Electronics Measurements

&
Instrumentation

Subject Code: EC306

Class : BE(ECE)- 2nd Year

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 Standards and its Classification

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 Galvanometer
Definition: The galvanometer is the device used for detecting the presence of
small current and voltage or for measuring their magnitude. The galvanometer is
mainly used in the bridges and potentiometer where they indicate the null
deflection or zero current.

Principle of Galvanometer
The potentiometer is based on the premise
that the current sustaining coil is kept
between the magnetic field experiences a
torque.

10/1/2012 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Construction of the
Galvanometer
Moving Coil – The moving coil is the current carrying part of the galvanometer.
It is rectangular or circular and has the number of turns of fine copper wire. The
iron core provides the low reluctance flux path and hence provides the strong magnetic field for the
coil to move in.
Suspension – The coil is suspended by a flat ribbon which carries the current
to the coil. The other current carrying coil is the lower suspension whose torque
effect is negligible. The upper suspension coil is made up of gold or copper wire
which is made in the form of a ribbon.
Mirror – The suspension carries a small mirror which casts the beam of
light. The beam of light placed on the scale on which the deflection is
measured.
Torsion Head – The torsion head is used for controlling the position of the coil
and for adjusting the zero setting.

10/1/2012 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Working of
Galvanometer
Let, l, d – the length of respective vertical and horizontal side of the coil in the
meter.
N – number of turns in the coil,
B – Flux density in the air gap, wb/m2
i – current through moving coil in Ampere
K – spring constant of suspension, Nm/rad
θf – final steady-state deflection of moving coil in radiance

When the current flows through the coil, it experiences a torque which is
expressed as

The force on each side of the coil is given as,

Hence deflecting torque becomes,

10/1/2012 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Cont.….
.
Where,

N, B, A are the constant of the galvanometer.

The G is called the displacement constant of the galvanometer, and their value is
equal NBA = NBld.

The controlling torque exerted by the suspension at deflection θ F is

For final steady deflection,

Hence final steady deflection,

10/1/2012 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Cont.….
.
For the small deflection angle, the deflection is expressed as the product of the
radius and angle of the turned. By the reflected beam, it is expressed as 1000 Χ
2θF = 2000 Gi / K in millimeter.
The above equation shows that when the mirror turns through an angle θ F the
reflected beam turns through an angle 2θF shown in the figure below.

10/1/2012 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 The D’Arsonval Meter
•
Movement
The basic moving coil system generally
referred to as a d’Arsonval meter
movement or Permanent Magnet Coil
(PMMC) meter movement.
• Current-sensitive device capable of
directly measuring only very small
currents.
• Its usefulness as a measuring device is
greatly increased with the proper
external circuitry.

Fig 1-1 The d’Arsonval meter

movement

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 Ballistic galvanometer
Definition: The galvanometer which is used for estimating the quantity of charge flow
through it is called the ballistic galvanometer. The galvanometer measures the majority of
the charge passes through it in spite of current.

10/1/2012 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Working and calculation of unknown current value

In Ballistic galvanometer the damping content = 0

GI(t) dt = rate of change of angular momentum X dt

Gθ = total change of angular momentum in dt time

θ = charge flow in dt time………?

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 Unknown

Constants
Measured/ observed

10/1/2012 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Advantages And Disadvantages Galvanometer
Advantages
∙ High sensitivity.
∙ Not easily affected by stray magnetic fields.
∙ The torque to weight ratio is high.
∙ High accuracy and reliability.
Disadvantages
∙ It can be used only to measure direct currents.
∙ Develops errors due to factors like aging of the instrument, permanent magnets and
damage of spring due to mechanical stress.

10/1/2012 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Dynamic Behavior of Galvanometer

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10/1/2012 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)
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 The behaviors of the system before it achieves the steady state is transient behavior .when
transient behavior dies out, the system achieves final study state position.

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•

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10/1/2012 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)
 D’Arsonval Meter Movement Used In A DC
Ammeter
• Since the windings of the moving coil are very fine wire, the
basic d’Arsonval meter movement has only limited usefulness
without modification.
• One desirable modification is to increase the range of current
that can be measured with the basic meter movement.
• This done by placing a low resistance called a shunt (Rsh), and its
function is to provide an alternate path for the total metered
current I around the meter movement.

