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School of Graduate Studies

Assessment on Recycling of Concrete Aggregate in Ethiopia

A Case Study of Addis Ababa

A Project Work submitted and presented to the school of graduate studies of

Addis Ababa Science and Technology University in partial fulfillment of the
degree of Masters of Engineering in Construction Technology and Management

By
Esayas Yirga

Addis Ababa Science and Technology University

Addis Ababa
June, 2016
  




 

Addis Ababa Science and Technology University

School of Graduate Studies

Assessment on Recycling of Concrete Aggregate in Ethiopia

A Case Study of Addis Ababa

A Project Work submitted and presented to the school of graduate studies of

Addis Ababa Science and Technology University in partial fulfillment of the
degree of Masters of Engineering in Construction Technology and Management

By
Esayas Yirga
 

Approval by Board of Examiners

---------------------------------------------------- ------------------
Advisor Signature

---------------------------------------------------- ------------------
Internal Examiner Signature

---------------------------------------------------- ------------------
Chairman (Department of Graduate Committee) Signature

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CERTIFICATION

I, the undersigned, certify that I have read and here by recommended for acceptance by the Addis
Ababa Science and Technology University a dissertation entitled: Assessment on Recycling of
Concrete Aggregate in Ethiopia, A Case Study of Addis Ababa and here by recommend for
acceptance by the Addis Ababa Science and Technology University in partial fulfillment of the
requirements of the degree of Masters of Engineering in Construction Management and Technology.

_____________________________________________

(Supervisor)

________________________________________

Date

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DECLARATION AND COPY RIGHT

I, Esayas Yirga, declare that this is my own original work and that it has not been presented and will
not be presented to any other University for similar or any degree award.

_____________________________

Signature

______________________________

Date

This dissertation is a copyright material protected under the Berne Convention, the Copy right Act,
1999 and other international and national enactments in the behalf, on the intellectual property. It
may not be produced by any means in full or in part, except for short extracts in fair dealing, for
research or private study, Critical scholarly review or disclosure with an acknowledgement, without
written permission of the School of Graduate Studies, on the behalf of both the author and the Addis
Ababa Science and Technology University.

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DEDICATION

To the spirits of my parents, my father and mother who were gave me the hope tools. I can make you
as proud of me as I am of you. To my wife Meaza Kinfe, the woman who has been and still
encouraging, supporting and save the good conditions for me to go ahead in my project work and
looking for higher degree of science.

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ACKNOWELEDGEMENT

First and above all, I praise God the almighty, his mother saint Virgin Mary for providing me this
opportunity and granting me the capability to proceed successfully.

My deepest appreciation goes to my Instructors Dr. Wubshet Jekale and Dr. Esayas G.yohannes for
their advice, support and, valuable guidance and lectures throughout the course of this study and,
above all their unselfish and always positive contribution to this Project.

I would like to acknowledge the city administration of Addis Ababa department of Land
Development workers, W/r Haymanot Weldegebrel and Ato Lema for their appreciable support in
providing me data and other reference materials.

I am very grateful to my Wife, Meaza Kinfe, for her support, valuable advice and encouragement
throughout my life.

Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents for their unconditional support, Love and
encouragement throughout my study.

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Abstract

The construction of highways, bridges and buildings has been increasing from the beginning of the
past century, especially in areas of high population density. These facilities need to be repaired or
replaced with the passing of time because their end of service life is reached or the original design no
longer satisfies the needs due to the growth in population or traffic. These facts have generated two
important issues. First, a growing demand for construction aggregates and, second, an increase in
the amount of construction waste.

Historically, the most common method of managing construction and demolition waste material has
been through disposal in landfills. As cost, environmental regulations and land use policies for
landfills become more restrictive, the need to seek alternative uses of the waste material increases.
This situation has led countries and the aggregate industry to begin recycling concrete debris as an
alternative aggregate. Commercial construction industry has not been reuse of this debris, economic
and environmental benefits that can be achieved for using RCA, use for highway work is on the
increase.

Currently, in Ethiopia the old houses and roads are under demolishing. The demolished materials
have the tendency of being used as a raw material for the production of RCA. Therefore, this paper
work assesses the sources that can be used in the production of this aggregate replacing material.

