Oscillations 1

1. Oscillations

1. Four different kinds of motion in Physics are:

• Linear (in a straight line)
• Circular (going round in a circle)
• Rotational (spinning on an axis)
• Oscillations (going backwards and forwards in a to-and-fro movement.)
2. An oscillation is a to and fro motion of an object about a fixed point, where the object retraces its
path in equal time intervals, assuming there are no frictional forces present so the amplitude is
constant. Such oscillations are called free oscillations.
3. Examples of oscillations include a swinging pendulum, a spring bouncing up and down, or
a spring with a mass on a small truck going from side to side.

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 Oscillations 2

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3. Consider the examples.

• Displacement is the greatest at the extremes of the oscillation.
• The oscillating mass is in equilibrium at the midpoint of its oscillation, or rest position. The
equilibrium position is where there is no resultant force on the mass.
• Both the restoring force and acceleration is a maximum at the extreme ends of the
oscillation, and acts towards the equilibrium position
• Velocity is the greatest at the midpoint, acceleration is zero at the equilibrium position,
• When the mass is oscillating, its inertia carries it through the midpoint.
• At maximum displacements the potential energy is at a maximum and the kinetic energy is
zero. At the equilibrium position the kinetic energy is a maximum and the potential energy is
zero.
4. When the mass is moving away from the equilibrium position, the velocity and acceleration are in
opposite directions.
When the mass is moving towards the equilibrium position, the velocity and acceleration are in the
same direction.
5. For the mass on a truck, we can write down a relationship between the acceleration, 𝑎, and the
displacement, 𝑥.
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 (Newton’s 2nd law) And 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 (Hooke’ Law)
𝐹 𝑘𝑥
Therefore 𝑎 = =−
𝑚 𝑚
The acceleration is proportional to the displacement from the equilibrium position.
The minus sign indicates the acceleration is always in the opposite direction to the displacement.
6. Simple harmonic motion is a special class of oscillation where:
• The period (T) is the same for all amplitudes, i.e. independent of amplitudes; we say that the
motion is isochronic.
• the oscillation is sinusoidal,
• the acceleration is proportional to the magnitude of the displacement but is always directed
towards the equilibrium position,
• The angular frequency (ω) is constant.
 Oscillations 3
Example
State which of the following are free oscillations, and which are forced;
a the wing beat of a mosquito
b the movement of the pendulum in an upright clock
c the vibrations of a cymbal after it has been struck
d the shaking of a building during an earthquake

Answer

2. Requirements for s.h.m.

The three requirements for s.h.m. of a mechanical system are:
• a mass that oscillates
• a position where the mass is in equilibrium
• a restoring force that acts to return the mass to its equilibrium position.

3. Definition of SHM
1. SHM is the result of a restoring force that is proportional to the displacement. The resultant
acceleration of the body behaves in the same way as the restoring force.
2. SHM is defined as oscillating motion in which the acceleration
• directly proportional to its distance from a fixed point, (or displacement from the equilibrium
position) and
• is always directed towards that point, (or always directed to the equilibrium position).
𝑎 ∝ –𝑥
𝑎 = − 𝑘𝑥
𝑎 = − 𝜔 2𝑥
2𝜋
where 𝑘 = positive constant = ω2, 𝜔 = 𝑇 = 2𝜋𝑓 = angular frequency,
The minus sign indicates the acceleration is always in the opposite direction to the displacement.
3. The acceleration – displacement graph below shows this.

−𝑥 0 +𝑥

Gradient = - ω2
 Oscillations 4
Practical
Using a Data Logger to plot graphs of a mass oscillating on the end of a spring

The Motion Sensor is used to monitor the position of a mass oscillating on the end of a spring (or that
of a bob of a swinging pendulum). The motion is harmonic motion because it repeats itself.

Theory
The acceleration (and hence the restoring force) is always directed towards the centre of oscillation.
The magnitude of the acceleration is proportional to the displacement from the mean position.

