MCE 108

FUNDAMENTAL OF AUTO-ELECTRICAL

SYSTEMS

BY

ENGR. AJETUNMOBI. D. T.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHATRONICS ENGINEERING

TECHNOLOGY,

THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC ILARO,

ILARO, OGUN STATE.

JANUARY, 2022.

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 Battery and its function
A battery is a device that stores chemical energy and converts it to electrical energy. The
chemical reactions in a battery involve the flow of electrons from one material (electrode) to
another, through an external circuit. The flow of electrons provides an electric current that can be
used to do work.
An automotive battery or car battery is a rechargeable battery that is used to start a motor
vehicle. Its main purpose is to provide an electric current to the electric-powered starting motor,
which in turn starts the chemically-powered internal combustion engine that actually propels the
vehicle. Once the engine is running, power for the car's electrical systems is still supplied by the
battery, with the alternator charging the battery as demands increase or decrease.
Purpose of a battery
A battery is a device that stores chemical energy and converts it to electrical energy.
 The chemical reactions in a battery involve the flow of electrons from one material (electrode) to
another, through an external circuit. 
 The flow of electrons provides an electric current that can be used to do work.
 To balance the flow of electrons, charged ions also flow through an electrolyte solution that is in
contact with both electrodes.
 Different electrodes and electrolytes produce different chemical reactions that affect how the
battery works, how much energy it can store and its voltage. 

Gasoline and diesel engine

Typically, starting uses less than three percent of the battery capacity. For this reason,
automotive batteries are designed to deliver maximum current for a short period of time. They
are sometimes referred to as "SLI batteries" for this reason, for starting, lighting and ignition.
SLI batteries are not designed for deep discharging, and a full discharge can reduce the battery's
lifespan.

As well as starting the engine, an SLI battery supplies the extra power necessary when the
vehicle's electrical requirements exceed the supply from the charging system. It is also a
stabilizer, evening out potentially damaging voltage spikes. While the engine is running most of

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the power is provided by the alternator, which includes a voltage regulator to keep the output
between 13.5 and 14.5 V. Modern SLI batteries are lead-acid type, using six series-connected
cells to provide a nominal 12-volt system (in most passenger vehicles and light trucks), or twelve
cells for a 24-volt system in heavy trucks or earth-moving equipment, for example.

Gas explosions can occur at the negative electrode where hydrogen gas can build up due to
blocked battery vents or a poorly ventilated setting, combined with an ignition
source. Explosions during engine start-up are typically associated with corroded or dirty battery
posts. A 1993 study by the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration said that 31% of
vehicle battery explosion injuries occurred while charging the battery. The next-most common
scenarios were while working on cable connections, while jump-starting, typically by failing to
connect to the dead battery before the charging source and failing to connect to the vehicle
chassis rather than directly to the grounded battery post, and while checking fluid levels. Close to
two-thirds of those injured suffered chemical burns, and nearly three-fourths suffered eye
injuries, among other possible injuries.

Electric and hybrid cars

Electric vehicles (EVs) are powered by a high-voltage electric vehicle battery, but they usually
have an automotive battery as well, so that they can use standard automotive accessories which
are designed to run on 12 V. They are often referred to as auxiliary batteries.

Unlike conventional, internal combustion engined vehicles, EVs don't charge the auxiliary

battery with an alternator—instead, they use a DC-to-DC converter to step down the high voltage
to the required float-charge voltage (typically around 14 V).

Construction of a Lead-acid cell

What is a Lead Acid Battery? If we break the name Lead Acid battery we will get Lead, Acid,
and Battery. Lead is a chemical element (symbol is Pb and the atomic number is 82). It is a soft
and malleable element. We know what Acid is; it can donate a proton or accept an electron pair
when it is reacting. So, a battery, which consists of Lead and anhydrous plumbic
acid (sometimes wrongly called as lead peroxide), is called as Lead Acid Battery.
A Lead Acid Battery consists of the following Plates, Separator, an Electrolyte and Hard
Plastic with a hard rubber case.

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In the batteries, the plates are of two types, positive and negative. The positive one consists of
Lead dioxide and negative one consists of Sponge Lead. These two plates are separated using
a separator which is an insulating material. This total construction is kept in a hard plastic
case with an electrolyte. The electrolyte is water and sulfuric acid.

The hard plastic case is one cell. A single cell store typically 2.1V. Due to this reason, A 12V
lead acid battery consists of 6 cells and provide 6 x 2.1V/Cell = 12.6V typically.

 charge storage capacity is highly dependable on the active material (Electrolyte quantity) and
the plate’s size. You may have seen that lithium battery storage capacity is described in mAh or
milliamp-hour rating, but in the case of Lead Acid battery, it is Amp hour.
Working of Lead Acid Battery
There are huge chemical process is involved in Lead Acid battery’s charging and discharging
condition. The diluted sulfuric acid H2SO4 molecules break into two parts when the acid
dissolves. It will create positive ions 2H+ and negative ions SO4-. As we told before, two
electrodes are connected as plates, Anode and Cathode. Anode catches the negative ions and
cathode attracts the positive ions. This bonding in Anode and SO 4- and Cathode with 2H+

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interchange electrons and which is further react with the H2O or with the water (Diluted sulfuric
acid, Sulfuric Acid + Water).
The battery has two states of chemical reaction, Charging and Discharging.

Lead Acid Battery Charging

As we know, to charge a battery, we need to provide a voltage greater than the terminal voltage.
So to charge a 12.6V battery, 13V can be applied.
But what actually happen when we charge a Lead Acid Battery
Specifically, when the battery is connected with the charger, the sulfuric acid molecules break
into two ions, positive ions 2H+ and negative ions SO4-. The hydrogen exchange electrons with
the cathode and become hydrogen, this hydrogen reacts with the PbSO 4 in cathode and form
Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) and Lead (Pb). On the other hand, SO4- exchange electrons with anode
and become radical SO4. This SO4 reacts with PbSO4 of anode and create the lead peroxide
PbO2 and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). The energy gets stored by increasing the gravity of sulfuric acid
and increasing the cell potential voltage.
As explained above, following chemical reactions takes place at Anode and Cathode during the
charging process.
At cathode
PbSO4 + 2e- => Pb + SO42-
At anode
PbSO4 + 2H2O => PbO2 + SO42- + 4H- + 2e-
Combining above two equation, the overall chemical reaction will be
2PbSO4 + 2H2O => PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4
There are various methods applicable for charging the lead-acid battery. Each method can be
used for specific lead-acid battery for specific applications. Some application uses constant
voltage charging method, some application uses a constant current method, whereas tickle
charging also useful in some cases. Normally battery manufacturer provides the proper method
of charging the specific lead-acid batteries. Constant current charging is not typically used in
Lead Acid Battery charging.

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Most common charging method used in lead acid battery is constant voltage charging
method which is an effective process in terms of charging time. In full charge cycle the charge
voltage remains constant and the current gradually decreased with the increase of battery charge
level.

Lead Acid Battery Discharging

Discharging of a lead acid battery is again involved with chemical reactions. The sulfuric acid
is in the diluted form with typically 3:1 ratio with water and sulfuric acid. When the loads are
connected across the plates, the sulfuric acid again breaks into positive ions 2H+ and negative
ions SO4. The hydrogen ions react with the PbO 2 and make PbO and water H2O.  PbO start
reacting with the H2SO4 and creates PbSO4 and H2O.
On the other side SO4- ions exchange electrons from Pb, creating radical SO4 which further
creates PbSO4 reacting with the Pb.
As explained above, following chemical reactions takes place at Anode and Cathode during the
discharging process. These reaction are exactly opposite of charging reactions:
At cathode

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Pb + SO42- => PbSO4 + 2e-
At anode:
PbO2 + SO42- + 4H- + 2e- => PbSO4 + 2H2O

Combining above two equation, the overall chemical reaction will be

PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 => 2PbSO4 + 2H2O

Due to the electron exchange across anode and cathode, electron balance across the plates is
affected. The electrons then flow through the load and the battery gets discharged.
During this discharge, the diluted sulfuric acid gravity decrease. Also, at the same time, the
potential difference of the cell decrease.
Process of electrolyte
An electrolyte is a substance that produces an electrically conducting solution when dissolved in
a polar solvent, such as water. The dissolved electrolyte separates into cations and anions, which
disperse uniformly through the solvent. Electrically, such a solution is neutral. If an electric
potential is applied to such a solution, the cations of the solution are drawn to the electrode that
has an abundance of electrons, while the anions are drawn to the electrode that has a deficit of