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Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE:  INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 10 
1.1Background ............................................................................................................................................... 10 
1.2 Aim and Objectives of the study.............................................................................................................. 11 
1.3 Significance of the study .......................................................................................................................... 11 
1.4 Scope and limitation of the study ............................................................................................................ 11 
1.5 Organization of the study ........................................................................................................................ 12 
1.6 Research Methodology ............................................................................................................................ 12 
CMAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 13 
2.1 Constituents of concrete ......................................................................................................................... 13 
2.1.1 General ............................................................................................................................................. 13 
2.1.2 Aggregate ......................................................................................................................................... 14 
2.1.3 Sources of aggregates ....................................................................................................................... 16 
2.2 Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) ........................................................................................................ 17 
2.2.1 Significant of Using Recycled Concrete Aggregate ........................................................................... 17 
2.2.2 Production of Recycled Concrete Aggregate .................................................................................... 20 
2.2.3 Properties and Characteristics of Recycled Concrete Aggregate ..................................................... 22 
2.2.4 Quality improvement of the recycled aggregates ............................................................................ 24 
2.2.5 Applications of Recycled Concrete Aggregate .................................................................................. 25 
2.2.6 Technical factors affecting aggregates recycling .............................................................................. 26 
CHAPTER THREE:  ASSESMENT OF USING RECYCLED AGGREGATE IN ADDIS ABABA ....................................... 29 
3.1General ..................................................................................................................................................... 29 
3.2 Significance of Recycled Aggregate in Ethiopia ....................................................................................... 29 
3.3 Demand vs. Supply of natural Aggregate in Addis Ababa ....................................................................... 30 
3.4 Quantities Construction and Demolition Wastes in Addis Ababa ........................................................... 32 
3.5 Potential Sources of Recycled Aggregate in Addis Ababa ....................................................................... 33 
3.6 Future of Recycled Aggregate in Addis Ababa ........................................................................................ 35 
CHAPTER FOUR: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ................................................................................ 37 
4.1 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................... 37 
4.2 Recommendation .................................................................................................................................... 38 
5. Reference ....................................................................................................................................................... 40 

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List of Figures

Figure 2-1 composition of concrete .................................................................................................................. 14 

Figure 3-1 Demolition of buildings around Arat kilo ....................................................................................... 34 
Figure 3-2 Demolition of concrete structures ................................................................................................... 34 
Figure 3-3 Tested concrete samples from laboratory in Saba Engineering Concrete laboratory .................... 35 
Figure 3-4 Rejected HCB and Precast elements ............................................................................................... 35 
Figure 3-5 Tile and HCB recycling in small scale around Goffa Comp ........................................................... 36 

List of Tables 

Table 2-1 Comparison of typical virgin aggregate and recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) properties ......... 23 
Table 3-1 Projected Supply and Demand Condition of Addis Ababa [4]. ....................................................... 31 
Table 3-2 Construction and demolition waste quantity generation rates in some countries around the world
[14]. ................................................................................................................................................................... 32 
Table 3-3 Construction and demolition waste quantity generation in Addis Ababa. ....................................... 33 
 

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1Background
Concrete is the premier construction material across the world and the most widely used in all types
of civil engineering works, including infrastructure, low and high-rise buildings, environmental
protection facilities.

Since aggregate represents about 65-80 % of concrete components and, it is badly needs to recycle
what is available of construction and demolition wastes in Addis Ababa to solve part of the problem
and to solve also the environmental problem.

The use of recycled aggregates in concrete opens a whole new range of possibilities in the reuse of
materials in the building industry. The utilization of recycled aggregates is a good solution to the
problem of an excess of waste material, provided that the desired final product will fit the standards.
The studies on the use of recycled aggregates have been going on for 50 years. In fact, none of the
results showed that recycled aggregates are unsuitable for structural use [4].

Development and extraction of natural aggregate resources (primary crashed stone and sand and
gravel) are increasingly being constrained by urbanization, zoning regulations, increased costs and
environmental concerns, while use of cycled materials from roads and buildings is growing as a
supplement to natural aggregates in roads construction. Recycling represents one way to convert a
waste product in to resource. It has a potential to (1) extend the life of natural resources by
supplementing resource supply, (2) Reduce environmental disturbance around construction sites, and
(3) enhance sustainable development of our natural resources.

This study was undertaken to provide understanding of the options for aggregate supply in
construction. Technical and economical information on aggregate recycling industry is developed in
order to analyze the factors influencing aggregate recycling, determine why recycling is occurring,
and assess the effects of recycling on the natural aggregate industry. Although data on aggregates
recycling are available, no concise data source exists this important emerging industry. A discussion
of the technological, social, and economical factors influencing this industry is intended to provide
background information for informed decisions by those interacting with this industry and for those
intended in developing sustainable Addis Ababa natural resource and land-use planning and

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policing. This project work will only look this important construction material as case study in Addis
Ababa.

Keywords: Aggregate, Recycled aggregate properties, Performance of recycled aggregate

concrete

1.2 Aim and Objectives of the study

This study aims to explore the production of Recycled aggregate and the feasibility of it using in
Ethiopia. The following are the specific objectives of the study.

1. To study the production process of Recycled aggregate;

2. To assess the significance and feasibility for the use of Recycled Concrete Aggregate in
Ethiopia specifically in Addis Ababa;

3. To make suggestion on the use of this material for future consideration.

1.3 Significance of the study

It is common to see demolishing and movement of construction materials. It is not unlikely to see
deposit of demolished structures piled up in landfills. But the question is up to what point will we
keep on doing this? What will happen when the natural resources which are now scarce disappear
from the face? What alternative materials can be used in replacement to virgin aggregate? What
production processes should be incorporated? To what extent is the significance in Ethiopia? These
questions in mind led to the study of this term paper.