Apparatus
Data logger capable of fast logging,
Motion Sensor with the range set to distance (metres),
Steel spring and hanging mass (the spring-mass system needs to have a period of at least one
second).
Retort stand with bosses and clamps, Large G clamp.

Procedure
Settings on the Data logger:
LOGGING
DURATION 2 seconds, sampling interval 50ms
START WHEN PUSHED

1. Assemble the apparatus as shown, making sure that the apparatus is as rigid as possible.
All clamps must be firmly tightened.
2. Connect the Motion sensor to the Data logger.
3. Set the mass oscillating, by pulling it down and releasing it.
4. Begin data logging.
5. Connect the data logger to the computer. The software will retrieve and display the results,
which will be a Distance versus Time curve.
 Oscillations 5
Precautions
1. A guard should be used to protect the Motion sensor from accidental damage. The mesh on the
guard must be large enough to let the ultrasound from the Motion Sensor through.
2. The oscillations must not overstretch the spring.
3. Check that the ultrasound cone of the Motion Sensor does not reflect off any part of the bench.
4. A 'target' for the Motion Sensor will have to be added to the bottom of the mass carrier. A square
of paper or stiff card 6 x 6cm works well.
5. Check that the oscillating mass does not get closer than 17cm to the Motion Sensor, or more than
50cm away from it, and that it is oscillating vertically.

Results
On the computer:
Select the DATA HARVEST folder.
Click REMOTE, RETRIEVE REMOTE.
The most recent set of data is at the top. Double click on the required set of data to display a
Distance versus time graph.

Analysing the data:

Use TOOLS to SMOOTH (about 10 units)
SELECT POST LOG FUNCTION- enter the type of graph- MOTION in this case and
follow the instructions at the bottom.
SELECT the type of motion- VELOCITY, and follow the instructions at the bottom.
For acceleration select ACCELERATION FROM DISTANCE DATA
Right Click on the mouse enables you to select ZOOM and use the mouse to indicate
the zoom region. Selecting AUTO SCALE may work better.

Questions
Where is the body when;
1 its acceleration is zero?
2. its acceleration is a maximum?
3. its velocity is zero?
4. its velocity is a maximum?
How would you define simple harmonic motion?

4. Graphs for an oscillating object

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(a) Displacement-time graph.

Provided friction is negligible, the amplitude is constant. This is a sine curve, assuming that when
time 𝒕 = 𝟎, displacement 𝒙 = 𝟎.
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 sin 𝜃 = 𝑥𝑜 sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝜋𝑓𝑡),
Where 𝑥𝑜 = amplitude (= 𝑟 in the diagram).
If the motion is taken to start when the displacement 𝒙 = 𝒙𝒐 , when time 𝒕 = 𝟎, as shown in the
diagram, then 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 cos 𝜃 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡)
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝜋𝑓𝑡)
 Oscillations 6

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(b) Velocity- time graph

The gradient of the displacement time graph gives the velocity.
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 sin 𝜃 = 𝑥𝑜 sin(𝜔𝑡) = 𝑥𝑜 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡)
𝑑𝑥
𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜔𝑥𝑜 cos(𝜔𝑡)
𝑣 = 𝜔𝑥𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑡) = 𝜔𝑥𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
When t = 0, the mass is at its midpoint and it is moving fastest.

(c) Acceleration-time graph

The gradient of the velocity time graph gives the acceleration.
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑥
And 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜔𝑥𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑣
Acceleration: 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝜔 2 𝑥𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)
But 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡),
Hence 𝑎 = − 𝜔2 𝑥
(d) Phase
The phase of an oscillation is the amount the oscillation lags behind, or leads in front of a reference
oscillation.
The displacement is 𝜋/2 radians (90o or ¼ cycle) behind the velocity. The displacement and
acceleration are 𝜋 radians out of phase.
Oscillations can have phase differences of any multiple of 𝜋. However, if they have a phase
difference of either 0 or 𝟐𝝅 they are said to be in phase.
 Oscillations 7

5. Circular motion and SHM

1. Simple Harmonic Motion and Circular Motion are very closely related.

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v
A
P M
θ
r x x xo
θ
O O

B
Parallel light screen

P is a spike or peg on a turntable, moving with uniform angular velocity ω round the circle.
M is the shadow of P on the screen. M moves with SHM about O on the screen.