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electrons. The movement of anions and cations in opposite directions within the solution
amounts to a current.
The standard ratings of Lead Acid battery
Every lead-acid battery is provided with datasheet for standard charge current and discharges
current. Typically a 12V lead-acid battery which is applicable for the automotive application
could be ranged from 100Ah to 350Ah. This rating is defined as the discharge rating with an 8
hour timing period.
For example, a 160Ah battery could provide 20A of supply current to the load for 8 hours of
the span. We can draw more current but it is not advisable to do so. By drawing more current
than the maximum discharge current in respect of 8 hours will damage the battery efficiency and
the battery internal resistance could also be changed, which further increases the batte ry
temperature.
On the other hand, during the charging phase, we should be careful about the charger
polarity, it should be properly connected with the battery polarity. Reverse polarity is dangerous
for the lead-acid battery charging. The readymade charger comes with a charging voltage and
charging current meter with a control option. We should provide greater voltage than the battery
voltage to charge the battery. Maximum charge current should be the same as the maximum
supply current at 8 hours discharging rates. If we take the same 12V 160Ah example, then the
maximum supply current is 20A, so the maximum safe charging current is the 20A.
We should not increase or provide large charging current as this will result in heat and
increased gas generation.
Lead-acid battery maintenance rules
1. Watering is the most neglected maintenance feature of flooded lead-acid batteries. As
overcharging decreases water, we need to check it frequently. Less water creates oxidation in
plates and decreases the lifespan of the battery. Add distilled or ionized water when needed.
2. Check for the vents, they need to be perfected with rubber caps, often the rubber caps sticks
with the holes too tightly.
3. Recharge lead-acid batteries after each use. A long period without recharging provides
sulfating in the plates.

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4. Do not freeze the battery or charge it more than 49-degree centigrade. In cold ambient
batteries need to be fully charged as fully charge batteries safer than the empty batteries in
respect of freezing.
5. Do not deep discharge the battery less than 1.7V per cell.
6. To store a lead acid battery, it needs to be completely charged then the electrolyte needs to be
drained. Then the battery will become dry and can be stored for a long time period.
State and explain factors which affect battery life.
Excess heat is a main cause of battery failures, as when the electrolyte evaporates due to high
temperatures, decreasing the effective surface area of the plates exposed to the electrolyte, and
leading to sulfation. Grid corrosion rates increase with temperature. Also low temperatures can
lead to battery failure.
If the battery is discharged to the point where it can't start the engine, the engine can be jump
started via an external source of power. Once running, the engine can recharge the battery, if the
alternator and charging system are undamaged.
Corrosion at the battery terminals can prevent a car from starting due to electrical resistance,
which can be prevented by the proper application of dielectric grease.
Sulfation is when the electrodes become coated with a hard layer of lead sulfate, which weakens
the battery. Sulfation can happen when battery is not fully charged and remains
discharged. Sulfated batteries should be charged slowly to prevent damage.
SLI batteries are not designed for deep discharge, and their life is reduced when subjected to this.
Car batteries using lead-antimony plates require regular topping-up with pure water to replace
water lost due to electrolysis and evaporation. By changing the alloying element to calcium,
more recent designs have reduced the rate of water loss. Modern car batteries have reduced
maintenance requirements, and may not provide caps for addition of water to the cells. Such
batteries include extra electrolyte above the plates to allow for losses during the battery life.
Some battery manufacturers include a built-in hydrometer to show the state of charge of the
battery.
The primary wear-out mechanism is the shedding of active material from the battery plates,
which accumulates at the bottom of the cells and which may eventually short-circuit the plates.
This can be substantially reduced by enclosing one set of plates in plastic separator bags, made
from a permeable material. This allows the electrolyte and ions to pass through but keeps the

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sludge build up from bridging the plates. The sludge largely consists of lead sulfate, which is
produced at both electrodes.
Environmental impact of lead-acid battery
Battery recycling of automotive batteries reduces the need for resources required for the
manufacture of new batteries, diverts toxic lead from landfills, and prevents the risk of improper
disposal. Once a lead–acid battery ceases to hold a charge, it is deemed a used lead-acid battery
(ULAB), which is classified as hazardous waste under the Basel Convention. The 12-volt car
battery is the most recycled product in the world, according to the United States Environmental
Protection Agency. In the U.S. alone, about 100 million auto batteries a year are replaced, and 99
percent of them are turned in for recycling. However, the recycling may be done incorrectly in
unregulated environments. As part of global waste trade, ULABs are shipped from industrialized
countries to developing countries for disassembly and recuperation of the contents. About 97
percent of the lead can be recovered. Pure Earth estimates that over 12 million Third
World people are affected by lead contamination from ULAB processing.
On any vehicle that has computerized engine controls; the loss of voltage to the powertrain
control module (PCM) causes it to forget its; adaptive memory settings. Consequently, adaptive
memory contains the adjustments; the (PCM) has learned over a period of time. For example, the
fuel mixture; transmission shift points and other control functions. The keep alive memory, also
includes all the results for the; diagnostic self-tests the (PCM) runs on itself.
Explain modern procedure for connecting batteries and disconnecting batteries to and
from modern vehicles to avoid loss of stored codes and information
Disconnecting A Car Battery, May Cause A Whole List Of Issues:
 Starting problems

 Drivability issues

 Loss of air conditioning

 Power accessory functions (door windows, seats, sunroof)

 False warning lights
 Damage to electronic module

This may cause the engine to run poorly. Because, the air/fuel mixture is too rich or too lean;
until the (PCM) can, relearn the fuel trim adjustments. The transmission may not feel the same;

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until the (PCM) or transmission control module, relearns the shift adjustments. The affected
module may; prevent the (ABS) or airbag systems from working.

It also, resets the climate control module. So, on some vehicles, that means the A/C will not
work. Until the module is programmed, with the correct instructions. It also, resets the body
control module (BCM). This can mess up the operation of power accessories. Such as, power
windows, memory seats; power sunroof or electronic suspension settings. It may, reset or disable
the anti-theft system. The engine may crank but not start. Because, the anti-theft system thinks;
somebody is trying to steal the vehicle.

Loss of power window and/or power sunroof position settings. Loss of steering angle sensor
settings. The steering angle sensor will have to undergo a relearn procedure; following the
battery disconnect. Replacing the car battery on some vehicles requires entering the new; battery
info into the (PCM) with a scan tool. This is necessary because; the vehicle’s charging system is
programmed to; gradually increase the charging rate, as the battery ages. Finally, it causes a loss
of channel settings on an, electronic radio and clock.

A Handy Tool Everyone Could Use Is A Memory Saver.

So, a memory saver is simply a connector, with a small battery. It has just enough voltage and
current to keep all of the computer memory alive; while the cars main battery is disconnected. In
short, the connector plugs into the car’s cigarette lighter or the (OBD-II) connector.
The memory saver tool incorporates a diode on the positive side. A diode is essentially a one-
way valve for electricity. It stops the electricity from flowing backwards causing damage.

The steps to use a memory saver are easy:

 Always turn off the car; before disconnecting the battery.

 Then, plug in the memory saver with its small battery attached into the; cigarette lighter or
the OBD-II connector.

 The OBD-II connector is located; under the driver’s side of the dashboard, on the steering
column.

 Next, remove the old battery; making sure that the positive battery wire is not, touching
the car’s body.

 Then, install the new battery and attach the connectors.

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  Finally, unplug the memory saver from the car. That’s all.

Charging system
The automobile charging system is a set of components working to keep a charge and provide
electrical energy for the vehicle electrical devices. Modern vehicles are now designed with many
electrical parts which makes them required a large amount of electrical energy. The charging
system powers the headlights, dashboard indicators light or warning lamps, fuses, relays, engine
plugs, brainbox, ECU, radio, control screen, fuel injector system, sensors etc. All these
components are interconnected to the car battery which is charged by the alternator.
Functions of Charging System
Below are functions of the charging system in automobile engines:
 The primary purpose of the charging system is to provide power to all electrical components in
a vehicle.
 It comprises alternator that maintains and keep the vehicle’s battery charged.
 Charging system supplies electrical current to fire the spark plugs, which ignite the air/fuel
mixture in the combustion chamber,
 Alternators help to charge dead batteries, while the engine is running.
 Charging system help to send the engine mechanical issue to the engines ECU using a sensing
device.
 Vehicles electrical components are powered when the engine is not running.
More functions will be covered as we explain the components of the charging system.
Components of Engine Charging System
Below are the major parts of the charging system in automobile engines:
Alternator:
An alternator is one of the major and inevitable parts in automobile charging system as it plays
the best role. The electrical power that charges the battery is from the alternator, but the current
produced is alternating current (AC). This AC power is immediately converted to direct current
(DC) because automobiles use a 12-volt DC electrical system. The dead battery does not mean
there is something wrong with it. it just that being deprive of charge, this is why alternator is also
checked if a car is not starting.
Voltage Regulator:

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The voltage regulator controls the alternator’s power output. Though this device is often located
in the alternator, as it regulates the charging voltage that the alternator produces. It keeps the
voltage between 13.5 and 14.5 volts to protect the electrical parts in the vehicle. in modern
vehicles that use ECU to sense when the battery needs to be charged as controls the volt
supplied. The warning lamp in the dashboard indicates something is wrong with the charging
system. Often time the warning lamp is indicating faulty alternator, resulting in an uncharged
battery.
Battery:
The battery is another essential of the automobile charging system, as it serves as a reservoir of
electrical power. the engines starter motor is directly connected to the positive terminal. It helps
to crank the component making the engine to start. As the engine is running, alternator directly
charges the battery. The battery can also supply power to the electrical components when the
engine isn’t running.
Charging system diagram:

Working Principle
The working of a car charging system can be complex or easy, depending on the design. Well,
the diagram layout of a vehicle charging system has been indicated below this post. It shows the
alternator, battery and vehicle loads, which are the electric components. in its design, alternators
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voltage is less than battery voltage when the engine is not running. This is because the current
from the battery is used to power the vehicle loads and not the alternator. The alternator contains
diodes that prevent current from flowing into the alternator.
In a situation where the engine is running, the alternator current output is greater than the battery
voltage. The current flow from the alternator to the electrical load in the vehicle and the battery
to charge it up. Conventionally, the alternators output voltage is above the battery voltage when
the engine is working.
Now you can see vehicles electrical load are still powered even the engine is not running, as far
the battery is charged enough. Though a large amount of energy is needed to power the various
electrical system contained in a vehicle. Batteries can still meet reasonable electrical demands
depending on their strength.
A car charging system begins its working when the starter key is on the ignition, at the point the
vehicle electrical components rely on the battery. as soon as the engine begins working alternator
start supplying power to the components and battery. This is why the battery is charged when the
engine is running.
Symptoms of Bad and Failing Charging System
As time goes on you can experience failing in your charging which can be often time caused by
its components. below are the symptoms of a bad charging in an automobile engine
Bad Alternator
If the alternator goes bad, the complete charging system won’t work as well. Most time, the
voltage regulator is always affected inside the alternator, since it controls the amount of current
that flows to the car electrical part. Alternators can offer higher voltage output if the regulator
fails which can cause a problem to the car battery and components that rely on it. This is because
the alternator has no power over the car 12-volt system.
Bad voltage regulator
On the other hand, a bad voltage regulator can send low voltage output to the car battery and
electrical components. with this, the battery is prevented from charging fully and the parts won’t
be properly powered. if care is not taken when the alternator goes wrong, the car electrical
system will be powered by the battery and drain it off.
Worn or Broken Belt:

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A broken alternator belt causes the system not to work well and the worn belt will often slip.
This will cause the voltage regulator to send a low charge to the battery and the electrical system
since the alternator is not spinning fast enough.
This issue is sometimes hard to detect most especially when it happens when the car is on a
drive. But consider changing the belt as soon as you notice.
Bad Battery:
A bad battery is another big cause of a bad and failing battery, a few years of the used battery
will stop holding charge. Automobile battery can normally last two to five years, so you can try
remembering how long you’ve used it.
Well, you can get the battery tested which done for free in some automobile workshop, if it
works fine then you can consider checking the connection between the alternator and the battery.
corrosion on the terminals can reduce the conductivity, so consider crabbing off.
In conclusion, a charging system is a great setup that aids all electrical components in the car. It
is the reason we can charge our phone or light cigarette with a car.
Generators
Generators are useful devices that provide electrical power during a power cut-off and prevent
discontinuity of day and night affairs and activities or disruption in operations in different
conditions and places. All a generator does is to convert the mechanical energy provided from an
external source, to electrical energy to provide enough energy for other appliances.
It works based on the Faraday law of electromagnetic induction, this law states that when a
conductor moves inside a magnetic field, the electrical charges are created and can be led to
make a flow. Again, in simple words, a generator is just a couple of rotating wire near or inside a
magnet or magnetic field that causes the electrical current. The example of a water pump is the
greatest to understand what a generator does.
First law:  Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, EMF induces and this
emf is called an induced emf and if the conductor is a closed circuit than the induced current
flows through it.
Second law: The magnitude of the induced EMF is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages.
So now, the induced voltage is as follows:

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where,

e is the induced voltage

N is the number of turns in the coil
Φ is the magnetic flux
t is the time

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Types of Generators
The generators are divided into two different and basic classes or categories which are AC
(Alternating Current) generator and DC (Direct Current) generator.
AC Generator
The AC generators or as they are also called the Alternator, are one of the most essential devices
of providing electrical power in several conditions in our life. ACs work based on the principle
of electromagnetic induction. AC generators are classified into two categories: induction
generators and synchronous generators. As there are no brushes in this type of generators,
maintenance is almost free. the size of ACs is smaller in comparison to DCs. So, they are more
commonly used. And at last, what makes this type more popular is that the losses of ACs are less
than DCs.
DC Generator
This type of generator is commonly found in off-grid applications. The DCs are classified into
three main categories according to the way their magnetic field is developed in the stator:
permanent-magnet generators, separately-excite generators, and self-excited generators. Some
advantages of DCs are: they are designed plainly. They are usually used for operating large
motors and electrical devices requiring direct control. DCs diminishes the fluctuations described
by smoothing the output voltage through a regular set of coils around the armature for some
steady state applications.
Components of Generators
The Engine
Maybe the most important part of every machine is the engine. it is generally the part of the
whole system that converts the fuel into usable energy and helps it move or perform its
mechanical function. Thus, the engine is sometimes called the machine’s prime mover. In a
generator, the engine fuel source can be gasoline, diesel, natural gas, propane, bio-diesel, water,
sewage gas, or hydrogen. The engine uses one of these kinds of fuel to create mechanical energy
the generator will convert into electricity. Some engines commonly used in the design of
generators include reciprocating, steam, turbine engines, and microturbines.
Fuel System
All the Generators that are running on one of the different types of fuel mentioned before have a
system that gathers and pumps the fuel to the engine. The fuel system contains a tank storing

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enough fuel to power a generator for an equivalent number of hours. There is also a pipe
connecting to the tank and then to the engine, and the return pipe connects the engine to the fuel
tank for the return of fuel.There is a fuel pump whose job is to move the fuel from the tank
through a fuel pipe and then to the engine. Another part of the fuel system is the fuel filter whose
job is to filter any debris from the fuel before it moves to the engine. The last component of the
fuel system is the fuel injector. The fuel injector’s job is to atomize the fuel and then inject the
fuel directly into the combustion chamber of the engine.
Alternator and Voltage Regulator
Maybe we can say that the main job of a generator is up to the alternator. This component turns
the mechanical energy produced by the engine into electrical current. The alternator embodies
the stator, a stationary part of a set of coils, and the rotor or the armature which creates a stable
turning electromagnetic field around the stator. Overall, the alternator generates an electrical
voltage that must be regulated to produce a constant current suitable for a practical use.
Cooling, Exhaust, and Lubricating Systems
There is a cooling system to prevent overheating and regulate the temperature of the generator
components during the use. Some of the generators use a fan, coolant, or both of them to control
the temperature of the generator at work. As the combustion chamber of the generator converts
fuel, the generator will also create exhaust. The harmful gases emitted by the generator during
the use are dispelled by exhaust systems. The last part is the lubricating system. As Generators
consists of many moving parts and each of them requires oiling to move smoothly, there should
be a lubricating system which keeps the generator well oiled and smooth.
Difference between generators and Alternators
Electric generators, also known as dynamos is an electric machine that converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy. The electric generator’s mechanical energy is usually provided by
steam turbines, gas turbines, and wind turbines. Electrical generators provide nearly all the
power that is required for electric power grids.

Sl. Differentiating Alternator Generator

No. Property

1 Definition An alternator is a device that A generator is a mechanical device

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 converts mechanical energy into which converts mechanical energy to
AC electrical energy. either AC or DC electrical energy.

2 Output Current An alternator always induces an A generator can generate either

alternating current. alternating or direct current.

3 Energy Efficiency Alternators are very efficient. Generators are considered less
efficient.

4 Output Alternators have a higher output Generators have a lower output when
than generators. compared with an alternator.

5 Energy Conservation Alternators use only the required Generators use all the energy that is
amount of energy and thus, it produced and so, they conserve less
conserves more energy. energy.

6 Polarization After Polarization is not required in Generators need to be polarized after

Installation case of alternators. installation.

7 Magnetic Field The magnetic field is rotating In case of a generator, the magnetic
inside the stator of an alternator. field is stationary or fixed where the
armature winding spins.

8 Armature Movement The armature of an alternator is The armature of a generator is

stationary. rotating.

9 Input Supply The alternator takes input supply The generator takes input supply
from the stator. from the rotor.

10 RPM (Rotation Per Alternators have a wide range of Generators have a low range of RPM.
Minute) Range RPM.

11 Voltage Generation Alternators produce voltage only Generators produce voltage at all
when needed. times.

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 12 Size Alternators are generally smaller Generators are larger and require
in size. more space to fit in.