1.4 Scope and limitation of the study

This study focuses on the amount and production of Recycled aggregate and its significance in
Ethiopia, especially in case of Addis Ababa. The picture survey which was done is specifically for
the city of Addis Ababa. The limitations on the availability of literatures on this topic in case of
Ethiopia and time constraint, which has made the project, focus more on literature review and actual
data from interview.

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1.5 Organization of the study

This term paper contains five chapters as described below;

1. Chapter one is an introductory part containing discussions on background, research

problems, aim and objective, significance, scope and limitation, organization or layout of the
study and the methodology used.

2. Chapter Two presents literature review with general descriptions by different researchers on
Recycled aggregate production and its significance.

3. Chapter Three looks into the feasibility using Recycled Aggregate in Ethiopia specifically in
the case of Addis Ababa along with a photography survey that has been conducted.

4. Chapter Four contains conclusions and recommendations of what is discussed in the previous
chapters.

1.6 Research Methodology

The methodology used in conducting this study includes literature review, desk study of previously
conducted researches, picture survey of potential spots in the city along with discussion & analysis
and finally conclusion and recommendation.

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CMAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Constituents of concrete
2.1.1 General
Concrete as defined from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia is a composite construction material,
composed of cement (commonly Portland cement) and other cementitious materials such as fly ash
and slag cement, aggregate (generally a coarse aggregate made of gravels or crushed rocks such as
limestone, or granite, plus a fine aggregate such as sand), water, and chemical admixtures[2].

Concrete is the world’s second most consumed material after water, and its widespread use is the
basis for urban development. It is estimated that 25 billion tones of concrete are manufactured each
year. Twice as much concrete is used in construction around the world when compared to the total
of all other building materials combined [15].

Concrete is composed of three or four materials which are called concrete making materials. These
are cement, water, aggregate and an optional material an admixture. By mixing with water Concrete
solidifies and hardens due to a chemical process known as hydration. The water used reacts with the
cement, which bonds the other components together, eventually creating a robust stone-like material
[6].

The aim of any Engineer is to produce good quality concrete by attaining the optimum product in
quality and economy for any use. Sheferaw stated that the factors which contribute to the production
of good quality concrete are:

1. knowledge of the properties and fundamental characteristics of concrete making materials

and the principles of design,

2. reliable estimates of site conditions and costs,

3. quality of component materials,

4. a careful measurement of weigh-batching of cement, water and aggregate,

5. proper transport, placement and compaction of the concrete,

6. early and thorough curing, and

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7. competent direction and supervision

The properties of the concrete are governed by the properties of each of its components. Due to this
emphasis should be given in selecting the proper ingredients in order to achieve the required output.
Popovics stated that in the selection process the significance and application, concrete making
qualities, effect of certain factors on the concrete, recommended sampling and handling procedures,
the underlying principles of the more important test methods, and the principal points of the
pertinent specifications along with the usual values of the technically important properties of the
concrete making materials should be considered.

It is known that aggregate constitutes about 70% by volume of concrete production [3]. Only the rest
30% are occupied by the other concrete making materials therefore, it can be seen that most of the
property of the concrete is governed by the quality of the aggregate used. Due to this much emphasis
is given to aggregates than the other concrete making materials in this paper.

2.1.2 Aggregate

Aggregates consist of three fourth of the volume of concrete. The property of the aggregate greatly
affects the property of the resulting concrete. An ideal aggregate would be one that is inert; but in
reality aggregates are not actually inert therefore, the physical, chemical, mechanical and thermal
properties of aggregates manipulate the quality of the concrete. The use of aggregate in concrete
greatly reduces the needed amount of cement, which is important both from technical and
economical standpoints [6].

Figure 2-1 composition of concrete

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Aggregates can be classified based on different basis. The most commonly used classifications are
based on size as coarse and fine; mineralogy and petrography as Igneous, Metamorphic and
sedimentary, chemical composition as Argillaceous, Siliceous and Calcareous; weight as heavy,
normal and light; source as natural and artificial; and finally based on particle size and shape [4].
The last one is the most frequently used classification. On this basis one can distinguish between fine
aggregates, consisting mostly of small particles, and coarse aggregates, consisting mostly of large
particles [6]. Fine aggregates often called sand (BS 882; 1992) are of size not larger than 5mm that
of course aggregate is with size at least 5mm.

The normal size of aggregates is mostly with large sizes in which the sizes are reduced either by
natural processes such as weathering and abrasion or artificially by crushing them to the required
size. The properties of the aggregate such as the petro graphical character, the chemical and mineral
composition, the hardness, the strength, the physical and chemical stability, the specific gravity, the
pore structure and the color all depend on the property of the parent material.

