Methods of Research Ethical considerations in conducting research

1. Objectivity and integrity

LESSON 1: The Importance of Research in Daily Life 2. Respect of the research subjects ‘right to privacy and
dignity and protection of subjects from personal harm
Research is essential to our daily lives. It helps us to 3. Presentation of research findings
make informed decisions about everything from the 4. Misuse of research role
food we eat to the medicines we take. It also allows us 5. Acknowledgement of research collaboration and assistance
to better understand the world around us and find 6. Distortions of findings by sponsor
solutions to problems. In short, research is essential for
our health, safety, and well-being. Unethical practices in conducting research
1. Deceiving a respondent about the true purpose of a study
LESSON 2: The Characteristics, Processes, and Ethics of 2. Asking a respondent question that cause him or her extreme
ResearchResearch embarrassment; guilt emotional turmoil by remaining him or her
is defined as the scientific investigation of phenomena which of an unpleasant experience
includes collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of 3. Invading the privacy of a respondent
facts that lines an individual ‘s speculation with reality. 4. Studying the respondents or research subjects without their
  knowledge
Characteristics of Research 5. When analyzing the data, revealing only part of the facts,
1. Empirical. Research is based on direct experience or presenting facts out of context, falsifying findings or offering
observation by the researcher. misleading presentation such as lying with statistics.
2. Logical. Research is based on valid procedures and
principles. LESSON 3: Quantitative and Qualitative Research Definition of
3. Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process because it starts Quantitative and Qualitative Research
with a problem and ends with a problem.
4. Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical procedures Quantitative research is a type of educational research in which
in gathering the data, whether historical, descriptive, and the researcher decides what to study; asks specific, narrow
experimental and case study. questions; collects quantifiable data from participants; analyzes
5. Critical. Research exhibits careful and precise judgment. these numbers using statistics; and conducts the inquiry in an
6. Methodical. Research is conducted in a methodical unbiased, objective manner.
manner without bias using systematic method and
procedures. Qualitative research is a type of educational research in which the
7. Replicability. The research design and procedures are researcher relies on the views of participants; asks broad, general
replicated or repeated to enable the researcher to arrive questions; collects data consisting largely words (text) from
at valid and conclusive results. participants; describes and analyzes these words for themes; and
conducts the inquiry in a subjective, biased manner. 
Research process:  
1. Select a general problem.
2. Review the literature of the problem. LESSON 4: The Kinds of Research Across Fields
3. Select a specific research problem, question, or hypothesis. Research occurs across various fields and can be
4. Collect data. categorized into different types:
5. Analyze and present or display data.
6. Interpret the findings and state conclusions or generalizations 1. Basic Research: Explores fundamental concepts
regarding the problem. and principles.
Factors to Consider in Selecting a Research Problem 2. Applied Research: Addresses practical problems
1. Researcher ‘s area of interest and solutions.
2. Availability of funds 3. Quantitative Research: Analyzes numerical data
3. Investigator ‘s ability and training using statistics.
Ethics in Research 4. Qualitative Research: Examines non-numerical
Ethics generally is considered to deal with beliefs about what is data for insights.
right or wrong, proper or improper, good or bad. According to a 5. Experimental Research: Manipulates variables
dictionary definition (Webster ‘s 1968), to be ethical is to find cause-and-effect.
to conform to accepted 6. Observational Research: Observes behaviors in
professional practice. natural settings.
 7. Case Study Research: Analyzes a single subject Dynamic systems
in-depth.  Attention to process; assumes change is constant and
8. Survey Research: Gathers opinions from a large on-going whether the focus is on an individual or an
population. entire culture. Unique case orientation. Assumes each case is
9. Action Research: Collaboratively solves real- special and unique; the first level of inquiry is being true to,
world issues. respecting, and capturing the details of the individual cases being
10. Cross-sectional Research: Collects data from studied; cross-case analysis follows from and depends on the
different groups at one time. quality of individual case studies.
11. Longitudinal Research: Gathers data from the
same group over time. Context sensitivity
12. Interdisciplinary Research: Combines Places findings in a social, historical, and temporal context; dubious
knowledge from multiple fields. of the possibility or meaningfulness of generalization across time
13. Comparative Research: Analyzes differences and space.
across groups. Each type suits different research
questions and goals. Emphatic neutrality
Complete objectivity is impossible; pure subjectivity
Module 2 undermines credibility; the researcher ‘s passion is
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN understanding the world in all its complexity – not proving
DAILY LIFE something, not advocating, not advancing personal agenda, but
understanding; the researcher includes personal experience and
The Value of Qualitative Research —Its Kinds, empathic insight as part of the relevant data, while taking a neutral
Characteristics, Uses, Strengths, and Weaknesses and non-judgmental stance toward whatever content may emerge.
the Importance of Qualitative Research Across Fields
of Inquiry Design flexibility
  Open to adapting inquiry as understanding deepens and/or
Major Characteristics of Qualitative Research situations change; avoids getting locked into rigid designs that
eliminate responsiveness; pursues new paths of discovery as they
Naturalistic inquiry emerge.
Studying real-world situations as they unfold naturally; non-
manipulative, unobtrusive, and non-controlling; openness to TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
whatever emerges —lack of predetermined constraints on
outcomes. Phenomenology
Inductive analysis It is an approach to philosophy and not specifically a method of
Immersion in the details and specifics of the data to discover inquiry; this has often been misunderstood. It is first and foremost
important categories, dimensions, and interrelationships; begin by philosophy, the approach employed to pursue a particular study
exploring genuinely open questions rather than testing should emerge from the philosophical implications inherent in the
theoretically derived(deductive) hypotheses. question.
Holistic perspective Ethnography
The whole phenomenon under study is understood as a complex It is the direct description of a group, culture or community.
system that is more than the sum of its parts; focus is on complex Nevertheless, the meaning of the word ethnography can be