13 Brush Efficiency The brushes of alternators last The brushes of generators last lesser
longer. when compared to an alternator.

14 Charging of a Dead Alternators will never charge a A generator can be used for charging
Battery dead battery a dead battery.

15 Uses Alternators are mainly used in Generators are widely used to

the automobile industry as a produce large-scale electricity.
charging system for the battery.

These were the main differences between alternators and generators. These alternators and
generator differences are a bit in-depth to help the students get a complete idea about them. 

Dynamo
A dynamo is an electrical generator that creates direct current using a commutator. Dynamos
were the first electrical generators capable of delivering power for industry, and the foundation
upon which many other later electric-power conversion devices were based, including
the electric motor, the alternating-current alternator, and the rotary converter.
Limitations and decline
Direct current machines like dynamos and commutated DC motors have higher maintenance
costs and power limitations than alternating current (AC) machines due to their use of
the commutator. These disadvantages are:
 The sliding friction between the brushes and commutator consumes power, which can be
significant in a low power dynamo.
 Due to friction, the brushes and copper commutator segments wear down, creating dust.
Large commutated machines require regular replacement of brushes and occasional
resurfacing of the commutator. Commutated machines cannot be used in low particulate or
sealed applications or in equipment that must operate for long periods without maintenance.
 The resistance of the sliding contact between brush and commutator causes a voltage drop
called the "brush drop". This may be several volts, so it can cause large power losses in low

20
 voltage, high current machines (see the huge commutator of the 7 volt electroplating dynamo
in the adjacent picture). Alternating current motors, which do not use commutators, are much
more efficient.
 There is a limit to the maximum current density and voltage which can be switched with a
commutator. Very large direct current machines, say, with megawatt power ratings, cannot
be built with commutators. The largest motors and generators are all alternating-current
machines.
 The switching action of the commutator causes sparking at the contacts, posing a fire hazard
in explosive atmospheres, and generating electromagnetic interference.
Although direct current dynamos were the first source of electric power for industry, they had to
be located close to the factories that used their power. Electricity can only be distributed over
distances economically as alternating current (AC), through the use of the transformer. With the
1890s conversion of electric power systems to alternating current, during the 20th century
dynamos were replaced by alternators, and are now almost obsolete.
Carrying out functionality test on dynamo system
The dynamo is a robust and simple type of generator which was fitted to many earlier cars. Most
modern cars are fitted with an alternator .
If you suspect a fault in the dynamo, check all the connections to it with a circuit tester.
Check also that the dynamo actually turns when the engine is running, and that the drive belt is
adjusted to its correct tension, and is not slipping.
Checking output with a voltmeter or tester

 Checking dynamo output

21
Connect the positive lead of the voltmeter to the D terminal, and the negative lead to earth. Make
these checks with a voltmeter if possible. If not, use a circuit tester or test lamp. The instructions
are for a car with a negative (-) earth system. For a positive (+) earth system, read negative for
positive, and positive for negative. Connect a voltmeter across the battery terminals while
the engine is running. Have a helper rev the engine up from idling speed. The battery
voltage should rise, or the tester lamp (or headlamps) should brighten. If it does not, and if checks
on connections and the drive belt have been satisfactory, switch off the engine and disconnect the
two cables from the endplate of the dynamo. The terminals are usually marked D and F. They are
of different sizes, but label them if necessary, to avoid confusion. Use a short length of fairly heavy
cable to clip the D and F terminals of the dynamo together. Start the engine and let it idle at not
more than 1,000 rpm . Connect the positive lead of the volt meter to the D terminal and the
negative lead to earth. The meter should read about 14 volts (or the 12 volt bulb should shine
brightly). If so, the dynamo is working.
Testing the cables

Testing dynamo cables

22
Reconnect the dynamo cables, leaving the short bridging cable in place. Disconnect the cables at
the control-box end, where they are also labelled D and F. Start the engine and allow it to idle at
not more than 1,000 rpm. Connect the positive lead from the voltmeter to the cable disconnected
from the D terminal at the control box to see if it is sound. Then do the same with the cable from
the F terminal at the control box. If the cables are sound, and if the dynamo is charging as
previously checked, the meter should read about 14 volts and any fault must be in the control box.
 Checking a low charge rate or failure to charge

Testing the D terminal without the cable link between D and F should result in a low reading.
Overview of the Starting System
The starting system converts electrical energy from the batteries into mechanical energy to turn
the engine over. A malfunction within the starting system will make it difficult to get the engine
running.
In order to properly service the starting system, you need to understand how it operates. The
starting system has five main components: the ignition switch or start button, a neutral safety
switch (an option on some vehicles), the starter solenoid, the starter motor, and the batteries.

23
When the key is turned in the ignition switch to the start position, or the start button is pushed,
electricity flows from the batteries to the starter solenoid.
Some vehicles are equipped with a neutral safety switch. If the vehicle is in gear when the key is
turned, the neutral safety switch blocks the signal to the batteries, so the engine doesn't start
cranking. Otherwise, the vehicle could jump forward or backward when the key is turned.
The starter solenoid is an electromagnetic switch mounted on the starter motor. When coils
inside the solenoid are energized by electricity, they create a magnetic field which attracts and
pulls a plunger. Attached to one end of this plunger is a shift lever. The lever is connected to the
drive pinion and clutch assembly of the starter motor.
The starter motor is a small but powerful electric motor that delivers a high degree of power for a
short period of time. When the starter motor is energized it engages the flywheel ring gear and
produces torque, which turns the flywheel and cranks the engine.
When the driver releases the ignition switch from the start position to the run position, the
solenoid is deactivated. Its internal return springs cause the drive pinion to be pulled out of mesh
with the flywheel, and the starter motor stops.
The main function of a motor starter is;
 To safely start a motor
 To safely stop a motor
 To reverse the direction of a motor
 To protect the motor from low voltage & overcurrent.
4.2--The Primary Causes of Starting System Malfunction
Before discussing the preventive maintenance and diagnostic procedures for the starting system,
we are going to cover certain environmental and product application factors that can cause the
starting system to malfunction.
1. Battery charge. A battery having a low / poor state of charge will place abnormal stresses on
the starting system. When measuring battery voltage, make sure voltage is 12.4 V or greater.
2. Excessive heat. A starter motor can become damaged if it operates too long at high
temperatures. Excessive heat is generally due to continuous engagement of the starter. Damage
to starting system components can occur when the starter motor is cranked for long periods
(often due to cold weather starts, improperly tuned engine, etc.). Starter should operate for 30
seconds maximum then let to cool down for 2 minutes.

24
3. Excessive vibration. If starting system components are poorly or loosely mounted to the
vehicles engine, the resulting vibration can damage sensitive internal components.
4. Corrosion, dirt, and dust. Starting system components operate less efficiently when
corrosion forms or dirt particles build up around wire and cable connection points. Corroded and
dirty connection points impair the flow of electrical current.
5. Improper use of starting fluid. Overuse and / or extended use of starting fluid places
abnormal stresses on starting system components.
6. Defective solenoid. If the starter fails to engage or fails to stay engaged, the pull-in or hold-in
coil may be defective, or the wiring to the solenoid is bad. You need to check the wiring to the
solenoid. If the wiring is ok then the coil is defective and you will have to replace the solenoid.

Figure 1: Starting system

4.3--Preventive Maintenance Procedures
The object of preventive maintenance is to identify and correct potential problems before they
occur.
There are two peventive maintenance procedures that can greatly enhance the efficiency of the
starting systems functions. These two procedures also represent the initial steps you should take
when fully diagnosing (i.e. troubleshooting) a problem in the vehicles starting system.
Engine operating condition. Keeping the engine in good running condition is essential to
ensure efficient operation of the starting system. Simply put, an engine in poor condition is
harder to start, and this shortens the life of the starter motor. An engine that starts easily results in
fewer turns of the starter motor, and therefore, a longer life for the starter.

