)sin(sxsx)

174
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = (3/2)cz x = (3/2)cz x = (3/2)cz x = (3/2)cz

y = (13/10)cy y = (13/10)cy y = (13/10)sxcy y = (13/10)cy
z = (13/10)cx z = (13/10)sx z = (13/10)sx z = (13/10)sxsx

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = (3/2)cz x = (3/2)cz x = (3/2)cz x = (3/2)cz

y = (13/10)sxcy y = (13/10)sxcy y = (13/10)(-sin(-5cz /2)/6+sxcy) y = (13/10)sin(60cz /240)-sin(-5cz /2)/6
z = (13/10)sxsx z = (13/10)sin(sxsx) z = (13/10)sin(sxsx) +sxcy
z = (13/10)sin(sxsx)

175
Analyzing
Son-O-House design variations

First, apply pinching to the y-coordinate of the cylinder

definition. A crease appears along the centre spine of the shape.
Second, apply scaling to the x-coordinate of the cylinder
definition. As it increases, the centre spine of the shape inflects
up and down, following a cosine curve.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = 7cos(u)/4 sx = sin(cz)cx
cy = sin(u)3 sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = (3/2)cz
y = (13/10)sin(60cz /240)-sin(-5cz /2)/6
+sxcy
z = (13/10)sin(sxsx)

176
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = cos(u) sx = sin(cz)cx cx = 9cos(u)/8 sx = sin(cz)cx cx = 5cos(u)/4 sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u) sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u)3 sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u)3 sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u)3 sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = (3/2)cz x = (3/2)cz x = (3/2)cz x = (3/2)cz

y = (13/10)sin(60cz /240)-sin(-5cz /2)/6 y = (13/10)sin(60cz /240)-sin(-5cz /2)/6 y = (13/10)sin(60cz /240)-sin(-5cz /2)/6 y = (13/10)sin(60cz /240)-sin(-5cz /2)/6
+sxcy +sxcy +sxcy +sxcy
z = (13/10)sin(sxsx) z = (13/10)sin(sxsx) z = (13/10)sin(sxsx) z = (13/10)sin(sxsx)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

cx = 11cos(u)/8 sx = sin(cz)cx cx = 6cos(u)/4 sx = sin(cz)cx cx = 13cos(u)/8 sx = sin(cz)cx cx = 7cos(u)/4 sx = sin(cz)cx

cy = sin(u)3 sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u)3 sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u)3 sy = sin(cz)cy cy = sin(u)3 sy = sin(cz)cy
cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz) cz = v sz = cos(cz)

x = (3/2)cz x = (3/2)cz x = (3/2)cz x = (3/2)cz

y = (13/10)sin(60cz /240)-sin(-5cz /2)/6 y = (13/10)sin(60cz /240)-sin(-5cz /2)/6 y = (13/10)sin(60cz /240)-sin(-5cz /2)/6 y = (13/10)sin(60cz /240)-sin(-5cz /2)/6
+sxcy +sxcy +sxcy +sxcy
z = (13/10)sin(sxsx) z = (13/10)sin(sxsx) z = (13/10)sin(sxsx) z = (13/10)sin(sxsx)

177
Ark Nova in Matsushima, Japan, 2013
Arata Isozaki, Tokyo, Japan and Anish Kapoor, London, UK

Arata Isozaki collaborated with sculptor Anish Kapoor to design

the world’s first inflatable concert hall. The pneumatic structure
toured areas of Japan affected by the 2011 earthquake and
tsunami, hosting performances as part of the Lucerne Festival.

Interior and exterior photographs courtesy of Lucerne Festival Ark Nova.