interdependencies not meaningfully reduced to a few discrete ambiguous; it is an overall term for a number of approaches.
variables and linear, cause-effect relationships. Sometimes researchers use it is synonymous with
Qualitative data qualitative research in general, while at other times its
Detailed, thick description; inquiry in depth; direct meaning is more specific.
quotations capturing people ‘s personal perspectives Grounded theory
and experiences. It is a development of theory directly based and grounded in the
Personal contact and insight data collected by the researcher. It is a research methodology for
The researcher has direct contact with and gets close to the discovering theory in a substantive area.
people, situation, and phenomenon under study; researcher ‘s Case Study
personal experiences and insights are important part of It is used for a research approach with specific boundaries and can
the inquiry and critical to understanding the phenomenon. be both qualitative and quantitative. In addition, it is an entity
studied as a single unit, and it has clear confines and a specific focus
and is bound to context.
Historical Research establish patterns and relationships among variables.
 A narrative description or analysis of events that This type of research involves the collection of data that
occurred in the remote or recent past. can be quantified and measured in numerical terms,
Critical Social Theory such as counts, percentages, ratings, or scores. It is
Critical theorists and constructivists-see/view reality from a often used to uncover statistical correlations, identify
dynamic standpoint; reality is shaped by social, political, cultural, trends, and make generalizations about a larger
economic, ethnic and gender values-a philosophy of science based population.
on a belief that revealing the unrecognized forces that control
human behavior will liberate and empower individuals Key characteristics of quantitative research include:
Participatory Action Research
-process of critical inquiry is informed by and responds to the Objective Measurement: Quantitative research relies
experiences and needs of oppressed people on objective measurements that can be standardized
and replicated. This helps ensure the reliability and
Module 3 validity of the research findings.
IDENTIFYING AND STATING THE PROBLEM Structured Data Collection: Data is collected through
Strengths of Qualitative Research structured methods, such as surveys, questionnaires,
1. Issues can be examined in detail and in depth. experiments, or observational studies. These methods
2. Interviews are not restricted to specific questions and can be allow researchers to control variables and gather
guided/redirected by the researcher in real time. specific types of data.
3. The research framework and direction can be quickly revised as
new information emerges. Statistical Analysis: Quantitative data is subjected to
4. The obtained data based on human experience is powerful and various statistical analyses, such as descriptive statistics
sometimes more compelling than quantitative data. (mean, median, mode), inferential statistics (t-tests,
5. Subtleties and complexities about the research subjects and/or ANOVA, regression analysis), and correlation analysis.
topic are discovered that are often missed by more positivistic These analyses help researchers draw conclusions and
inquiries. make inferences based on the data.
6. Data usually are collected from a few cases or individuals so
findings cannot be generalized to a larger population. Findings can Large Sample Sizes: Quantitative research often involves
however be transferable to another setting. larger sample sizes to increase the generalizability of
findings to a broader population.
Limitations of Qualitative Research
1. Research quality is heavily dependent on the individual skills of Replicability: Quantitative research emphasizes
the researcher and more easily influenced by the researcher's replicability, where other researchers can conduct
personal biases and idiosyncrasies. similar studies using the same methods and procedures
2. Rigor (Define rigor: harsh inflexibility in opinion, temper, to validate or challenge the original findings.
or judgment: severity) is more difficult to maintain, assess, and
demonstrate. Quantitative Variables: Variables in quantitative
3. The volume of data makes analysis and interpretation time research can be categorized as independent variables
consuming. (those manipulated or controlled by the researcher) and
4. It is sometimes not as well understood and accepted as dependent variables (those influenced or affected by
quantitative research within the scientific community the independent variables).
5. The researcher's presence during data gathering, which is often
unavoidable in qualitative research, can affect the subjects' Numerical Representation: Findings in quantitative
responses. research are typically presented using tables, charts,
6. Issues of anonymity and confidentiality can bring/result to graphs, and statistical measures that provide a clear and
problems when presenting findings concise representation of the data and its relationships.
7. Findings can be more difficult and time consuming to
characterize in a visual way. Objective and Impersonal: Quantitative research aims
to minimize bias and subjectivity by focusing on
Quantitative research is a systematic empirical measurable and observable phenomena. It avoids
investigation that aims to gather and analyze numerical personal interpretations and emotions.
data to answer research questions, test hypotheses, or
 research need to be related back to earlier studies. This
Module 4 ―places‖ one’s work and can point to areas that need
LEARNING FROM OTHERS AND REVIEWINGTHE LITERATURE further investigation. The research is much more a
coherent whole if your discussion section draws on and
 A literature review may consist simply of a summary of contrasts with the literature review.
key sources. It usually has an organizational pattern and  
combines both summary and synthesis, often within conceptual Review of the Related Literature provides a concise
categories. summary of information and data findings that describe
current knowledge and facts. It offers a rationale for
The features of good literature review: conducting future researches. An important area of a
literature review is an understanding of a gap. It is an
- Gives a new interpretation of old material or combine important research question relevant to a given domain
new with old interpretations, that has not been answered adequately or at all in
- Traces the intellectual progression of the study, existing peer-reviewed scholarship. A gap will hopefully
- Depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and ensure that the research will likely have valuable
advise the reader of the research on the most pertinent practical and/or theoretical implications. Synthesis and
or relevant research, or generalization as the last important area of literature
- Usually in the conclusion of a literature review, lead to the identification and purpose of the
identifies where gaps exist in how a problem has-been proposed study. In all reviews, some recommendations
researched to date. or implications for practice, education and research
should be included.