25
Wires and cables. For any type of vehicle electrical system, it’s important to keep all connection
points clean. Road dirt and grease create resistance that interferes with electrical current flow. In
order to get the necessary power from a unit the size of a starter motor, there must be little or no
resistance between the batteries and the starter motor. In the same vein, you need to make sure
that wires and cables are clean, properly tightened, and of the proper size. Any loss of current
due to poor connections will reduce power of the starter motor. Clean all connections on a
periodic basis.
Employing the preventive maintenance steps we've outlined will be extremely beneficial to the
starting system. There's also another way to save yourself a lot of time and wrench work:
visually inspecting the starting system’s components for signs of damage.
4.4--Diagnostic / Troubleshooting Procedures
Timely preventive maintenance of the starting system should keep it running smoothly.
However, if the starter motor is cranking slowly, or not at all, it’s time to diagnose (i.e.
troubleshooting) the starting system. Any discussion about the electrical system must begin with
the batteries. Before you begin analyzing the starting system, you must be sure the batteries have
been properly tested and are at least 75% charged. Otherwise, any electrical tests you conduct on
the starting system will be inaccurate. (Please refer to Section Two of this manual for procedures
on testing and charging batteries.)
You must also be aware that if the batteries aren't being recharged, there may be a problem in the
charging system, which will lead to starting system problems. (If that's the case, please refer to
Section Three of this manual for procedures on testing and troubleshooting the charging system).
Once you have verified that the batteries and charging system are working, you can begin testing
the starting system.
When troubleshooting, you always want to strive for the most easily obtainable solution and
progress toward the most difficult problems to address. And remember, when replacing electrical
equipment, always disconnect all battery ground cables at the batteries.
Ignition / run switch test. You should begin by determining whether the problem is in the
ignition switch, push button, pilot relay and associated wiring or if it’s in the solenoid and starter
motor.
We will begin with the ignition switch circuit. Connect a voltmeter between the ignition switch
terminal of the starter solenoid and ground see Figure 18. Have someone attempt to crank the

26
engine and record the voltage. You'll get either no voltage, low voltage, or normal voltage, with
slow cranking or no cranking at all.
First, troubleshoot the switch circuit. You can test it by connecting a remote start switch between
the battery positive and the switch terminal on the starter solenoid. When you close the switch,
the starter should engage and start the engine. Again, record the voltage while cranking and
compare it to your first reading. A difference of less than one volt is not enough to indicate a
problem. If there is a difference of more than one volt, however, then there is a problem in the
switch circuit.

Figure 2: Ignition Test

Use the voltmeter to check each connection, moving backward through the switch circuit. If your
first test of the ignition switch had shown low voltage, that may indicate a shorted starter motor,
which would have to repaired or replaced.
If the voltage in your first test was normal, but there was slow cranking or no cranking at all, that
would indicate a problem related to the batteries, battery cables, or a damaged starter.
Solenoid test. Although the reasons for low voltage or normal voltage with slow cranking are
different, the procedures for locating the problem area are the same. If the solenoid clicks but the
motor won’t turn, it means current is flowing through the solenoid coils but not through the main
contacts.
Connect the voltmeter to the motor terminal of the solenoid per Figure 3. If there's no voltage
from the motor terminal to ground (when the solenoid is activated), that indicates the disc isn't

27
 making contact with the terminals. The solution is to repair or replace the solenoid.

Figure 3: Solenoid test

Starter motor test. If voltage is present at the solenoid motor terminal, then the problem is the
starter motor or its cabling. If your original test of the ignition (or run) switch indicated normal
voltage, but slow or no cranking, your next step is to check the motor system and its connections.
If the drive pinion keeps shifting out of mesh with the flywheel, then check for a broken or a
loose external ground wire on the solenoid. Replace a broken wire or reattach a loose one.

Measure the amp draw with ammeter in either the positive, see Figure 4, or ground cable, see
Figure 5, of the starter motor while pressing the start switch. If the amp draw is excessive,
according to the manufactures specifications, then the starter motor is faulty. Slow cranking or
high current draw can also indicate that bushings are worn because of an off-center armature.
Worn bushings and / or and off-center armature cause poling and throw off the alignment of the
magnetic fields. But, before you replace the starter, check the condition of the engine to make
sure it turns freely. An engine in poor condition could cause the starter to work harder or longer.
In other words, the starter may not be the problem. It may be damaged by the engine’s poor
condition.

28
 Figure 4: Starter motor test, positive cable

Figure 5: Starter motor test, ground (negative) cable

Voltage drop test. Sluggish cranking may be caused by a very small amount of extra resistance
in the circuit. This may come from dirty connections or bad or broken cables. With the voltage
drop test, you first must check the starter’s positive terminals, then the negative terminals.
Positive cable test. Connect voltmeter, ammeter, and carbon pile tester per Figure 6. Adjust a
carbon pile load tester until ammeter reads 500 amps through to the meter. Note the voltage
reading. On 12-volt system, voltage drop should not exceed .4 volts. On a 24 volt system,

29
 voltage drop should not exceed 1 volt. Turn off carbon pile tester when test is complete.

Figure 6: Positive Cable Test

Negative cable test. Connect voltmeter, ammeter, and carbon pile load tester per Figure 7.
Adjust carbon pile load tester until ammeter reads 500 amps. Note the voltage reading. On 12-
volt system, voltage drop should not exceed .4 volts. On a 24 volt system, voltage drop should
not exceed 1 volt. Turn off carbon pile tester when test is complete.

Figure 7: Negative Cable Test

Solenoid voltage drop test. The final check takes place at the solenoid terminal. And for this
test, you must crank the engine. Disconnect the carbon pile load tester, voltmeter (if applicable),

30
and ammeter so that none of the testing equipment will be damaged by the test procedure. An
autoranging digital voltmeter is useful in this case, as full battery voltage appears across the
solenoid terminals before they close. Connect voltmeter per Figure 8. Crank the engine and note
the voltage reading. No more than two-tenths voltage drop should exist between the solenoid
contacts.
The voltage readings from the three tests (Positive and Negative cable tests and Solenoid voltage
drop test) must not add up to more than one volt for a 12 volt system or 2.5 volts for a 24 volt
system.

Figure 8: Solenoid voltage drop test

If the voltage drop is more than allowable, check the cables and connections. To be sure the
problem is actually a bad cable, do the voltage drop test over again using a jumper cable to
parallel the original cable. If the voltage drop is acceptable, then you know the cable is the
problem.
One final note: There are many variations of grounding the starter circuit. Some vehicles have a
ground cable for the battery and another ground cable for the starter motor. Both attach to the
frame. When doing a voltage drop test, you must check all cables regardless of the circuit.
4.5--Starter Replacement
In the event that all of the diagnostic / troubleshooting procedures point to a faulty starter, you'll
need to replace your unit with a new starter.
DC Motor Principle

31
A machine that converts DC electrical power into mechanical power is known as a Direct
Current motor. 

DC motor working is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force. 
The direction of this force is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule and magnitude is given by;
F = BIL Newtons

According to Fleming’s left-hand rule when an electric current passes through a coil in a
magnetic field, the magnetic force produces a torque that turns the DC motor.
The direction of this force is perpendicular to both the wire and the magnetic field.

Basically, there is no constructional difference between a DC motor and a DC generator. The

same DC machine can be run as a generator or motor.
 When the terminals of the motor are connected to an external source of DC supply:
 the field magnets are excited developing alternate North and South poles
 the armature conductors carry currents.
 All conductors under North-pole carry currents in one direction while all the conductors
under South-pole carry currents in the opposite direction.
 The armature conductors under N-pole carry currents into the plane of the paper (denoted
as ⊗ in the figure). And the conductors under S-pole carry currents out of the plane of
the paper (denoted as ⨀ in the figure).

32
Since each armature conductor is carrying current and is placed in the magnetic field,
a mechanical force acts on it.
On applying Fleming’s left-hand rule, it is clear that force on each conductor is tending to
rotate the armature in the anticlockwise direction. All these forces add together to produce
a driving torque which sets the armature rotates.
When the conductor moves from one side of a brush to the other, the current in that conductor is
reversed. At the same time, it comes under the influence of the next pole which is of opposite
polarity. Consequently, the direction of the force on the conductor remains the same.
It should be noted that the function of a commutator in the motor is the same as in a generator.
By reversing current in each conductor as it passes from one pole to another, it helps to develop
a continuous and unidirectional torque.
Requirements of the Starting System
An internal combustion engine requires (i) a combustible mixture, (ii) compression stroke, (Hi) a
form of ignition, and (iv) the minimum initial starting speed (about 100 rpm) in order to start and
continue running. To meet the first three of these requirements the minimum starting speed must
be attained. This is where the electric starter comes in. The attainment of this minimum speed is
again dependent on a number of factors, such as;

33
(i) The rated voltage of the starting system.
(ii) The lowest possible temperature at which the engine can still be started. This is known as the
starting limit temperature.
(Hi) The torque required to crank the engine at its starting limit temperature (including the initial
stalled torque).
(iv) The battery characteristics.
(v) The voltage drop between the battery and the starter.
(ui) The starter to ring gear ratio.
(uii) The characteristics of the starter.
(viii) The minimum cranking speed of the engine at the starting limit temperature.
It can be clearly seen in Fig. 15.1 that it is not possible to look at the starter as an isolated
component within the vehicle electrical system. The battery in particular is of prime importance
for consideration.

Figure 10. Starting system within the complete electrical system of the vehicle.
The starting limit temperature is another important factor in relation to engine starting
requirements. Figure 15.2 illustrates how the starter torque decreases as temperature decreases,
but the torque required in cranking the engine to its minimum speed increases. Typical starting
limit temperatures are 255 K to 248 K for passenger cars and 258 K to 253 K for trucks and
buses. The starter manufacturers often quote the figure as 293 K and 253 K.

34
Figure 11: Starter torque and engine cranking torque.

Fig. 12. Starting system general layout.