179
Analyzing
Ark Nova a mathematical recipe

First, reverse the u- and v-parameters within each function,

rotating the orientation of the grain on the geometry.
Second, transform a sphere into a torus. Third, shear the torus’s
funnel along a diagonal by adding a cosine function to the
y-coordinate. Next, undulate the z-coordinate to create an apex
on the top of the shape. Finally, apply a gentle texturing.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 2π }

x = ((13/10)+sin(u))cos(v)
y = (2/3)cos(u)+((13/10)+sin(u))sin(v)
z = sin(100v)/100-sin(3u)/10+cos(u)

180
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 2π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 2π }

x = sin(u)cos(v) x = (1+sin(u))cos(v) x = (1+sin(u))cos(v) x = ((13/10)+sin(u))cos(v)

y = sin(u)sin(v) y = (1+sin(u))sin(v) y = (1+sin(u))sin(v) y = ((13/10)+sin(u))sin(v)
z = cos(u) z = cos(u) z = cos(u) z = cos(u)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 2π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 2π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 2π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 2π }

x = ((13/10)+sin(u))cos(v) x = ((13/10)+sin(u))cos(v) x = ((13/10)+sin(u))cos(v) x = ((13/10)+sin(u))cos(v)

y = (2/3)cos(u)+((13/10)+sin(u))sin(v) y = (2/3)cos(u)+((13/10)+sin(u))sin(v) y = (2/3)cos(u)+((13/10)+sin(u))sin(v) y = (2/3)cos(u)+((13/10)+sin(u))sin(v)
z = cos(u) z = -sin(3u)/5+cos(u) z = -sin(3u)/10+cos(u) z = sin(100v)/100-sin(3u)/10+cos(u)

181
Analyzing
Ark Nova design variations

Continue to transform the shape through texturing, by adding

an additional sine function to the x-, y- and z-coordinates.
The frequency and amplitude of the sine function increases
incrementally with each instance in the morphing series until,
eventually, a wrinkled torus appears.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 2π }

x = sin(8v)/16+((13/10)+sin(u))cos(v)
y = sin(8v)/16+(2/3)cos(u)+((13/10)
+sin(u))sin(v)
z = sin(8v)/16+sin(100v)/100-sin(3u)/10
+cos(u)

182
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 2π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 2π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 2π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 2π }

x = ((13/10)+sin(u))cos(v) x = sin(2v)/10+((13/10)+sin(u))cos(v) x = sin(3v)/11+((13/10)+sin(u))cos(v) x = sin(4v)/12+((13/10)+sin(u))cos(v)

y = (2/3)cos(u)+((13/10)+sin(u))sin(v) y = sin(2v)/10+(2/3)cos(u)+((13/10) y = sin(3v)/11+(2/3)cos(u)+((13/10) y = sin(4v)/12+(2/3)cos(u)+((13/10)
z = sin(100v)/100-sin(3u)/10+cos(u) +sin(u))sin(v) +sin(u))sin(v) +sin(u))sin(v)
z = sin(2v)/10+sin(100v)/100-sin(3u)/10 z = sin(3v)/11+sin(100v)/100-sin(3u)/10 z = sin(4v)/12+sin(100v)/100-sin(3u)/10
+cos(u) +cos(u) +cos(u)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 2π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 2π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 2π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ 2π }

x = sin(5v)/13+((13/10)+sin(u))cos(v) x = sin(6v)/14+((13/10)+sin(u))cos(v) x = sin(7v)/15+((13/10)+sin(u))cos(v) x = sin(8v)/16+((13/10)+sin(u))cos(v)

y = sin(5v)/13+(2/3)cos(u)+((13/10) y = sin(6v)/14+(2/3)cos(u)+((13/10) y = sin(7v)/15+(2/3)cos(u)+((13/10) y = sin(8v)/16+(2/3)cos(u)+((13/10)
+sin(u))sin(v) +sin(u))sin(v) +sin(u))sin(v) +sin(u))sin(v)
z = sin(5v)/13+sin(100v)/100-sin(3u)/10 z = sin(6v)/14+sin(100v)/100-sin(3u)/10 z = sin(7v)/15+sin(100v)/100-sin(3u)/10 z = sin(8v)/16+sin(100v)/100-sin(3u)/10
+cos(u) +cos(u) +cos(u) +cos(u)

183
Looptecture F in Minamiawaji, Japan, 2010
Endo Shuhei Architect Institute, Osaka, Japan

Endo Shuhei designed Looptecture F, a two-storey tsunami-

disaster preventive control centre at the Port of Fukura. The form
is constructed out of a continuous 7.3 m (24 ft) wide steel ‘belt’,
which intersects itself several times as it curves.