1. The time period:

When P travels once round the circle, M makes one complete oscillation from A to B and back to A.
𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋
𝑇 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑃 = 𝑣 = 𝜔 ,
since 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔

2. Displacement:
The displacement of M with time is a sine curve, assuming that when time 𝒕 = 𝟎,
displacement 𝒙 = 𝟎.
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓𝑡),
where 𝑥𝑜 = amplitude of oscillation,
and r = 𝑥𝑜 in this case.

3. Acceleration:
P is in uniform circular motion, its acceleration , 𝑎 = 𝑟 𝜔2

P
θ

𝑎 = 𝑟 𝜔2

𝑎 = − 𝜔2 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
 Oscillations 8
The acceleration of M is the component of the acceleration of P parallel to AB, which is
𝑎 = − 𝜔2 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑥 𝑥
But 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑟 so 𝑎 = − 𝜔 2𝑟 𝑟
𝑎 = − 𝜔2 𝑥
The minus sign shows that the acceleration and displacement are in opposite directions.
When 𝑥 = 0, the acceleration is zero, M is at O on the screen with zero acceleration.
When 𝑥 = 𝑟 ( = 𝑥𝑜 ), maximum acceleration occurs, M is at its maximum amplitude 𝑥𝑜 on the screen.

4. Velocity and displacement:

𝑥
From above: 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑥
𝑜
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 sin 𝜃 = 𝑥𝑜 sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝜋𝑓𝑡),
Where 𝑥𝑜 = amplitude of oscillation.
And 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑥𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑣 = 𝜔𝑥𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑡) = 𝜔𝑥𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Using: 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1
So, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝑥 2 𝑥2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1 − (𝑥 ) = 1 −
𝑜 𝑥𝑜 2
But 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑥𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
So, 𝑣 2 = 𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
𝑥2
𝑣 2 = 𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 2 (1 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑜
𝑣 2 = 𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 2 − 𝜔2 𝑥 2
𝑣 2 = 𝜔2 (𝑥𝑜 2 − 𝑥 2 )
When 𝒙 = 𝒙𝒐 , the velocity is zero.
When 𝒙 = 𝟎, the velocity is a maximum.

The maximum velocity is given by 𝑣 2 = 𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 2

𝑣 = ± 𝜔 𝑥𝑜

+v velocity v

-x 0 + x displacement

-v
When ω = 1, a circle is obtained,
ω > 1 an ellipse is formed.
 Oscillations 9

Example

Answer

6. Mass on a spring

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1. A mass m suspended at rest from a spiral spring produces an extension e.

 Oscillations 10
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑘 𝑒
Where 𝑘 is the spring constant.
2. The mass is then pulled down a small distance 𝑥 and released. The mass will oscillate due to
both the effect of the gravitational attraction (𝑚𝑔) and the varying force in the spring (𝑘(𝑒 + 𝑥)).
3. At any point distance x from the midpoint:
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 = 𝑘(𝑒 + 𝑥) − 𝑚𝑔
4. But 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎, so 𝑚𝑎 = − 𝑘𝑥
𝑘
𝑎 = −𝑚𝑥
The acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement. The negative sign shows that the
acceleration acts in the opposite direction to increasing x.
5. From the defining equation for s.h.m.
𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥
𝑘 2𝜋
𝜔2 = 𝑚 and 𝑇 = 𝜔
𝑚 𝑒
The period of the motion T is given by: 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑘 and 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔
6. A graph of 𝑒 against 𝑇 2 can be used to determine 𝑔.
𝑒 𝑔
The gradient = 𝑇 2 = 4𝜋2
If the mass of the spring is significant we can allow for it and the corrected equation becomes:
𝑚+𝑀
𝑇 = 2𝜋√( )
𝑘
Where M is the mass of the spring.