The starting system (Fig. 15.3) of any vehicle must fulfil the following criteria in addition to the
eight factors listed above for its efficient functioning.
(i) Long service life and low maintenance needs.
(ii) Continuous readiness to operate.
(Hi) Robustness to withstand starting forces, vibration, corrosion and temperature cycles. (iv)
The lowest possible size and weight.
First it is important to find out the minimum cranking speed for the particular engine and this
varies considerably with the design and type of engine. Some typical values of speeds for the
temperature of 253 K are:
(i) Reciprocating spark ignition engine 60 to 90 rpm.
(ii) Rotary spark ignition engine 150 to 180 rpm. (Hi) Diesel engines with glow plugs 60 to 140
rpm. (iv) Diesel engines without glow plugs 100 to 200 rpm.

35
It has been already pointed out earlier that the rated voltage of the system for passenger cars is 12
V and for trucks and buses are generally 24 V. The system with 24 V requires half the current
needed with a 12 V system to produce the same power. Also it reduces the voltage drop
considerably in the wiring as the length of wires used on commercial vehicles is much greater
than in passenger cars.
To determine the rated output of a starter motor on a test bench, a battery of maximum capacity
for the starter having a 20% drop in capacity at 253 K is connected to the starter with a cable of
lmQ resistance. These criteria enable the starter to operate even under the most adverse
conditions. The output of the starter can now be measured under typical operating conditions.
The rated power of the motor corresponds to the power drawn from the battery less copper losses
(due to the resistance of the circuit), iron losses (due to eddy currents being induced in the iron
parts of the motor) and friction losses. An equivalent circuit for a starter and battery is repre-
sented in Fig. 15.4. This indicates how the starter

Fig. 15.4. Equivalent circuit for a starter system.

Output is very much dependent on line resistance and battery internal resistance. The lower the
values of these two resistances, the higher is the output from the starter.
There are two other factors to be considered when designing a starting system. The location of
the starter on the engine is normally pre-fixed but the position of the battery must be determined.
If the battery is close to the starter the cables are shorter. A longer run needs cables with a greater
cross section to have a low resistance. Depending on the type of use of the vehicle, such as
running on off road conditions, special sealing of the starter against the ingress of contaminants
may be necessary.

36
Types of starter
Electric

Starter motor diagram

The electric starter motor or cranking motor is the most common type used on gasoline
engines and small diesel engines. The modern starter motor is either a permanent-magnet or
a series-parallel wound direct current electric motor with a starter solenoid (similar to a relay)
mounted on it. When DC power from the starting battery is applied to the solenoid, usually
through a key-operated switch (the "ignition switch"), the solenoid engages a lever that pushes
out the drive pinion on the starter driveshaft and meshes the pinion with the starter ring gear on
the flywheel of the engine.

The solenoid also closes high-current contacts for the starter motor, which begins to turn. Once
the engine starts, the key-operated switch is opened, a spring in the solenoid assembly pulls the
pinion gear away from the ring gear, and the starter motor stops. The starter's pinion is clutched
to its drive shaft through an overrunning sprag clutch which permits the pinion to transmit drive
in only one direction. In this manner, drive is transmitted through the pinion to the flywheel ring
gear, but if the pinion remains engaged (as for example because the operator fails to release the
key as soon as the engine starts, or if there is a short and the solenoid remains engaged), the
pinion will spin independently of its drive shaft. This prevents the engine driving the starter, for
such backdrive would cause the starter to spin so fast as to fly apart.

37
The sprag clutch arrangement would preclude the use of the starter as a generator if employed in
the hybrid scheme mentioned above, unless modifications were made. The standard starter motor
is typically designed for intermittent use, which would preclude its use as a generator. The
starter's electrical components are designed only to operate for typically under 30 seconds before
overheating (by too-slow dissipation of heat from ohmic losses), to save weight and cost. Most
automobile owner manuals instruct the operator to pause for at least ten seconds after each ten or
fifteen seconds of cranking the engine, when trying to start an engine that does not start
immediately.

This overrunning-clutch pinion arrangement was phased into use beginning in the early 1960s;
before that time, a Bendix drive was used. The Bendix system places the starter drive pinion on a
helically cut drive shaft. When the starter motor begins turning, the inertia of the drive pinion
assembly causes it to ride forward on the helix and thus engage with the ring gear. When the
engine starts, backdrive from the ring gear causes the drive pinion to exceed the rotative speed of
the starter, at which point the drive pinion is forced back down the helical shaft and thus out of
mesh with the ring gear. This has the disadvantage that the gears will disengage if the engine
fires briefly but does not continue to run.

Folo-Thru drive

An intermediate development between the Bendix drive developed in the 1930s and the
overrunning-clutch designs introduced in the 1960s was the Bendix Folo-Thru drive. The
standard Bendix drive would disengage from the ring gear as soon as the engine fired, even if it
did not continue to run. The Folo-Thru drive contains a latching mechanism and a set of
flyweights in the body of the drive unit. When the starter motor begins turning and the drive unit
is forced forward on the helical shaft by inertia, it is latched into the engaged position. Only once
the drive unit is spun at a speed higher than that attained by the starter motor itself (i.e., it is
backdriven by the running engine) will the flyweights pull radially outward, releasing the latch
and permitting the overdriven drive unit to be spun out of engagement. In this manner, unwanted
starter disengagement is avoided before a successful engine start.

Gear reduction

In 1962, Chrysler introduced a starter incorporating a geartrain between the motor and the drive

shaft. The motor shaft included integrally cut gear teeth forming a pinion that meshes with a

38
larger adjacent driven gear to provide a gear reduction ratio of 3.75:1. This permitted the use of a
higher-speed, lower-current, lighter and more compact motor assembly while increasing
cranking torque. Variants of this starter design were used on most rear- and four-wheel-drive
vehicles produced by Chrysler Corporation from 1962 through 1987. It makes a unique, distinct
sound when cranking the engine, which led to it being nicknamed the "Highland Park
Hummingbird"—a reference to Chrysler's headquarters in Highland Park, Michigan.

The Chrysler gear-reduction starter formed the conceptual basis for the gear-reduction starters
that now predominate in vehicles on the road. Many Japanese automakers phased in gear
reduction starters in the 1970s and 1980s. Light aircraft engines also made extensive use of this
kind of starter, because its light weight offered an advantage.

Those starters not employing offset gear trains like the Chrysler unit generally employ
planetary epicyclic gear trains instead. Direct-drive starters are almost entirely obsolete owing to
their larger size, heavier weight and higher current requirements.

Movable pole shoe

Ford issued a nonstandard starter, a direct-drive "movable pole shoe" design that provided cost
reduction rather than electrical or mechanical benefits. This type of starter eliminated the
solenoid, replacing it with a movable pole shoe and a separate starter relay. This starter operates
as follows: The driver turns the key, activating the starter switch. A small electric current flows
through the solenoid actuated starter relay, closing the contacts and sending large battery current
to the starter motor. One of the pole shoes, hinged at the front, linked to the starter drive, and
spring-loaded away from its normal operating position, is swung into position by the magnetic
field created by electricity flowing through its field coil. This moves the starter drive forward to
engage the flywheel ring gear, and simultaneously closes a pair of contacts supplying current to
the rest of the starter motor winding. Once the engine starts and the driver releases the starter
switch, a spring retracts the pole shoe, which pulls the starter drive out of engagement with the
ring gear.

This starter was used on Ford vehicles from 1973 through 1990, when a gear-reduction unit
conceptually similar to the Chrysler unit replaced it.

39
Inertia starter

A variant on the electric starter motor is the inertia starter (not to be confused with the Bendix-
type starter described above). Here the starter motor does not turn the engine directly. Instead,
when energized, the motor turns a heavy flywheel built into its casing (not the main flywheel of
the engine). Once the flywheel/motor unit has reached a constant speed the current to the motor
is turned off and the drive between the motor and flywheel is disengaged by a freewheel
mechanism. The spinning flywheel is then connected to the main engine and its inertia turns it
over to start it. These stages are commonly automated by solenoid switches, with the machine
operator using a two-position control switch, which is held in one position to spin the motor and
then moved to the other to cut the current to the motor and engage the flywheel to the engine.

The advantage of the inertia starter is that, because the motor is not driving the engine directly, it
can be of much lower power than the standard starter for an engine of the same size. This allows
for a motor of much lower weight and smaller size, as well as lighter cables and smaller batteries
to power the motor. This made the inertia starter a common choice for aircraft with
large radial piston engines. The disadvantage is the increased time required to start the engine -
spinning up the flywheel to the required speed can take between 10 and 20 seconds. If the engine
does not start by the time the flywheel has lost its inertia then the process must be repeated for
the next attempt.

Pneumatic

Some gas turbine engines and diesel engines, particularly on trucks, use a pneumatic self-starter.