Interior and exterior photographs by Yoshiharu Matsumura. Courtesy of Endo Shuhei Architect Institute.

185
Analyzing
Looptecture F a mathematical recipe

First, a cylinder is sheared by adding a sine function in the

z-coordinate. Second, that sine function’s frequency is
increased (modulating  ), resulting in an undulating loop.
Third, the y-coordinate is transformed through modulating
as well, leading to a self-intersection. Finally, the shape is
scaled in the x- and z-coordinates.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = 2(cos(u))
y = sin(2u)
z = sin(3u)/3+(2v/2)

186
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(u)
z = v z = sin(u)+v z = sin(2u)+v z = sin(2u)/2+v

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = 2(cos(u)) x = 2(cos(u))

y = sin(u) y = sin(2u) y = sin(2u) y = sin(2u)
z = sin(3u)/3+v z = sin(3u)/3+v z = sin(3u)/3+v z = sin(3u)/3+(2v/2)

187
Analyzing
Looptecture F design variations

First, transform the parallel, vertically extruded sides of the

loop into a conical projection by multiplying a v-parameter in
the y-coordinate. Second, apply flattening to the y-coordinate.
Finally, apply texturing to the z-coordinate.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = 2(cos(u))
y = v/2(sin(sin(2u)))
z = cos(10v)/12-sin(10v)/12+sin(3u)/3
+(2v/2)

188
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = 2(cos(u)) x = 2(cos(u)) x = 2(cos(u)) x = 2(cos(u))

y = sin(2u) y = (v/2)(sin(2u)) y = (v/2)(sin(sin(2u))) y = (v/2)(sin(sin(2u)))
z = sin(3u)/3+(2v/2) z = sin(3u)/3+(2v/2) z = sin(3u)/3+(2v/2) z = cos(5v)/6+sin(3u)/3+(2v/2)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, π/2 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = 2(cos(u)) x = 2(cos(u)) x = 2(cos(u)) x = 2(cos(u))

y = (v/2)(sin(sin(2u))) y = (v/2)(sin(sin(2u))) y = (v/2)(sin(sin(2u))) y = (v/2)(sin(sin(2u)))
z = cos(5v)/6-sin(5v)/6+sin(3u)/3 z = cos(10v)/12-sin(5v)/6+sin(3u)/3 z = cos(5v)/6-sin(10v)/12+sin(3u)/3 z = cos(10v)/12-sin(10v)/12+sin(3u)/3
+(2v/2) +(2v/2) +(2v/2) +(2v/2)

189
Mercedes-Benz Museum in Stuttgart, Germany, 2006
UNStudio, Amsterdam, Netherlands

Next to the Daimler factory, UNStudio designed a 32,000 m2

(350,000 sq ft) museum, which also includes stores, offices, a
restaurant and an auditorium. The inner helical ramps spiral up
and around a central void, a design inspired by a trefoil knot.

Interior and exterior photographs by Brigida Gonzalez. Courtesy of UNStudio.

191
Analyzing
Mercedes-Benz Museum a mathematical recipe

First, transform a circle into a trefoil knot by adding a cosine

function to the x-coordinate (texturing  ) and a sine function
to the y- and z-coordinates. Second, multiply the x- and
y-coordinates by a v-parameter, transforming the line into a
surface. Third, replace the sine function in the z-coordinate with
a u-parameter, breaking the closed loop and allowing it to spiral
upwards. Finally, increase the period of the ramp (cutting  ).