10/1/2012 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Basic DC Ammeter Circuit
Ammeter

Where

Rsh = resistance of the shunt

Rm = internal resistance of the meter
movement (resistance of the moving
coil)
Ish = current through the shunt
Im = full-scale deflection current of the
meter movement
I = full-scale deflection current for the Fig. D’Ársonval meter movement
ammeter used in ammeter circuit

In most circuits, Ish >> Im

10/1/2012 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

The voltage drop across the meter movement is

The shunt resistor is parallel with the meter movement, thus the voltage drop for both
is equal

Then the current through the shunt is,

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 Then we can get shunt resistor as

Example 1
Calculate the value of the shunt resistance required to
convert a 1-mA meter movement, with a 100-ohm
internal resistance, into a 0- to 10-mA ammeter.

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Solution:

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 Multirange Ammeters:
The current range of the dc ammeter may be further extended by a number of
shunts, selected by a range switch. Such a meter is called a multirange ammeter,
shown in Fig.

Fig. Multirange Ammeters

 Ayrton Shunt or Universal Shunt
The purpose of designing the shunt circuit is to allow to measure
current I that is some number n times larger than Im.

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Current through the galvanometer at contact ‘a’ or ‘1’

At contact ‘b’ or ‘0.1’

Note: It should be noted that the relative values of
current do not depend upon the value of galvanometer
resistance. The shunt thus gives the same relative current
values for the various steps for all galvanometers although
not the same fraction of the total current. Therefore, its
called a Universal Shunt
 Examples 2
A 100 µA meter movement with an internal resistance of 800 Ω is
used in a 0- to 100 mA ammeter. Find the value of the required
shunt resistance.

Answ: ~ 0.80 ohm

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 Advantages of the Ayrton:

Eliminates the possibility of the meter

movement being in the circuit without any
shunt resistance.
May be used with a wide range of meter
movements.

Fig. Ayrton shunt circuit

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The individual resistance values of the shunts are calculated by
starting with the most sensitive range and working toward the
least sensitive range
The shunt resistance is

On this range the shunt resistance is equal to Rsh and can be

computed by Eqn

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Fig. Ayrton shunt circuit

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 D’Ársonval Meter Movement
Used In A DC Voltmeter
The basic d’Ársonval meter movement can be converted to a dc voltmeter
by connecting a multiplier Rs in series with the meter movement

The purpose of the multiplier:

is to extend the voltage range of the meter
to limit current through the d’Arsonval meter
movement to a maximum full-scale deflection
current.
Fig. The basic d’Arsonval
meter Movement Used In A
DC Voltmeter

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To find the value of the multiplier resistor, first determine
the sensitivity, S, of the meter movement.

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 Example 3
Calculate the value of the multiplier resistance on the 50V range of a dc
voltmeter that used a 500μA meter movement with an internal resistance
of 1kΩ.

Solution:

Sensitivity,

Multiplier, Rs = S X Range – internal Resistance

= (2k X 50) – 1k
= 99kΩ
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 Voltmeter Loading Effects
When a voltmeter is used to measure the voltage across a circuit
component, the voltmeter circuit itself is in parallel with the circuit
component. Since the parallel combination of two resistors is less than
either resistor alone, the resistance seen by the source is less with the
voltmeter connected than without. Therefore, the voltage across the
component is less whenever the voltmeter is connected. The decrease
in voltage may be negligible or it may be appreciable, depending on the
sensitivity of the voltmeter being used. This effect is called voltmeter
loading. The resulting error is called a loading error.

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 Multi range DC voltmeter
We can obtain different Voltage ranges by connecting different value of
multiplier resistor in series with the meter.

Figure: Multi range DC voltmeter

10/2/2012 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Potential divider arrangement
The resistance R1,R2,R3 and R4 is connected in series to obtained the ranges
V1,V2,V3 and V4.

