1 Cell structure

1.1 The microscope in cell studies ANIMAL

a) Differences between plant and animal cells
PLANT CELL

Images: Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology

Coursebook

b, c, e) Magnification calculations
MICROSCOPE

ANIMAL
CELL
LIGHT

CONVERSIONS

1 mm = 1000 or 103 µm
1 µm = 1000 or 103 nm

PLANT CELL d) Resolution and magnification

➢ magnification – how much bigger a sample
appears to be under a microscope than it is in
real life
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

➢ resolution – the ability to distinguish between 2

separate points.
- as resolution increases, image clarity and
detail also increase

Types of microscopes
LIGHT ELECTRON

SEM – 3 nm
RESOLUTION 200 nm
TEM – 0.5 nm

MAGNIFICATION x1500 x250,000 – x500,000

1 www.alevel-notes.weebly.com
a) Light microscopes
a) Electron micrographs of plant and animal
• limit of resolution: half the wavelength cells
• ribosomes (25nm) can’t be seen with a light
microscope as they don’t interfere with the a) Plant cells
light waves

Image: https://cronodon.com/BioTech/Plant_Bodies_Cells.html

Image: Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology Coursebook

• different stains are absorbed by different cell

organelles so they can be observed more
clearly

b) Electron microscopes
• vacuum (electrons cannot be focused without a
vacuum as they will collide with air molecules
and scatter)
• water boils at room temperature in a vacuum, so
the sample must be dehydrated (specimen has to Image: https://www.tuttee.co/blog/gce-cie-biology-animal-and-plant-cell-structures-and-functions
be dead)

Advantages of a light microscope over an b) Animal cells

electron microscope
1) can observe living tissue
2) more portable
3) easier to use - no technical training required
4) possible to see real/natural colours and a
live specimen
5) can stain particular types of tissue for better
visibility

1.2 Cells as the basic units

of living organisms
The cell is the basic unit of all living organisms. Image: https://brainly.in/question/1540878

The interrelationships between these cell structures

show how cells function to transfer energy, produce
biological molecules including proteins and exchange
substances with their surroundings.
2 www.alevel-notes.weebly.com
 • carry out protein synthesis
• 80S – cytoplasm
• 70S – chloroplasts & mitochondria

4) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

• membranes that form an extended system of
fluid- filled sacs (cisternae)
• single membraned organelle
• ribosomes are attached to the RER and are the
Image: https://www.tuttee.co/blog/gce-cie-biology-animal-and-plant-cell-structures-and-functions site of protein synthesis
• proteins made by the ribosomes enter the sacs
b) Eukaryotic cell structures and their functions and are often modified as they go through them
• small sacs (vesicles) break off from the ER and
1) Cell surface membrane (phospholipid bilayer) join to form the golgi body
(7 nm)
• selectively permeable membrane that allows for
the exchange of certain substances
• barrier between cytoplasm and external environment
• cell recognition (surface antigens)
• selection of substances that enter/leave cells

2) Nucleus (7 µm)
Controls cell’s activities
• very dense, takes up colour the most when stained
• divides first during cell division
• surrounded by 2 membranes, known as the
nuclear envelope which is continuous with the Image: Esrefoglu, Mukaddes. (2019). The Golgi Apparatus: Morphology and Function with
RER. Recent Facts. Bezmialem Science. 7. 331-338. 10.14235/bas.galenos.2019.2806.

5) Golgi body / apparatus / complex

Image: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/the-nucleus-and-ribosomes/

• contains:
a) nuclear pores: allow and control substances
entering in (protein to make ribosomes, ATP,
some hormones, nucleotides) and leaving Image: https://microbenotes.com/golgi-apparatus-structure-and-functions/

(mRNA, ribosomes for protein synthesis) of • stack of flattened sacs (cisternae) formed by
nucleus the vesicles which bud off from the RER
b) nucleolus (2.5 µm): contains loops DNA from • Single membraned organelle
several chromosomes and synthesises
ribisomes • Packages substances into vesicles for transport
• glycosylation
• phosphorylating proteins
3) Ribosomes (25 nm)
• assembly of polypeptides into proteins (4º structure)
• composed of 2 subunits
• folding proteins
• removing the 1st amino acid methionine to
activate proteins