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 12π, 2π/3 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = v((-3/2)cos(2u)+cos(u))
y = v((3/2)sin(2u)+sin(u))
z = u/4

192
{ u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π } { u | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π }

x = 3(cos(u)) x = 3((-3/2)cos(2u)+cos(u)) x = 3((-3/2)cos(2u)+cos(u)) x = 3((-3/2)cos(2u)+cos(u))

y = 3(sin(u)) y = 3(sin(u)) y = 3((3/2)sin(2u)+sin(u)) y = 3((3/2)sin(2u)+sin(u))
z = sin(3u)

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 2π/3 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 2π/3 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 7π, 2π/3 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 12π, 2π/3 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = v((-3/2)cos(2u)+cos(u)) x = v((-3/2)cos(2u)+cos(u)) x = v((-3/2)cos(2u)+cos(u)) x = v((-3/2)cos(2u)+cos(u))

y = v((3/2)sin(2u)+sin(u)) y = v((3/2)sin(2u)+sin(u)) y = v((3/2)sin(2u)+sin(u)) y = v((3/2)sin(2u)+sin(u))
z = sin(3u) z = u/4 z = u/4 z = u/4

193
Analyzing
Mercedes-Benz Museum design variations

First, change the configuration of the ramp by altering the

frequency of the cosine and sine functions in the x- and
y-coordinates respectively. When both curves are of frequency
three (modulating  ), the three leaves of the ramp become four.
Next, subtract u from 1 within the sine and cosine functions
in the x- and y-coordinates, breaking the rotational symmetry.
Finally, use flattening to contain the ramp within a
rectilinear boundary.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 12π, 2π/3 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = v((-3/2)cos(3u)+cos(1-u))
y = v(sin((3/2)sin(3u)+sin(1-u)))
z = u/4

194
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 12π, 2π/3 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 12π, 2π/3 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 12π, 2π/3 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 12π, 2π/3 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = v((-3/2)cos(2u)+cos(u)) x = v((-3/2)cos(2u)+cos(1-u)) x = v(sin((-3/2)cos(2u)+cos(1-u))) x = v((-3/2)cos(2u)+cos(1-u))

y = v((3/2)sin(2u)+sin(u)) y = v((3/2)sin(2u)+sin(1-u)) y = v((3/2)sin(2u)+sin(1-u)) y = v(sin((3/2)sin(2u)+sin(1-u)))
z = u/4 z = u/4 z = u/4 z = u/4

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 12π, 2π/3 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 12π, 2π/3 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 12π, 2π/3 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 12π, 2π/3 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = v((-3/2)cos(3u)+cos(u)) x = v((-3/2)cos(3u)+cos(1-u)) x = v(sin((-3/2)cos(3u)+cos(1-u))) x = v((-3/2)cos(3u)+cos(1-u))

y = v((3/2)sin(3u)+sin(u)) y = v((3/2)sin(3u)+sin(1-u)) y = v((3/2)sin(3u)+sin(1-u)) y = v(sin((3/2)sin(3u)+sin(1-u)))
z = u/4 z = u/4 z = u/4 z = u/4

195
Developable
Surfaces
Developable
Surfaces

‘That’s an important word, “understanding”.

When I use that word, it means, “what
the mind can do to find relationships”.
I have been giving you relationships
and relationships and relationships.’

(Buckminster Fuller, 1980)

198
A sheet of paper on a desk is like a In this chapter, the cylinder and cone
rectangle or plane in a Cartesian are manipulated under a series of
coordinate system. Lift the paper off mathematical transformations while
from the desk, arch it, and connect the maintaining their developable surface
two short ends together. A plane has logic. Above each three-dimensional
transformed into a cylinder. If the sheet developable surface is a flat two-
of paper was initially cut into a fan-like dimensional unrolled surface; in each
shape, connecting the two edges could case, the two-dimensional unrolled
create a cone. Cylinders and cones are surface could be used to construct the
examples of developable surfaces. A three-dimensional shape. Like a
developable surface is a surface with template or a cut file, each shape could
zero Gaussian curvature; in other words, be constructed out of a flat sheet of
a three-dimensional surface that can be material. As the shapes transform, look
unrolled to a flat two-dimensional at how their unrolled surfaces change.
surface without stretching or The object of this experiment is to
compressing. design an understanding of developable
surfaces by drawing relationships
Throughout this guide, shapes have between shapes and their two-
morphed under mathematical dimensional unrolled constructs.
transformations. It is possible to
transform developable surfaces without
compromising their zero Gaussian
curvature.