In choosing aggregate for use in a particular concrete attention should be given, among other things,
to three important requirements [4]:

Workability when fresh for which the size and gradation of the aggregate should be such that undue
labor in mixing and placing will not be required.

Strength and durability when hardened- for which the aggregate should

- be stronger than the required concrete strength

- Not contain impurities which adversely affect strength and durability of the concrete

- Not go into undesirable reaction with the components of cement

- be resistant to weathering action

Economy of the mixture- meaning to say that the aggregate should be

- Available from local and easily accessible deposit or quarry

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Neville, in his book Properties of Concrete stated that there are three broad categories of deleterious
substances:

1. Impurities which interfere with the processes of hydration of cement

2. Coatings preventing the development of good bond between the aggregate and the hydrated
cement paste, and

3. Certain individual particles which are weak or unsound in themselves.

2.1.3 Sources of aggregates

Sources for these basic materials can be grouped into three main areas: Mining of mineral aggregate
deposits, including sand, gravel, and stone; use of waste slag from the manufacture of iron and steel;
and recycling of concrete, which is itself chiefly manufactured from mineral aggregates. In addition,
there are some (minor) materials that are used as specialty lightweight aggregates: clay, pumice,
perlite, and vermiculite.

Natural aggregate
Construction aggregates produced from natural sources such as gravel and sand, and extractive
products such as crushed rock.
Manufactured aggregate
Aggregates manufactured from selected naturally occurring materials, by-products of industrial
processes or a combination of these.
Reused by-product
Aggregates produced from by-products of industrial processes.
Recycled aggregate
Aggregates derived from the processing of materials previously used in a product and/or in
construction.
This paper will focus on reviewing recycled aggregates in terms of its physical and mechanical
characteristics and the benefits and limitations of their use in concrete and/or road construction
materials [10].

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2.2 Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA)

Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) is produced by crushing sound, clean demolition waste of at
least 95% by weight of concrete, and having a total contaminant level typically lower than 1% of the
bulk mass. Other materials that may be present in RCA are gravel, crushed stone, hydraulic-cement
concrete or a combination thereof deemed suitable for premix concrete production [15].

Conservation of natural resources and preservation of environment is the essence of any modern
development. Recycled Aggregates are made from material which is usually recovered from
demolition projects then crushed, screened and washed to produce the required grading. The
recycled coarse aggregates obtained by crushed concrete were used for concrete production.
Generally recycled aggregates are cheaper than quarried aggregates although this does not make
them any less suitable. Recycled aggregates are the materials for the future. These are eco-friendly
materials and it also reduces the cost of making concrete. Aggregates themselves can be recycled as
aggregates. Unlike deposits of sand and gravel or stone suitable for crushing into aggregate, which
can be anywhere and may require overburden removal and/or blasting, "deposits" of recyclable
aggregate tend to be concentrated near urban areas, and production from them cannot be raised or
lowered to meet demand for aggregates. Supply of recycled aggregate depends on physical decay of
structures and their demolition. The recycling plant can be fixed or mobile; the smaller capacity
mobile plant works best for asphalt aggregate recycling. The material being recycled is usually
highly variable in quality and properties.

The paper discusses the properties of recycled aggregates along with its mechanical and durability

2.2.1 Significant of Using Recycled Concrete Aggregate

Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA), under specific conditions, has the potential to produce strong,
durable materials suitable for use in buildings and highway infrastructure. The coarse aggregate
portion of RCA has no significant adverse effects on desirable mixture proportions or workability.
Recycled fines, when used, are generally limited to about 30 percent of the fine-aggregate portion of
the mixture [11].

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2.2.1.1 Performance

Angularity of RCA:

1. Helps to increased structural strength in the base, resulting in improved load carrying capacity:

2. Better control over gradation, in this RCA is able to meet gradation and angularity requirements.

3. Potential to minimize ASR: Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) is caused by the detrimental reaction
between silica found in certain aggregate and the alkali (cement) paste. These forms of distress are
material related and studies show that the inclusion of RCA in the concrete mix and a suitable fly ash
has the potential to reduce these distresses [12].

2.2.1.2 Resource Conservation

Reduced land disposal and dumping: The use of recycled concrete pavement eliminates the
development of waste stockpiles of concrete. Also, since recycled material can be used within the
same metropolitan area, this can lead to a decrease in energy consumption from hauling and
producing aggregate.

Conservation of virgin aggregate: The supply of virgin aggregate in many areas of the Ethiopia
becoming limited.

Metal recovery: The removal of metal, steel reinforcement is an important step in the recycling
process and can take place in several stages. Contractors usually remove continuous reinforcement
on the grade, whereas dowel and tie bar removal is typically done at the plant. Most crushing plants
have an electromagnet to catch steel moving along the conveyor belt between the primary and
secondary crushers [13].