7. The simple pendulum

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1. Consider a pendulum of length L with a mass m at the end displaced through an angle θ from the
vertical (Figure 1).
2. Perpendicular to the path of motion of the bob, we have:
𝑣2
𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑚 𝐿
 Oscillations 11
𝑣2
Where v is the speed of the bob, T is the tension in the thread, and 𝐿 = centripetal acceleration.
3. The restoring force F is the component of the weight of the bob towards the equilibrium position:
𝐹 = − 𝑚 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑚 𝑎
Giving 𝑎 = − 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
4. When θ is small, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜃 in radians,
𝑥
And 𝜃=𝐿 where x is the length of arc
𝑥
𝑎 =−𝑔 𝐿
Since 𝑎 = − 𝜔2 𝑥
𝑔 2𝜋
𝜔2 = 𝐿 𝑇= 𝜔
𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔
8. Floating tube
A

mg

1. In equilibrium: 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡

𝑚𝑔 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑥 𝑔
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑑 𝑥 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑥 𝑔
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑑 𝑥 𝐴 ℎ 𝑥 𝑔
Where 𝑑 is the density of liquid and 𝐴 is the cross sectional area of tube.

2. When displaced a distance 𝑥

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 − 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
The restoring force 𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑎
𝑚 𝑎 = 𝑑 𝑥 𝐴 (ℎ + 𝑥)𝑔 − 𝑚𝑔
𝑚 𝑎 = 𝑑𝐴ℎ𝑔 + 𝑑𝐴𝑥𝑔 − 𝑚𝑔
But 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑑𝐴ℎ𝑔
𝑚 𝑎 = 𝑑𝐴𝑥𝑔
𝑑𝐴𝑔
𝑎=− 𝑚 𝑥
The motion is simple harmonic.
The minus sign indicates that the acceleration and displacement are oppositely directed.
2𝜋 𝑑𝐴𝑔
𝑇= 𝜔 𝜔2 = 𝑚
And 𝑚 = 𝑑𝐴ℎ
ℎ
𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔
 Oscillations 12
9. Energy in SHM

1. In SHM there is a continual interchange of k.e. and p.e, ignoring frictional forces, the total energy
remains constant.

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2. For SHM: 𝑣 2 = 𝜔2 (𝑥𝑜 2 − 𝑥 2 )

Where 𝑥𝑜 is the amplitude of oscillation, and 𝑥 is the displacement from the rest position.
3. The kinetic energy of the mass.
𝑘. 𝑒. = ½ 𝑚 𝑣 2 ,
Where 𝑣 is the velocity.
Therefore, the kinetic energy of the mass is 𝑘. 𝑒. = ½𝑚 𝜔2 (𝑥𝑜 2 − 𝑥 2 )
4. When 𝑥 = 0, the kinetic energy will be a maximum, the mass is then passing through the centre of
the oscillation with maximum velocity.
The maximum velocity 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔𝑥𝑜 ,
𝑘. 𝑒.𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ½ 𝑚 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 = ½ 𝑚 𝜔 2 𝑥𝑜 2
This will be equal to the total energy of the body. Therefore:
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = ½ 𝑚 𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 2
= ½ 𝑚 (4𝜋 2 𝑓 2 ) 𝑥𝑜 2 ,
Since 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
5. The total energy ∝ 𝑥𝑜 2
To make the system oscillate with twice the amplitude, you need to give it 4 times the energy.
6. Since,
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 + 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
The potential energy at any point will be given by:
𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = ½ 𝑚 𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 2 − ½ 𝑚 𝑣 2
= ½ 𝑚 𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 2 − ½𝑚 𝜔2 (𝑥𝑜 2 − 𝑥 2 )
= ½ 𝑚 𝜔2 𝑥 2
𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = ½ 𝑚 𝜔2 𝑥 2
 Oscillations 13