199
Developable
Surfaces Plane to cylinder

A plane can be transformed into a cylinder by defining a circle

in the x- and y-coordinates. The plane and cylinder, both defined
by the same periods, can be constructed out of the same two-
dimensional plane. The extruded cosine and sine curves also
share a common two-dimensional unrolled surface.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u)
y = sin(u)
z = v

200
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x=u x=u x=u x = cos(u)

z = v y = cos(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(u)
z = v z = v z = v

201
Developable
Surfaces: Cylinder with ascending
Plane
to Cylinder

As a cylinder transforms by ascending in the z-coordinate, the

closed circular section peels open to follow a helix. As the shape
ascends, its unrolled two-dimensional surface shears to the
right; the rectangle becomes a parallelogram.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u)
y = sin(u)
z = u+v

202
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u) x = cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(u) y = sin(u)
z = v z = u/4+v z = u/2+v z = u+v

203
Developable
Surfaces: Cylinder with texturing and ascending
Plane
to Cylinder

Texturing is applied to the previous shape. As the frequency

of the texture increases, the ripple in the flat two-dimensional
unrolled surface also increases.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(8u)/10+cos(u)
y = sin(8u)/10+sin(u)
z = u+v

204
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(u) x = cos(2u)/(5/2)+cos(u) x = cos(4u)/5+cos(u) x = cos(8u)/10+cos(u)

y = sin(u) y = sin(2u)/(5/2)+sin(u) y = sin(4u)/5+sin(u) y = sin(8u)/10+sin(u)
z = u+v z = u+v z = u+v z = u+v

205
Developable
Surfaces: Cylinder with flattening, texturing
Plane
to Cylinder
and ascending

On top of texturing, flattening is applied to the initial shape.

As the developable surface flattens over a series of recursions,
the two-dimensional construct scales in one direction.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(cos(8u)/10
+cos(u))))))
y = sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(8u)/10
+sin(u))))))
z = u+v

206
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = cos(8u)/10+cos(u) x = sin(cos(8u)/10+cos(u)) x = sin(sin(sin(cos(8u)/10+cos(u)))) x = sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(cos(8u)/10

y = sin(8u)/10+sin(u) y = sin(sin(8u)/10+sin(u)) y = sin(sin(sin(sin(8u)/10+sin(u)))) +cos(u))))))
z = u+v z = u+v z = u+v y = sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(8u)/10
+sin(u))))))
z = u+v

207
Developable
Surfaces: Cylinder with modulating, flattening
Plane
to Cylinder
and texturing

When the ascending transformation (adding a u-parameter in

the z-coordinate) is replaced with a function of sine, the helical
surface reconnects into a closed loop. After the shape is closed,
modulating can be applied to vary the frequency at which the
shape undulates up and down. As the three-dimensional shape
modulates, so does the two-dimensional unrolled surface.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(cos(8u)/10
+cos(u))))))
y = sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(8u)/10
+sin(u))))))
z = sin(3u)+v

208
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(cos(8u)/10 x = sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(cos(8u)/10 x = sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(cos(8u)/10 x = sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(cos(8u)/10

+cos(u)))))) +cos(u)))))) +cos(u)))))) +cos(u))))))
y = sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(8u)/10 y = sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(8u)/10 y = sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(8u)/10 y = sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(sin(8u)/10
+sin(u)))))) +sin(u)))))) +sin(u)))))) +sin(u))))))
z = u+v z = sin(u)+v z = sin(2u)+v z = sin(3u)+v