2.2.1.3 Cost

Limit haul distance: Recycled concrete is crushed and the entire aggregate product can be used as
a base material according to specifications, therefore generating no waste. This can be done on the
project site or at nearby recycling plants, eliminating the transportation to distant disposal sites and
the hauling in of virgin aggregate.

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Reduce disposal costs: Disposal of concrete rubble and other waste construction materials by
dumping is a less attractive and more expensive option.

Overall project savings: There may be considerable project savings by using a less amount of
virgin aggregate. This saving is increased by the reduction of transportation and disposal costs.

2.2.1.4 Strength

Research has linked the use of recycled fines in a PCC mix to lower compressive strengths. This is
documented in the American Concrete Institute’s report titled “Removal and Reuse of Concrete”
based on information from Detroit in 1992. This is due to natural fine aggregate having a higher
strength than recycled fines. The significant portion of the fines in a recycled aggregate is mortar
from the original concrete mix. The majority of this strength loss is attributed to the material smaller
than 2 millimeters.

On the other hand the unbound cementitious material in the RCA may improve the strength when
used in base and sub-base construction.

2.2.1.5 Production Issues

• The nearness to metro areas of the RCA production plants makes this aggregate
economically attractive for commercial uses in roadway bases, building pads, and parking
lots.
• Recycled concrete may be crushed and the entire aggregate product can be used as a durable
base material, therefore generating no to very little waste.
• Using RCA in the metropolitan regions is more advantageous than in rural areas, since
supply sources of old concrete are readily available and virgin aggregate sources are not as
plentiful.

2.2.1.6 Water Demand

When RCA is used in new concrete achieving and maintaining plastic properties similar to concretes
made with virgin aggregate requires special attention. In general, the RCA must be handled as a
lightweight aggregate, which has higher water absorption. It is important to maintain the aggregate

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in a moist saturated surface dry (SSD) condition to assure the PCC mix water as designed is
maintained so as to produce uniform plastic properties at constant water to cementations ratio.

2.2.1.7 Workability

Workability of a properly designed RCA mix is no different than a conventional concrete mix using
similarly shaped virgin aggregates.

2.2.2 Production of Recycled Concrete Aggregate

The production of Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) is similar to the production of virgin
aggregates. One of the primary differences occurs in the elimination of contaminants. Light
materials such as wood, joint sealants and plastics can be removed with air knives. This device
removes the light contaminants with a blast of air. Reinforcing steel and dowel bars are removed
with electro-magnets. Many plants are now incorporating two magnets. The first one will be
located after the primary crusher, generally a jaw type of crusher. This magnet removes the large
pieces of steel, such as dowel baskets. The second magnet is located after the secondary crusher,
which is either a cone type crusher or jaw type. This second magnet is used to remove the small
pieces of steel that became free during secondary crushing. The steel removed in this manner will
also be recycled for scrap metal [12].

The major steps in the production of RCA are:

1. Evaluation of the source of concrete;

2. Demolition/Breaking of concrete;

3. Removal of contaminants (any embedded steel and light materials);

4. Crushing the concrete and sizing the RCA;

5. Beneficiation, if necessary; and

6. Stockpiling the RCA.

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Evaluation of the source of concrete

The first step in producing RCA from concrete structures is to determine the quality and overall
properties of the source concrete. Records of the original concrete components, strength and
durability can be useful in determining the potential applications for the RCA produced. The basic
requirement for producing high quality recycled aggregate is the selection of the material entering
the preparation process.

Demolition/Breaking of concrete

The main purpose of breaking demolished concrete is to size the material for ease of handling and
transporting to the crushing plant. The concretes are broken into pieces small enough to be lifted and
transported easily. Different demolition technologies are used; the most readily available
equipments/techniques are explosives, hydraulic crusher (for buildings),Wrecking ball (for high
story buildings), diesel hammer (for asphalt concrete), which break the concrete structures by
dropping or hurling a heavy mass onto the pavement.

Transportation of concrete

After the concrete structures are demolished, the concrete debris has to be sent to the recycling
plants for processing. If the demolition area and crushing plant are far away it is good to use the roll
– off containers to transport the demolition debris.

If the crushing plant is around the source, front-end loaders and dump trucks can easily handle
removal and transport of the broken concrete fragments to the crushing site.

Removal of contaminants (any embedded steel and light materials)

Light materials such as wood, joint sealants and plastics can be removed with air knives. This device
removes the light contaminants with a blast of air. Reinforcing steel and dowel bars are removed
with electro-magnets. Many plants are now incorporating two magnets. The first one will be located
after the primary crusher, generally a jaw type of crusher. This magnet removes the large pieces of
steel. The second magnet is located after the secondary crusher, which is either a cone type crusher
or jaw type. This second magnet is used to remove the small pieces of steel that became free during
secondary crushing.