McMillan and Schumacher (1984) who identified five purposes of  
the literature review. A literature review allows you to: The different elements of a typical research literature
which will include the following:
1. Define and limit a problem - If your literature review is part of a 1. Journals - are published in issues at regular
larger research project, the literature review helps to identify the intervals usually weekly, monthly or quarterly.
parameters of a study. Most research areas are broad: a literature Because of the regularity of publication, they
review allows identification of key issues within a broad research are also known as periodicals or serials. This
area so that a definition of an area of interest can be pursued. regularity means that each new issue contains
articles that describe the latest research
2. Place your study in perspective - The purpose of academic findings; this is a distinct advantage over other
research is to push out and add to the current body of knowledge publication media such as books that take
within a particular field. Unless you are aware of the work of longer to produce and update. There are
others, you cannot build upon an established foundation. A basically two main types of journals:
literature review allows the researcher to say:
1) Research journals are published peer-
3. Avoid unintentional replication of previous studies - reviewed articles;
Sometimes it is appropriate to replicate a previous 2) Professional journals are published
study, but this should be done intentionally and for a articles on professional issues, service
particular purpose. A literature review helps you to developments, the use of research findings
make informed choices about a research topic within a in practice and some short research articles.
scholarly context.
2. Theses and dissertations - are very detailed
4. Select methods and measures - The success or failure and comprehensive accounts of research work.
of previous investigations can provide useful material They are usually submitted for a higher
for you when you are designing your own research degree at a university. Like reports their
methodology. You can assess what has worked before publicity and distribution may be very limited.
(or not worked) in previous contexts and why. You may
be alerted to new methodologies and procedures and 3. Conference - proceedings comprise brief
different types of tests, technologies and measures. summaries of research work presented at
conferences. Amore detailed and complete
5. Relate findings to previous knowledge and suggest account of the work may appear at a later date
areas for further research - The findings on one’s own in a journal article, report or thesis. Researchers
 often use conferences to present preliminary carry out the study, followed by the presentation of
findings of their work. results, and finally a discussion of the results.
4. Books and textbooks -  generally, provide
comprehensive overviews of a particular 3)E m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h
subject. In doing so they may refer to, is research that is undertaken through the observation
sometimes extensively, the research literature and measurement of the world around us. It studies the
found in journal articles, reports, conference use of observation, experience or experimentation to
proceedings or theses. They are not usually collect new data. Data can be collected in a variety of
used to present new research findings. There ways; for example, by questionnaire, interview, direct
are, however, a few exceptions to this and some management, and observations. Such papers tend to be
very important and influential research findings organized into sections, beginning with a research
have been published in book format. question, followed by the results and finally a discussion
and conclusion.
Wallace and Wray (2006, p.92) have provided a simple
categorization system to help students identify the 4)Practi ce literature
is written by practitioners about their field of expertise.
literature they have. They describe how the literature
students encounter tends to fall into one of five This can come in many different forms— expert opinion,
discussion papers, debate, information from websites,
categories:
patient information leaflets, and reports of good
practice. Students might find some overlap between
1) Theoretical;
2) Research;  research and practice literature; that is, a lot of health
and social care research is undertaken in the practice
3) Empirical;
4) Practice; and setting. The way to distinguish between research and
practice literature is to look for evidence of an explicit
5) Policy.
and systematic research study that has a well
described method by which the investigation or study
1)Theoreti cal literature
describes expected or anticipated relationships about has been carried out. If no such method exits, then
literature is likely to be practice literature.
the way things happen. For example, there was a time
when there was a theory that the world was flat. Then,
 5) Policy literature
with increased knowledge, scientists were able to work
out that this was not the case and the theory was tells practitioners how to act in a set of circumstances.
Policies and guidelines can be written from a given set
disproven. In health and social care, theories are often
generated in response to evidence that has been of circumstances. Policies and guidelines can be written
from a local or national perspective, or in some cases
gathered and interpreted. A theory is developed that is
then refined or refuted when further evidence is international. In an ideal context, policy is based on
the results or research evidence. The research on a
obtained.
particular topic is reviewed and policy and guidelines
are written that are based on these findings.
2) R e s e a r c h   l i t e r a t u r e
generally, refers to a report of a systematic Therefore, when students review a policy, it is useful to
explore the basis on which it is written in order to find
investigation that has been undertaken in response to
the need to answer a specific question, for example: out the extent to which the policy is based on current
research findings.
―How long do people tend to remaining a pre-
contemplative stage when anticipating behavior change
How to write a concise review of related literature
or, indeed, is there any evidence that everyone goes
through a pre-contemplative stage when anticipating Doing the review of related literature is not the usual
enumeration of references. Presentation of the data
behavior change?
gathered should be by topic based on the given
objectives of the research. The literature should not be
These questions can only be answered by observing
what happens in the real world, rather than in a theory. too detailed or brief. Text should be based on
the current edition of the
Research studies are generally undertaken according
to an accepted scientific method, which involves American Psychological Association (APA), Modern
Language Association of America (MLA) or the Chicago
defining a research question, identifying a method to
Manual of Style and other standards relevant to one ‘s or not in lowering fuel costs of people using cars, then
discipline. finding out about car users experiences of the new
gasoline will not help students answer their questions,
although it will be useful data.
 