209
Developable
Surfaces Plane to cone

A plane can be transformed into a cone by defining a circle

(using cosine and sine) and multiplying with a v-parameter in
the x- and y-coordinates. The shape no longer extrudes in one
direction; instead, it tapers to a point. The unrolled developable
surface transforms from a rectangle to a fan-like shape.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = (v/3)cos(u)
y = (v/3)sin(u)
z = v

210
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x=u x = (v/3)u x = (v/3)u x = (v/3)cos(u)

z = v y = (v/3)cos(u) y = (v/3)sin(u) y = (v/3)sin(u)
z = v z = v z = v

211
Developable
Surfaces: Cone with spiralling
Plane
to Cone

As spiralling is applied to the z-coordinate, the circle profile

transforms into a helical spiral, while maintaining its taper to
a point. As the three-dimensional shape morphs, the radius
of the two-dimensional unrolled surface increases incrementally.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = (v/3)cos(u)
y = (v/3)sin(u)
z = (u/2)v

212
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = (v/3)cos(u) x = (v/3)cos(u) x = (v/3)cos(u) x = (v/3)cos(u)

y = (v/3)sin(u) y = (v/3)sin(u) y = (v/3)sin(u) y = (v/3)sin(u)
z = v z = (u/4)v z = (u/3)v z = (u/2)v

213
Developable
Surfaces: Cone with spiralling and texturing
Plane
to Cone

Texturing is added to the helical cone from the previous page.

The size of the texture applied to the surface is directly related
to the variation in the shape’s radius. As the frequency of the
texture increases, the two-dimensional surface’s frequency
also increases.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = (v/3)(cos(8u)/10+cos(u))
y = (v/3)(sin(8u)/10+sin(u))
z = (u/2)v

214
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = (v/3)cos(u) x = (v/3)(cos(2u)/(5/2)+cos(u)) x = (v/3)(cos(4u)/5+cos(u)) x = (v/3)(cos(8u)/10+cos(u))

y = (v/3)sin(u) y = (v/3)(sin(2u)/(5/2)+sin(u)) y = (v/3)(sin(4u)/5+sin(u)) y = (v/3)(sin(8u)/10+sin(u))
z = (u/2)v z = (u/2)v z = (u/2)v z = (u/2)v

215
Developable
Surfaces: Cone with spiralling, texturing
Plane
to Cone
and modulating

Modulating alters the frequency of a curve. When modulating

is applied to a textured, helical, spiralled cone, the shape
incrementally spirals inward. As the shape spirals in on itself,
its surface area also increases, resulting in a two-dimensional
unrolled surface that grows and spirals anti-clockwise.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = (v/3)(cos(8u)/10+cos((5/2)u))
y = (v/3)(sin(8u)/10+sin((5/2)u))
z = (u/2)v

216
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = (v/3)(cos(8u)/10+cos(u)) x = (v/3)(cos(8u)/10+cos((3/2)u)) x = (v/3)(cos(8u)/10+cos(2u)) x = (v/3)(cos(8u)/10+cos((5/2)u))

y = (v/3)(sin(8u)/10+sin(u)) y = (v/3)(sin(8u)/10+sin((3/2)u)) y = (v/3)(sin(8u)/10+sin(2u)) y = (v/3)(sin(8u)/10+sin((5/2)u))
z = (u/2)v z = (u/2)v z = (u/2)v z = (u/2)v

217
Developable
Surfaces: Cone with spiralling, texturing and
Plane
to Cone
more modulating

Further modulating is applied to the previous shape.

In this morphing series, the frequency of the texture is
altered. As the frequency increases, the previously
disintegrated texture reappears. A fine ripple emerges
in the two-dimensional unrolled surface.