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Crushing the concrete and sizing the RCA

The same basic equipment used to process virgin aggregates also can be used to crush size and
stockpile the RCA, although some equipment modifications may permit more efficient processing of
most used concrete structures. The three main types of crushers used in concrete recycling feature
“jaw”, “cone” and “impact” designs, which differ in how they crush the concrete. While most
concrete crushing plants are designed for high-production, “mini concrete crushers” also are
available for small projects. With appropriate adjustments, concrete crushing plants can be set up to
produce almost any desired gradation, although there is often an excess of fine RCA produced.

Beneficiation

Beneficiation is the treatment of any raw material to improve its physical or chemical properties
prior to further processing or use. This can be a necessary step in some aggregate processing
operations to prevent the inadvertent inclusion of organic material, excessive dust, and other
contaminants that would cause problems in the intended application of the aggregate. The degree of
beneficiation required depends upon the condition and composition of the crushed concrete, as well
as the intended use of the RCA.

Stockpiling

Coarse RCA can be stockpiled using the same techniques and equipment as are used with virgin
coarse aggregate materials. Fine RCA stockpiles generally need to be protected from precipitation to
reduce the potential for secondary cementing due to hydration of exposed and previously unhydrated
(or partially hydrated) cement grains. A minimum of two separate stockpiles for fine and coarse
aggregates may be necessary to allow the production of aggregate blends that meet the required
specifications.

2.2.3 Properties and Characteristics of Recycled Concrete Aggregate

A concrete’s strength and performance is very dependent on the aggregates used to produce the
concrete. Recycled concrete aggregates are different in many ways from virgin aggregates as shown
in the table below.

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Table 2-1 Comparison of typical virgin aggregate and recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) properties

Property Virgin Aggregate RCA

Well rounded, smooth
Angular with
Shape and Texture (gravels) to angular and rough
rough surface.
(crushed rock).
Absorption Capacity 0.8 – 3.7 percent 3.7 – 8.7 percent
Specific Gravity 2.4 – 2.9 2.1 – 2.4
L. A. Abrasion Test
15 – 30 percent 20 – 45 percent
Mass Loss
Sodium Sulfate
Soundness Test Mass 7 – 21 percent 18 – 59 percent
Loss
Magnesium Sulfate
4 – 7 percent 1 – 9 percent
Soundness Mass Loss
Chloride Content 0 – 1.2 kg/m3 0.6 – 7.1 kg/m3

Shape and Texture

RCA aggregates, both coarse and fine, tend to be very angular and rough due to the crushing of the
virgin aggregate particles and the presence of cement paste that continues to stick to the surfaces of
the aggregate.

Absorption Capacity

The porous nature of the cement paste portion of the recycled aggregates increases its absorption
capacity. Workability (slump) can suffer with high absorption capacities resulting in a decrease in
the time available to place and finish the concrete.

Specific Gravity

Specific gravity is a measure of the density of an aggregate. The lower specific gravity of RCA is
due to the crushed mortar present in and on the aggregate particles which makes it less dense than
virgin aggregates because of its porosity and entrained air structure.

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L.A. Abrasion Mass Loss

The Los Angeles abrasion test measures the amount of pulverization that takes place for a given
aggregate.

Sulfate Soundness Mass Loss

Soundness tests are performed on aggregates to provide an indication of an aggregate’s resistance to

weathering and other environmental effects. RCA commonly fail the sodium sulfate soundness test
while passing the magnesium sulfate soundness.

Chloride Content

Pavements with long-term exposure to deicing salts map produce RCA with high levels of sodium
chloride (NaCl). There is concern that RCA with high chloride contents may affect the durability of
the new concrete and the corrosion of steel in new concrete.

2.2.4 Quality improvement of the recycled aggregates

The main problems of using Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCAs) basically in concretes are:
higher porosity and hence higher water absorption, lower mechanical strengths, residual impurities
on the surface of the RCAs creating weaker bond between cement paste and aggregate, etc.

Despite all the problematic lied above, several mechanisms are exposed to improve the quality of
these recycled aggregates, being able to achieve a more generalized use in the construction industry.

The improvements in long-term durability were associated with a reduction of the pH for the pore
solution, and substantial conversion of calcium hydroxide, anhydrous material and CSH gel to
calcium carbonate and silica gel. Improved mechanical properties and dimensional stability were
attributed to substantial reductions in total porosity and modifications in micro-pore structure
respectively. Processing could be aimed at producing a matrix material with minimal amounts of
calcium hydroxide, anhydrous material and CSH gel along with a controlled pore structure [17].
Next the carbonation and the surface improvements are studied.

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2.2.4.1 The Carbonation

The carbonation process is in theory very simple but quite complex in reality. Basically calcium
hydroxide (CaOH) in contact with carbon dioxide (CO 2) forms calcium carbonate (CaCO 3).