In ground vehicles the system consists of a geared turbine, an air compressor and a pressure tank.
Compressed air released from the tank is used to spin the turbine, and through a set of
reduction gears, engages the ring gear on the flywheel, much like an electric starter. The engine,
once running, drives the compressor to recharge the tank.

Aircraft with large gas turbine engines are typically started using a large volume of low-pressure
compressed air, supplied from a very small engine referred to as an auxiliary power unit, located
elsewhere in the aircraft. Alternately, aircraft gas turbine engines can be rapidly started using a
mobile ground-based pneumatic starting engine, referred to as a start cart or air start cart.

40
On larger diesel generators found in large shore installations and especially on ships, a
pneumatic starting gear is used. The air motor is normally powered by compressed air at
pressures of 10–30 bar. The air motor is made up of a center drum about the size of a soup can
with four or more slots cut into it to allow for the vanes to be placed radially on the drum to form
chambers around the drum. The drum is offset inside a round casing so that the inlet air for
starting is admitted at the area where the drum and vanes form a small chamber compared to the
others. The compressed air can only expand by rotating the drum, which allows the small
chamber to become larger and puts another one of the cambers in the air inlet. The air motor
spins much too fast to be used directly on the flywheel of the engine; instead a large gearing
reduction, such as a planetary gear, is used to lower the output speed. A Bendix gear is used to
engage the flywheel.

Since large trucks typically use air brakes, the system does double duty, supplying compressed
air to the brake system. Pneumatic starters have the advantages of delivering high torque,
mechanical simplicity and reliability. They eliminate the need for oversized, heavy storage
batteries in prime mover electrical systems.

Large Diesel generators and almost all Diesel engines used as the prime mover of ships use
compressed air acting directly on the cylinder head. This is not ideal for smaller Diesels, as it
provides too much cooling on starting. Also, the cylinder head needs to have enough space to
support an extra valve for the air start system. The air start system is conceptually very similar to
a distributor in a car. There is an air distributor that is geared to the camshaft of the Diesel
engine; on the top of the air distributor is a single lobe similar to what is found on a camshaft.
Arranged radially around this lobe are roller tip followers for every cylinder. When the lobe of
the air distributor hits one of the followers it will send an air signal that acts upon the back of the
air start valve located in the cylinder head, causing it to open. Compressed air is provided from a
large reservoir that feeds into a header located along the engine. As soon as the air start valve is
opened, the compressed air is admitted and the engine will begin turning. It can be used on two-
cycle and four-cycle engines and on reversing engines. On large two-stroke engines less than one
revolution of the crankshaft is needed for starting.

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Hydraulic

Hydraulic Starter

Some Diesel engines from six to 16 cylinders are started by means of a hydraulic motor.

Hydraulic starters and the associated systems provide a sparkless, reliable method of engine
starting over a wide temperature range.[10] Typically hydraulic starters are found in applications
such as remote generators, lifeboat propulsion engines, offshore fire pumping engines,
and hydraulic fracturing rigs. The system used to support the hydraulic starter includes valves,
pumps, filters, a reservoir, and piston accumulators. The operator can manually recharge the
hydraulic system; this cannot readily be done with electric starting systems, so hydraulic starting
systems are favored in applications wherein emergency starting is a requirement.

With various configurations, Hydraulic starters can be fitted on any engine. Hydraulic starters
employ the high efficiency of the axial piston motor concept, which provides high torque at any
temperature or environment, and guarantees minimal wear of the engine ring gear and the pinion.

Non-motor

Spring starter

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Spring Starter

A spring starter uses potential energy stored in a spring wound up with a crank to start an engine

without a battery or alternator. Turning the crank moves the pinion into mesh with the
engine's ring gear, then winds up the spring. Pulling the release lever then applies the spring
tension to the pinion, turning the ring gear to start the engine. The pinion automatically
disengages from the flywheel after operation. Provision is also made to allow the engine to be
slowly turned over by hand for engine maintenance. This is achieved by operating the trip lever
just after the pinion has engaged with the flywheel. Subsequent turning of the winding handle
during this operation will not load the starter. Spring starters can be found in engine-
generators, hydraulic power packs, and on lifeboat engines, with the most common application
being backup starting system on seagoing vessels.

Fuel-starting

Some modern gasoline engines with twelve or more cylinders always have at least one or more
pistons at the beginning of its power stroke and are able to start by injecting fuel into that
cylinder and igniting it. If the engine is stopped at the correct position, the procedure can be
applied to engines with fewer cylinders. It is one way of starting an engine of a car with stop-
start system.[12]

Types of Motor Starters Based on Starting Methods & Techniques

In industries, various starting techniques are used to start an induction motor. Before discussing
the types of motors, here are some of the techniques used in motor starters.
 Full Voltage or Across The Line Starter
Such starters directly connect the motor with the power line providing the full voltage. The
motors connected through such starters have low power ratings so that they do not create a huge

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voltage drop in the power line. They are used in an application where motors have low ratings &
need to run in one direction.
 Full Voltage Reversing Starter
3 phase induction motor’s direction can be reversed by swapping any two phases. Such a starter
incorporates two mechanically interlocked magnetic contactors with swapped phases for forward
& reverse direction. It is used in an application where the motor needs to run in both directions &
the contactors are used to control it.
 Multispeed Starter
In order to vary the speed of an AC motor, you need to vary the AC supply frequency or vary the
number of poles (by reconnecting the windings in some) of the motor. Such types of starter run
the motor in a few pre-selected speeds to meet its applications.
 Reduced Voltage Starter
The most common type of starting technique is to reduce the voltage at the starting of the motor
to reduce the inrush current that could damage the windings of the motor & also cause a huge dip
in voltage. These starters are used for high rated motors.
LIGHTING
The lighting system of a motor vehicle consists of lighting and signalling devices mounted or
integrated at the front, rear, sides, and in some cases the top of a motor vehicle. These light the
roadway ahead for the driver and increase the visibility of the vehicle, allowing other drivers and
pedestrians to see a vehicle's presence, position, size, direction of travel, and the driver's
intentions regarding direction and speed of travel. Emergency vehicles usually carry distinctive
lighting equipment to warn drivers and indicate priority of movement in traffic.
 Headlights are for lighting the space in front of the vehicle. Headlights are designed to
see as far forward as possible, without "blinding" oncoming cars. Most drivers learn not
to "overdrive their headlights". This means not going too fast so your stopping distance is
farther than the area lit by the headlights.
 Tail lights are red (only) and are lit when the headlights are lit. Modern vehicles are
required to have two tail lights. Most tail light assemblies stop lights which warn other
drivers that a vehicle is slowing or stopping. They also include the rear *Marker
lights and often the turn signals.

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  Third brake light. Since 1986 in the US and Canada, 1990 in Australia and New
Zealand, and in most of Europe since 1998 a third brake lamp mounted higher than the
vehicle's two regular stop lights is required. In the United States and Canada since 1986,
in Australia and New Zealand since 1990, and in Europe and other countries
applying UN Regulation 48 since 1998, a central stop (brake) lamp mounted higher than
the vehicle's left and right stop lamps is also required.
 Fog lights are optional on many vehicles. Regular headlights reflect light and cause glare
when the vehicle is operating in fog. Fog lights are aimed lower to better see the
road. They also spread the light out in a wider pattern to aid the headlights in fog, rain,
snow or dust.
 Driving lights are auxiliary lights designed to help the headlights see farther. They
project a narrow beam much farther than headlights usually do.
Legal requirement for ideal lamp in vehicles
Obligatory Lamps
The basic requirements (with certain exceptions) call for at least:
 two front position lamps
 two front and two rear end-outline marker lamps (obligatory for vehicles first used on and
from 1 April 1991 and trailers manufactured on and from 1 October 1990)
 two dipped-beam headlamps (not more than two for vehicles first used from 1 April
1991)
 two main beam headlamps
 dim-dip lighting device or daytime running lamps
 two rear position lamps
 two rear stop lamps
 two rear retro reflectors
 two pairs of direction indicators
 one or two rear fog lamps (obligatory for vehicles first used from April 1980)
 at least one rear registration plate lamp
 hazard warning lamps (obligatory for vehicles required to be fitted with direction
indicators)

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  reversing lamps (obligatory only for vehicles first used and trailers manufactured from 1
September 2009).
In addition, certain vehicles and trailers require side retro reflectors, side marker lamps and rear
markings.
Optional Lamps
Certain lamps other than the obligatory ones may be fitted at the vehicle owner’s discretion but if
they are fitted, they must comply fully with all the requirements for position, colour and use.
Optional lamps include:
 Front fog lamps
 Reversing lamps (optional for vehicles first used and trailers manufactured before 1
September 2009)
Lamp In parallel so that each component has the same voltage.

 Both lamps have the full battery voltage across them. The battery current is divided
between the two lamps

Anti dazzle in control.