Figure: Potential divider arrangement

10/2/2012 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)
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 Moving Iron Instruments
Why M.I. instruments batter then PMMC instrument..?
Advantages
✔ Cheap,
✔ Simple in construction,
✔ Accurate at fixed power supply frequency,
✔ They can be used for both AC and DC power supply.
✔ Less friction error
Disadvantages
✔ It suffers from eddy current and hysteresis error
✔ Scale is not uniform
✔ It consume more power
✔ Calibration is different for AC and DC operation

The most common ammeters and voltmeters for laboratory or switch-board use at power frequencies are the
moving iron instruments.
10/1/2012 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)
 Moving Iron Instruments
Principle: When a soft iron piece is placed in a
magnetic field of a current carrying coil, it is
attracted towards the center of coil.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=200&v=
L9wHaLyv94Q&feature=emb_title

There are two general types of moving-iron

instruments
i) Attraction (or single-iron) type
ii) Repulsion (or double iron) type

Figure: Attraction type MI instrument

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 The brief description of different components of a
moving-iron instrument is :
Moving element: a small piece of soft iron in the form of a vane or
rod
Coil: to produce the magnetic field due to current flowing through it
and also to magnetize the iron pieces.
In repulsion type, a fixed vane or rod is also used and magnetized
with the same polarity.
Control torque is provided by spring or weight (gravity)
Damping torque is normally pneumatic, the damping device
consisting of an air chamber and a moving vane attached to the
instrument spindle.
Deflecting torque produces a movement on an aluminum pointer
over a graduated scale.
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 Torque Equation for M.I. instruments

Figure: Attraction type MI instrument

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10/2/2012 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)
10/2/2012 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)
 Repulsion type Moving Iron Instrument
Construction: The repulsion type
instrument has a hollow fixed iron
attached to it (as given in Fig.). The
moving iron is connected to the
spindle. The pointer is also
attached to the spindle in
supported with jeweled bearing.

10/2/2012 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE) Figure: Repulsion Type MI instrument
 Principle of operation: When the current flows through the
coil, a magnetic field is produced by it. So both fixed iron and
moving iron are magnetized with the same polarity, since they
are kept in the same magnetic field. Similar poles of fixed and
moving iron get repelled. Thus the deflecting torque is
produced due to magnetic repulsion. Since moving iron is
attached to spindle, the spindle will move. So that pointer
moves over the calibrated scale.

Damping: Air friction damping is used to reduce the

oscillation.
Control: Spring control is used.

10/2/2012 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Example 4
Two different voltmeters are used to measure the voltage across resistor R B in the circuit of
Figure 4.1. The meters are as follows.

Meter A : S = 1kΩ/V, Rm = 0.2kΩ,

range = 10V
Meter B : S = 20kΩ/V, Rm = 1.5kΩ,
range=10V

Calculate:
(a) Voltage across RB without any meter connected across it.
(b) Voltage across RB when meter A is used.
(c) Voltage across RB when meter B is used
(d) Error in voltmeter readings. Fig.4.1

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 Solution:
(a) The voltage across resistor RB without either meter connected is
found Using the voltage divider equation:

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Cont..
(b) starting with meter A,
the total resistance it
presents to the circuit is

The parallel combination

of RB and meter A is

Therefore, the voltage reading

obtained with meter A,
determined by the voltage
divider equation, is
 Cont.
(c) The total resistance that meter B presents to the circuit is

RTB = S x Range = 20k/V x 10 V = 200 kΩ

The parallel combination of RB and meter B is

Re2 = (RB x RTB)/(RB + RTB) = (5kx200k)/(5k+200k) = 4.88 kΩ

Therefore, the voltage reading obtained with meter B, determined by use of the
voltage divider equation, is

VRB = E(Re2)/(Re2+RA) = 30 V x (4.88k)/(4.88k+25k)

= 4.9 V
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 Cont.
(d)

Voltmeter A error = (5 V – 3.53 V)/5 V x (100%

= 29.4%
Voltmeter B error = (5 V – 4.9 V)/5 V x (100%)
=2%

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 The Ohmmeter
(Series ohmmeter)
The ohmmeter consists of battery, resistor and PMMC.

The full-scale deflection current,

function of Rz and Rm are to limit the current through the meter

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 Fig. 2 Basic ohmmeter circuit with unknown resistor, Rx connected between probes.
Rz = variable resistor

To determine the value of unknown resistor, Rx, The Rx is connected

to terminal X and Y. Fig. 2 shows the basic ohmmeter circuit with
unknown resistor, Rx connected between probes.

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The circuit current,

The ratio of the current, I to the full-scale deflection

current, Ifs is

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