Carbonation is a reaction where carbon dioxide gas or carbonate ions must pass through a
carbonated surface into the material to reach fresh concrete. This is a diffusion process either by
carbon dioxide gas or by carbonate ions, which in turn is controlled by the water saturation of the
capillary system. Its reaction is a diffusion limited and dependant on many variables such as relative
humidity, pH, concrete mix, concrete age, and pore structure (surface area). The water is not
consumed but it is necessary so that the reaction takes place. A 60% of degree of drying (DOD)
gives the greatest amount of conversion to calcium carbonate and silica gel [17].

2.2.4.2 Surface Improvement of Recycled Aggregates

It is a fact that the recycled aggregates have some limitations: they are significantly more permeable
than the natural aggregates, they have micro cracks, as a consequence of the crushing process; they
are covered with loose particles, which prevent a good bonding between the new cement matrix and
the recycled aggregates; and they also have high porosity with the consequences that involves.

The improvements of the surface across superficial treatments have a clear goal, which is to diminish
the limitations of the recycled aggregates and improve its qualities. It is possible to improve the
properties of recycled aggregates by suitable organic or inorganic treatment systems [17].

2.2.5 Applications of Recycled Concrete Aggregate

Traditionally, the application of recycled aggregate is used as landfill. Nowadays, the applications of
recycled aggregate in construction areas are wide. The applications may be different from country to
country.

In general, applications without any processing include:

1. many types of general bulk fills

2. bank protection

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3. base or fill for drainage structures

4. road construction

5. noise barriers and embankments

After removal of contaminants through selective demolition, screening, and /or air separation and
size reduction in a crusher to aggregate sizes, crushed concrete (RCA) can be used as:

1. new concrete for pavements, shoulders, median barriers, sidewalks, curbs and gutters, and
bridge foundations

2. Building Blocks

3. lean-concrete

4. bituminous concrete

5. for all types of structural grade concrete

2.2.6 Technical factors affecting aggregates recycling

The following technical factors were determined to affect the profitability of an aggregates recycling
operation. All factors don’t always apply, but they have been found to apply in many cases.

Product Sizes: Screen product-size distributions determine the amount of each product available for
sale. Supply and demand considerations often dictate local prices for various size products. Because
different products have different values in any given market, the operation that is able to market
high-value size distributions is likely to improve its cash flow position. Screen configuration can be
adjustable to reflect changing market conditions for different size products. Experienced operators
have the ability to maximize production of high-value products and to respond to changes in product
requirements.

Operational Design: In order to maximize efficiency and profitability, careful consideration must
be given to operational layout and design, production capacity, and equipment sizing. Although
economy-of-scale efficiencies benefit larger operations, the higher capital cost of equipment and the
limited availability of feed material may limit the size of an operation. Equipment configuration also

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affects product mix (what products are produced; mixes of products) and plant efficiency.
Equipment selection is influenced by the decision on whether to be a fixed or mobile recycler.
Mobile plants must meet roadway restrictions to be allowed to move from site to site. Fixed site
equipment can be somewhat larger and perhaps more durable, thereby trading off lower unit
production costs with reduced transportation costs for the mobile unit. “The smaller processing
plants are a great concept. They work well for asphalt recycling. But for concrete, the preparation
cost is enormous when using small crushers because the material needs to be broken down
tremendously. If only flat work or roadwork is being processed, perhaps it can be done. If bridges,
parapets, demolition debris, or building columns are being processed, the small plants won’t work.
The wear cost is too high.”

Labor: Labor requirements are low for recycling operations. A typical operation would require
fewer than 10 personnel, whether it is a small size operation or the largest operation. For a stationary
concrete recycling facility, labor accounts for about 20–30 percent of the total operating cost. For a
mobile operation, labor costs can be higher due to takedown and setup requirements from frequent
relocation of equipment [16].

Feed Source Material Characteristics: The quality of the feed material to be processed affects
product mix, production efficiency, and labor requirements. Recycling operations generally receive a
variety of materials from numerous sources, so have only limited control over material quality.
Because of the variability of source material, recycled aggregates may not be suitable in product
applications where a high degree of particle uniformity is required (for example, top course of
cement concrete). Broken or fine material increases the production rate, while clean concrete with
only limited fines decreases the production rate. Concrete from building construction and demolition
debris can contain non-magnetic debris such as wood, aluminum, or plastic which must be
handpicked, adding to labor costs.

Energy: Energy, primarily electricity and diesel fuel, is required for powering the processing and
transportation equipment of both natural and recycled aggregates. Based on a 1996 energy audit of a
Denver, Colo., area recycling facility which processes both Portland cement concrete and recycled
asphalt pavement, an estimated 34 million joules 2 per ton is required to process demolished
Portland cement concrete and 16.5 million joules per ton is required for recycled asphalt pavement.

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The Portland Cement Association reported 1993 energy requirements for natural aggregate materials
of 5.8 million joules per ton for sand and gravel material and approximately 54 million joules per ton
for crushed stone (Portland Cement Association, 1993). These values do not include the energy
required to demolish construction debris or transport this material for processing. Transportation
energy requirements are estimated to be 2,700 joules/kilogram-kilometer for sand and gravel, 3,800
joules/kilogram-kilometer for crushed stone, and 3,800 joules/kilogram-kilometer for recycled
aggregates. The difference in unit energy consumption is a result of being able to carry a greater
tonnage of fine materials (sand) in a given volume [16].