{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = (v/3)(cos(32u)/19+cos((5/2)u))
y = (v/3)(sin(32u)/19+sin((5/2)u))
z = (u/2)v

218
{ (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π } { (u,v) | 0 ≤ u ≥ 2π, 0 ≤ v ≥ π }

x = (v/3)(cos(8u)/10+cos((5/2)u)) x = (v/3)(cos(16u)/13+cos((5/2)u)) x = (v/3)(cos(24u)/16+cos((5/2)u)) x = (v/3)(cos(32u)/19+cos((5/2)u))

y = (v/3)(sin(8u)/10+sin((5/2)u)) y = (v/3)(sin(16u)/13+sin((5/2)u)) y = (v/3)(sin(24u)/16+sin((5/2)u)) y = (v/3)(sin(32u)/19+sin((5/2)u))
z = (u/2)v z = (u/2)v z = (u/2)v z = (u/2)v

219
Assumptions
Assumptions

‘His numerous legs, which were pitifully

thin compared to the rest of his bulk,
waved helplessly before his eyes.’

(Franz Kafka, 1915)

222
When an individual chooses a particular Throughout this guide, many shapes
tool to design with, he or she is also appeared very spatial or even
choosing a specific technical constraint architectural. Remember, these are
and bias. The choice of which tool to use abstract line drawings defining the
determines which procedures can be boundary of a geometry. They are only
followed. If the individual is unaware of located within a Cartesian grid, not an
this bias, the tool may be driving the actual site. They are lines, not detailed
designer, rather than the designer wall sections. They are diagrams:
controlling the tool at hand. However, something between a dream and reality,
each tool has a philosophy embedded theory and practice.
within it. This is especially the case for
mathematics and many digital tools. Finally, what we compute is not always
As the author of this guide, I do not what we see. A sine curve is a line that
necessarily support or disagree with the follows the periodic, trigonometric
philosophical bias of mathematics. My function sine along a distance defined
role is to design an understanding of by the parameter u. In the modulating
mathematics and share my constructed transformation, we learned how the
reality. Note, my understanding of frequency of a curve can change. If the
mathematics is self-constructed and frequency of the curve increases to an
designed, therefore it is also biased. extreme, the undulating curve will
eventually appear to be a thick line or
The world of mathematics does not even a filled-in rectangle. If an individual
think, feel or experience. It is a world of was asked what they saw, he or she
shapes, a world within itself; it is an would not say an undulating sine curve
autonomous reality – not a phenomenal – yet mathematics does not care what
one. It is autonomous, therefore we see. It is autonomous. What it
architecture is autonomous when seen defines makes it what it is! This is
through its lens. It is not concerned with similar to a dictionary, or to the field
typology, materiality or even gravity. of linguistics – but governed here by
a mathematical syntax. Mathematics
is blinded by its own computational
strength. Luckily, we can see, think,
feel and experience.

223
Assumptions

Disclaimer: This shape was generated by an ‘ugly’ equation. As a means to prevent mathematics from
working harder than it needs to, ‘ugly’ equations are not shown in this guide.

224
A philosophical reading of mathematics

Within this guide, a basic transformation Mathematics is a formalist discipline.

called translating was introduced. At We can assume this is true, since it is
first, it may appear to be trivial, however primarily invested in shape definitions.
its philosophy is quite beautiful. It states Although mathematics can potentially
that the location of a shape in space is define all the shapes in the world, I do
part of that shape’s inherent DNA. not think it ‘likes’ all shapes equally.
Therefore, if a shape moves in the Perhaps, mathematics is inherently lazy
x-direction, it transforms into a new – like many of us. If this is the case, it
shape. Two spheres of the same size in likes simple shapes, such as planes,
two different locations are not the same cylinders, spheres and helicoids best.
shape – according to mathematics. If a Shapes that are gestural and have
building was built in one city rather than complex asymmetrical relationships
another, it would operate differently. require longer, ‘messy’ or at times even
Similarly, if a building was rotated on ‘ugly’ equations. This is more work for
the same site, its dialogue with solar mathematics, therefore it does not
orientation and passive systems would favour them as much. Similarly, if a
change. Mathematics believes the design requires many equations to be
location of a shape is part of that shape. fully defined, mathematics would prefer
I suspect, therefore, that it is concerned a different design, one that was defined
with these architectural issues. by a single equation. Mathematics
is a ‘lazy’ formal purist, a reductionist
– perhaps even a modernist. It prefers
shapes that express the inherent periodic
nature of trigonometric functions. Why
force a tool to do something it does not
want to? Use a different tool that would
prefer to do that task!