The type of reference style will depend on the research
studies namely:
The choice of reference style in research studies
depends on factors like the academic field, journal or
institution requirements, and author preferences.
Common styles include:
1. APA (social sciences),
2. MLA (humanities),
3. Chicago/Turabian (history, literature),
4. IEEE (engineering), AMA (medical),
5. Harvard (multidisciplinary),
6. Vancouver (medical), and
7. ACS (chemistry).

Each style has specific citation formats for in-text and

reference list entries. Researchers should follow the
chosen style accurately to ensure proper citation and
consistency.

Aveyard, H. (2014) presented a list of steps to

help students with their Literature Review:
 
1. Developing a systematic approach to searching for
literature
This is vital for students undergoing literature review. It
should be done in a systematic way ensuring that they
search for relevant texts on their topic. A systematic
searching strategy contains the following:
1) Look for the type of literature that will address the
review question;
2) Create search terms that are valid and important to
the search;
3) Using inclusion and exclusion criteria, search for
literature using the search terms through all relevant
databases;
4) Fill in the electronic search by looking for the
frequently cited journals as well as the reference list of
the journal articles. This approach renders a chance of
looking for the maximum amount of literature. This will
avoid picking ‘the literature and entering the first
appropriate literature that comes across.

2. Identify the literature that will address students

review question
Initially students must develop a strategy to articulate
the focus of literature that will seek to answer their
questions. For example, if they are looking to find out
whether the newly invented kind of gasoline inefficient