Even though modern motor vehicle headlights are sophisticated devices they have not yet fully
resolved the problem of dazzling.
Dazzling happens when drivers use:
 Main beam. Occasionally, drivers fail to timely switch the headlights over to the low beam
mode. Sometimes they just don’t have time to do this, for instance on a twisting road when
they suddenly encounter an oncoming vehicle.
 Low beam. The low beam light must not be dazzling. But in real life it is by far not so. The
low beam mode of the headlight is usually possible only on an even road.
Switching the distance light over to the low beam mode is, as such, an inconvenience for the
driver since this redistributes the headlight beam. In case of a distracting or dazzling light from

46
the oncoming vehicle, the driver must often slow down speed till he passes the oncoming
vehicle.

Today, the low beam light is the only solution enabling the driver to adequately illuminate the
road without blinding his oncoming counterpart.

Developments that help resolve the problem of dazzling on the road

 BeamAtic Premium system (Valeo company, France). In this system a special
nontransparent shutter closes off the light beam streaming towards the oncoming cars or
cars driving ahead of you. A driver of the vehicle fitted with this system doesn’t have to
switch over to the low beam mode since his car doesn’t dazzle other drivers.
 Dynamic Light Assist system (Hella company, Germany). This distance light control
system is created on the basis of a video camera. Combined with a video camera fitted
behind the windshield, this system makes it possible to permanently use the bi-xenon
headlamp mode, activating in due time the low beam mode when dazzling other
participants of the traffic becomes probable.
Modern developments’ faults
 some inertia comes from mechanic units with movable components such as a shutter or a
drum.
 a possibility of the system activation by its own light reflected from roadside objects.
 high cost due to the video camera, powerful computer for processing the camera data and
the actuating mechanism in the headlight.
Of course, once the mass production of the system starts, its cost will fall, but the prospects of
using such systems in countries like Russia are at the moment rather vague.
Dipped beam headlights are located at the front of the vehicle and are designed for increased
visibility when driving at night time.
They are located next to your main beam headlights and sidelights and the dipped beam
bulbs can be Halogen, LED or OE Xenon – depending on your vehicle.
Dipped beam bulbs are pointed down towards the road to prevent other road users from being
dazzled.
Dipped beam is also commonly known as low beam throughout the UK.
Use of headlight relay

47
By using a relay we move the high current switching away from the headlight switch so that the
switch only sees a small current – in the range of a few thousands of an amp. This solves part of
the problem. You will need two relays – one for low beam and one for high beam.
Overload protection
Overload protection is a protection against a running overcurrent that would cause overheating of
the protected equipment. Hence, an overload is also type of overcurrent. Overload protection
typically operates on an inverse time curve where the tripping time becomes less as the current
increases.
Fuses
In electronics and electrical engineering, a fuse is an electrical safety device that operates to
provide overcurrent protection of an electrical circuit. Its essential component is a metal wire or
strip that melts when too much current flows through it, thereby stopping or interrupting the
current. It is a sacrificial device; once a fuse has operated it is an open circuit, and must be
replaced or rewired, depending on its type.
A fuse is an automatic means of removing power from a faulty system; often abbreviated to ADS
(Automatic Disconnection of Supply).
Symbol of a Fuse
The standard IEEE/ANSI symbols for the fuse is as follows:

However, the IEC fuse is slightly different:

 
Types of Fuse
Fuses can be divided into two major categories, AC fuses, and DC fuses. The below block
diagram illustrates the different types of the fuse under each category. We will discuss each fuse
in brief in our article.

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DC Fuses

1. CARTRIGE FUSES

This is the most common type of fuse. The fuse element is encased in a glass envelope that is
terminated by metal caps. The fuse is placed in an appropriate holder. Since the glass envelope is
clear, it is easy to visually determine if the fuse is blown.
There are many variants of this design, including slow blow fuse and fast blow fuse. Slow blow
fuses have a larger element that can handle overcurrent for a relatively short period of time and
are unaffected by spikes in the appliance. Fast blow fuses react instantly to current spikes.

49
Some variants of this fuse are encased in ceramic to withstand high temperatures. Fuses for high
voltage applications are filled with sand or oil. This is to prevent arcing between the two ends of
the fuse after it has blown. SMD variants of cartridge fuses also exist for direct PCB mounting.

2. AUTOMOTIVE FUSES 

These fuses are specifically designed for automotive systems that run up to 32V and occasionally
42V. They come in ‘blade’ form (a transparent plastic envelope with flat contacts) and are colour
coded according to rated current. Some of these types are also used in other high-power circuits. 

3. RESETTABLE FUSES/POLYFUSE 

Like their name suggests, these fuses are self-resetting. They contain carbon black particles
embedded in organic polymers. Normally, the carbon black makes the mixture conductive. When
a large current flows, heat is generated which expands the organic polymer. The carbon black
particles are forced apart, and conductivity decreases to the point where no current
flows. Conductivity is restored as temperature decreases. Thus, the fuse does not have to be

50
physically replaced. This kind of fuse is also called a PTC, meaning positive temperature
coefficient, since resistance increases with temperature.

PTC Fuse is ubiquitous in computer power supplies and phone chargers. They are particularly
handy here since replacement is difficult. For the same reason, they are used in aerospace
devices.

PTCs are easily identified by their yellow-orange colour and disc (and occasionally rectangular)
shape in their through-hole variants. SMD poly fuses usually come in green with white markings
or black with gold markings. PTCs are available in virtually every current rating.

4. SEMICONDUCTOR FUSES 

The power dissipated by a semiconductor increases exponentially with current flow, and hence
semiconductors are used for ultrafast fuses. These fuses are usually used to protect
semiconductor switching devices that are sensitive to even small current spikes.

5. OVERVOLTAGE SUPPRESSION 

Sometimes voltage spikes can be harmful to circuits too, and often an overvoltage protection
device is used with a fuse to protect against both voltage and current spikes.

NTCs (negative temperature coefficient) are placed in parallel with the supply. When the supply
voltage spikes, NTC Fuses decrease resistance due to higher current flow and ‘absorb’ spikes.

Metal oxide varistors (MOVs) are semiconductor like devices that bidirectionally absorb voltage
spikes. You can learn more about MOV and its working using the linked article.

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 AC FUSES

HIGH VOLTAGE FUSES:

These fuses are used in high voltage AC transmission lines where voltages can exceed several
hundreds of kilovolts.

HRC (High Rupture Current) fuses: HRC fuses are cartridge type fuses consisting of a
transparent envelope made of steatite (magnesium silicate). The fuse is filled with quartz powder
(and in the case of a liquid-filled HRC fuses, a non-conducting liquid like mineral oil) that acts
as an arc extinguishing agent.

These fuses are used for very high fault currents.

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Expulsion Fuses: These fuses are filled with chemicals like boric acid that produce gases on
heating. These gases extinguish the arc and are expelled from the ends of the fuse. The fuse
element is made of copper, tin or silver.

LOW VOLTAGE FUSES: 

These fuses are used in the relatively low voltage distribution networks.
Cartridge fuses: They are very similar to cartridge DC fuses. They consist of a transparent
envelope surrounding the fuse element. They can be plugged in (blade type) or screwed into a
fixture (bolt type).
Drop out fuses: They contain a spring-loaded lever arm that retracts when a fault occurs and
must be rewired and put back in place to resume normal operation. They are a type of expulsion
fuse.

Rewireable fuses: They are a simple reusable fuse used in homes and offices. They consist of a
carrier and a socket. When the fuse is blown, the carrier is taken out, rewired and put back in the
socket to resume normal operation. They are somewhat less reliable than HRC fuses.

53
  

Striker fuse: These fuses are provided with a spring-loaded striker that can act as a visual
indicator that the fuse has blown and also activate other switchgear.

Switch fuse: A handle that is manually operated can connect or disconnect high current fuses.

The thermal flasher unit

This small, cylindrical device is sometimes located in the fuse panel under the dashboard of
the car.
Inside the thermal flasher there are a few simple components:
 An electrical contact that conducts electricity into the wire
 A piece of gently curved spring steel to which the electrical contact attaches

54
  A resistive wire wrapped around a smaller piece of spring steel

The thermal flasher

When you push the turn-signal stalk down, the thermal flasher connects to the turn-
signal bulbs by way of the turn-signal switch. This completes the circuit, allowing current to
flow. Initially, the spring steel does not touch the contact, so the only thing that draws power is
the resistor. Current flows through the resistive wire, heating up the smaller piece of spring steel
and then continuing on to the turn-signal lights. At this point, the current is so small that
the lights won't even glow dimly.
After less than a second, the small piece of spring steel heats up enough that it expands and
straightens out the larger, curved piece of spring steel. This forces the curved spring steel into the
contact so that current flows to the signal lights unimpeded by the resistor. With almost no
current passing through the resistor, the spring steel quickly cools, bending back away from the
contact and breaking the circuit. The cycle then starts over. This happens at a rate of one to two
times per second.

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