225
Assumptions

Disclaimer: This shape was generated by an equation ‘too ugly’ for this guide.

226
How was the guide developed?

As the author of this pedagogical guide Rules of perspective do not tell the
it is my responsibility to confess that I individual what to draw, but rather
am not a mathematician; I am a guide the individual by giving him or her
designer. As a result, my approach to a means to a particular illusion of depth.
researching mathematics is unorthodox. Similarly, this pedagogical guide does
The question of whether or not every not teach how to design with
shape can be described by the mathematics, but rather portrays a
trigonometric functions of sine and series of frameworks or a guide that can
cosine is still an open problem. A be used in many different ways.
mathematician might be invested in
researching a proof to this question but When I began researching mathematics,
I, like most designers, am not interested I approached it a bit like learning how to
in a proof. Instead I am after the means draw. Through trial and error, I observed
and methods to instrumentalize how specific operations yielded
trigonometric functions as a design tool. particular results. Initially, I could
As a designer, I can learn far more by not explain why this was the case, as
literally trying to make every shape in a mathematician would have been able
the world rather than trying to prove to, but tacitly I knew what operations
whether or not it can be done. would cause a particular transformation.
As I incrementally established a
Imagine trying to write an algorithm to fundamental set of rules, I began asking
prove that every image can be drawn. A more questions. Each topic within this
proof to this does not help an individual guide builds on or challenges the prior
learn how to draw. In order to learn how one. In the end, this guide can be seen
to draw the individual must first draw! as a guide through my own thought
Words cannot easily express the feeling process into mathematics. This
of pressing a brush pen down on a piece pedagogical guide into mathematical
of paper. However, when an individual transformations does not claim to be the
follows the rules of one- or two-point only way to approach mathematics as a
perspective, that individual is learning design tool. It is a particular, biased
through a set of explicit instructions. approach. It is my approach!

227
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230
Acknowledgments

While a student at Massachusetts I would like to give special thanks to

Institute of Technology, I became very Laurence King Publishing, especially
interested in the inner computational Philip Cooper, Sara Goldsmith, Angus
workings behind digital tools. At some Hyland and Alex Coco. This project was
point, I became addicted to the curious fully supported from the beginning, with
autonomy of the field of mathematics. precise critiques and suggestions
It is a bizarrely beautiful field, of which, throughout the process. Also, Hamish
even today, I have only scratched the Muir was instrumental in refining the
surface. overall graphical layout within the book.
Each subtle change made a significant
Dennis Shelden was the first individual difference to the book’s overall aesthetic.
with whom I shared my research. As
the work began to reach high levels of Lastly, I am most grateful for my family
complexity, Dennis encouraged me to and friends who are always there for me.
step back and understand the basic
principles of the mathematics. Since This book is dedicated to my wife
that conversation, I have been obsessed Ting-Ting Choma, who has been
with designing and understanding. endlessly supportive.

Embedded deep within this book is a

philosophical framework rooted in the
discourse of shape grammars. George
Stiny challenges symbolic computing
with visual calculation. When I first
started working on this project, George
told me to write fewer words and let the
equations and shapes be the primary
text. When flipping through this book,
stop and look at the shapes and
equations. They are one and the same.

231
Published in 2015 by
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© Text and design 2015 Joseph Choma

This work was produced by Laurence

King Publishing Ltd, London.

Joseph Choma has asserted his right

under the Copyright, Designs and Patent
Act 1988 to be identified as the Author
of this Work.

All rights reserved. No part of this

publication may be reproduced or
transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopy, recording or any
information storage and retrieval
system, without prior permission in
writing from the publisher.

A catalogue record for this book is

available from the British Library.

ISBN 978-1-78067-4-131
Printed in China