3 www.alevel-notes.weebly.com
 • energy released from energy-rich molecules e.g.,
6) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) sugars and fats during respiration is transferred
to molecules of ATP
• synthesizes lipids and steroids such as
• ATP is the energy-carrying molecule in all living cells
cholesterol and the reproductive hormones
estrogen and testosterone. • once made, ATP leaves the mitochondrion and
can spread rapidly to all parts of the cell where
energy is needed
• its energy is released by breaking ATP down to
ADP (adenosine diphosphate) in a hydrolysis
reaction
• see Chapter 12.2(i) for more details

9) Microtubules

Image: https://studiousguy.com/

7) Lysosomes (0.1-1µm)
• spherical sacs surrounded by a single membrane
• not permanent structures
• no internal structure
• contain hydrolytic enzymes
• responsible for digestion/breakdown of unwanted Image: https://www.microscopemaster.com/alpha -and-beta-tubulins.htm l
structures e.g., old organelles • long, rigid, hollow tubes found in the cytoplasm
• can even digest whole cells e.g., in mammary • made of a protein called tubulin
glands after the period of lactation
• tubulin has 2 forms – ⍺ & β tubulin
• ⍺ & β tubulin molecules combine to form dimers
• many dimers are joined end to end to
form protofilaments
• 13 protofilaments are in a ring to form a cylinder
with a hollow center
• this cylinder is the microtubule

Image: https://www.ybstudy.com/2020/07/lysosomes -structure-functions.html?m=1

8) Mitochondria (0.5-10µm) • supports and gives shapes to the cell

• the assembly of microtubules from tubulin molecules
is controlled by special locations in cells called
microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs)

9.5) Centrioles (and centrosomes)

• outside the nucleus of animal cells, 2 centrioles

are present close together at right angles in a
region called the centrosome
Image: https://brainly.in/question/21632838

• carries out aerobic respiration

• synthesizes ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
• more in cells that have a higher demand for
energy e.g., muscle, liver, and root hair cells
• outer membrane contains a transport protein
called porin
Image: https://www.microscopemaster.com/centriole.html

4 www.alevel-notes.weebly.com
 13) Vacuoles
• centrioles are hollow cylinders about 500 nm long • surrounded by a partially permeable tonoplast
• produces spindle fibers which controls exchange between the vacuole and
• organizes microtubules cytoplasm

10) Chloroplasts (3-10µm)

• helps regulate osmotic properties of cells

• fluid present in the vacuole consists of:

Image: https://askmicrobiology.com/do-bacteria-have-chloroplast/

• diameter 3-10 um
• carries out photosynthesis
• contains starch grains, circular DNA, and
70S ribosomes
• ATP is also produced here
• see Chapter 13.3(a) for more details
d) Structural features of prokaryotic cells
• organisms that lack nuclei or proper
11) Cell wall
nuclear membranes are called prokaryotes
• gives cell definite shape • unicellular
• rigid as made of cellulose • 1-5um
• freely permeable • cell wall made of murein (peptidoglycan = protein
• prevents cell from bursting + polysaccharides)
• no membranes around organelles
12) Plasmodesmata • 70S (smaller) ribosomes
• plant cells are linked to neighboring cells by means • genetic material in the form of circular DNA
of fine strands of cytoplasm called plasmodesmata • have no ER
which pass through pore-like structures in their walls

Image: https://mybody101.com/ap-bio-unit-4/

• allows the transport of water, sucrose, amino acids,

ions, etc., between cells without crossing
membranes
• this is called movement through the
symplastic pathway
• allows communication/signaling between cells.

Image: Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology Coursebook

5 www.alevel-notes.weebly.com
e) Differences between typical eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells

Image: https://www.researchgate.net/fi

See Chapter 18.2 for more details

f) Viruses

Image: Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology Coursebook

• noncellular/acellular
• protein coat
• nucleic acid core; DNA/RNA strand
• replicate inside host cells only
• show no characteristics of living organism
• symmetrical shape
• the virus DNA/RNA takes over the protein
synthesizing machinery of the host cell which
helps to make new virus particles
• See Chapter 18.2(d) for more details

6 www.alevel-notes.weebly.com