7. The variation of k.e. and p.e with time of a mass vibrating on a spring is shown below.

Example

Answer
 Oscillations 14

10. Free, damped and forced oscillations

1. Three main types of simple harmonic motion are:

• Free oscillations.
The amplitude, period and total energy remain constant. These occur in theory. In practice there
will always be some damping due to external or internal forces.
• Damped oscillations
Simple harmonic motion but with a decreasing amplitude and varying period due to external or
internal damping forces.
• Forced oscillations
Simple harmonic motion but driven externally

2. Damping is the (continuous) loss of energy or reduction in amplitude (from the oscillating system).

The frequency always remains the same.

One common example of damping is the pendulum. After being set in motion, the distance being
swept out by the pendulum bob becomes progressively smaller. Energy is lost to the system due to
air resistance and friction at the support.

3. There are two types of damping:

• Natural damping, e.g. internal forces in a spring, and fluids exerting a viscous drag,
• Artificial damping, e.g. shock absorbers in cars, electromagnetic damping in galvanometers,
the coating of panels in cars to reduce vibrations.
 Oscillations 15

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4. Artificial damping can be

• Slight, where the system oscillates about the midpoint, but the amplitude of oscillation decays
exponentially with time. Increasing the damping, increases the period of oscillation and
decreases the amplitude further.
• Heavy, in which the system takes a long time to reach equilibrium. Overdamping also causes
an exponential reduction in displacement.
• Critical, where there are no oscillations. The time taken for the displacement to become
zero is a minimum. The minimum time is T/4 where T is the natural period of oscillation of the
system. Car suspensions use critical damping.

Example

Answer
 Oscillations 16

Practical
Investigating damped SHM.

Coursebook 2nd Ed

11. Forced Oscillations and Resonance

1. Forced oscillations are vibrations that are driven by an external periodic force, and the oscillations
occur at the frequency of that vibrating force.
2. When the force (or driving frequency) is equal to the natural frequency resonance occurs.
Energy is transferred from the driver to the oscillating system continuously, so the amplitude of
oscillation increases.
3. Resonance is when there is large or maximum amplitude of vibration when the impressed
frequency equals natural frequency of vibration.
A simple example of forced oscillations is a child’s swing. If it is pushed in time with the natural
frequency of the swing, the amplitude becomes large and resonance occurs.
 Oscillations 17
Practical
Investigating forced oscillations and resonance

Thread over a pulley

Vibrator to signal generator

Helical spring

Mass

1. The vibrator provides the forcing or driving frequency. The mass begins to oscillate as the
frequency of the vibrator is gradually increased.
2. The amplitude of oscillation of the mass increases as the driving frequency increases.
3. Resonance occurs when the driving frequency equals the natural frequency of oscillation of the
mass spring system, the amplitude of oscillation reaches a maximum. The frequency at which this
occurs is called the resonant frequency.
4. When the driving frequency is increased further, the amplitude of oscillation of the mass
decreases.
5. The effect of damping on the amplitude of oscillation at resonance can be investigated by
attaching a stiff card to the mass. The area of the card is increased to increase the damping. Air
resistance slows down the motion and energy is lost from the system in overcoming this friction.

extremepapers

6. As the damping increases:

• the amplitude of the resonance peak decreases,
• the resonance peak gets broader,
• the resonant frequency gets slightly lower so the peak moves to the left on the graph.

Resonance can be destructive or useful.

1. In 1940 the Tacoma Narrows suspension bridge collapsed when a steady crosswind caused
swirling air, which set the bridge vibrating. The vibrations matched a natural frequency of the bridge
and the bridge began to resonate. The amplitude of oscillation became too large for the structure
and caused the main span to collapse.
 Oscillations 18
2. Microwave ovens use resonance. The frequency of the microwaves is almost equal to the
natural frequency of vibration of a water molecule. The water molecules in the food begin to
resonate and heat is produced which cooks the food.

Example

Answer