Infrastructure Life: The useful life of infrastructure affects both supply and demand for recycled
aggregate products. Road and building design determines how long such structures will last, and the
amount of maintenance required. Aggregate characteristics, economic utility choices, weather
conditions, and intensity of use also impact infrastructure life.

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CHAPTER THREE: ASSESMENT OF USING RECYCLED AGGREGATE IN ADDIS

ABABA
3.1General

The rapid development of construction industry in Ethiopia, particularly in Addis Ababa in the last
11 years led to generate huge quantities of construction and demolition waste materials. In Addis
Ababa, this C and D started after the frailer of the derg regime 1991 which led the acceleration in the
construction industry; and rapidly increasing after the beginning of the five years transformation
plan of 2005. The main transformation plan in the construction sector includes rehabilitation of the
existing infrastructures and construction of new civil engineering works, highways, bridges, railway
tracks, airports, power plants, water works, and real estate.

The disposal of construction and demolition wastes in Addis Ababa is one of the challenging
problems; due to the scarcity of open lands and the limited size of municipal dumping sites to
accommodate large quantities of debris and unprocessed construction wastes. The random and
uncontrolled disposal of construction and demolition wastes creates several open dump sites.

3.2 Significance of Recycled Aggregate in Ethiopia

Ethiopia has a five years transformation plan to reach a developing economic stage. One of which is
the development of the domestic construction industry, which is very important to the country
because the adequate construction capacity helps to implement other strategic plans, and the industry
contributes directly to large-scale employment. The main transformation plan in the construction
sector includes rehabilitation of the existing infrastructures and construction of new civil engineering
works, highways, bridges, railway tracks, airports, power plants, water works, and real estate (both
residential as well as commercial).

Some of the mega construction project plans are:

1. Houses; Thousands of houses (both residential as well as commercial) are planned to be

constructed in the next five years.
2. Rail ways; According to Ethiopian Railway Corporation (ERC), Ethiopia has launched the
construction of a 5,000 Km railway complex which aims to link the capital, Addis Ababa, to
various regions of the country.

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3. Hydropower; Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation (EEPCo) has revealed its plan to
produce 13,472 MW of power at a cost of 58 billion birr in the next five years.

To achieve this plan the availability of all the necessary resources is vital. The main resources to
carry out the construction activity are.

 Construction material
 Man power (both skilled and unskilled)
 Construction equipments

Construction material is the one and main resource which covers about 60% of the total project cost.
The major material involved in the civil works construction is concrete which are a composite of
mainly cement, aggregate, water and sometimes chemical admixtures/additives. From these the most
significant material in concrete is Aggregate which is about 75% of the total volume of concrete.
Due to this the availability of aggregate greatly affects the achievement of the construction project
within the planned schedule.

Currently, the supply of aggregate in the country cannot fulfill the total demand and it is very costly.
This is because the natural resources for aggregate production around Addis Ababa are scarce and
depleted.

As case study in Addis Ababa this paper will look at the gap in supply and demand of virgin
aggregate and the potential of the recyclable aggregate to fill the gap and demand and supply.

3.3 Demand vs. Supply of natural Aggregate in Addis Ababa

In Addis Ababa, various construction activities are undergoing. In relation with the expansion of
these construction activities, the demand for construction materials including gravel and sand is
growing rapidly. The demand for construction aggregate is directly related to the volume of
construction works [4].

Gravel is needed in Addis Ababa for different constructions including roads and buildings. However,
obtaining accurate statistical information concerning the demand of the city is very difficult if not
impossible. Hence, attempt was done to estimate the demand of gravel of Addis Ababa in 2003 and
it was found to be 829,583 m3. The annual growth rate of the demand was taken as 5% and the

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demand for 12 years is projected. In addition, the annual production capacity of the then existing
quarries was calculated and the supply and demand gap was calculated [4].

There were about 50 private and public organizations which were licensed by the Mining
Department to produce gravel in 2003. The quantity of gravel produced by these units was estimated
to be 399,840 m3 in 2003. A 4% annual growth was considered and their supply was calculated. The
supply and demand gap determined from this study is shown in Table 2.

Table 3-1 Projected Supply and Demand Condition of Addis Ababa [4].

Year Demand (m3) Supply(m3) Excess Demand(m3) Percentage Gap

2003 829,583 399,840 429,743 51.80

2004 871,062 415,834 455,228 52.26

2005 914,615 432,467 482,148 52.72

2006 960,346 449,766 510,580 53.17

2007 1,008,363 467,757 540,606 53.61

2008 1,058,781 486,467 572,314 54.05

2009 1,111,720 505,926 605,794 54.49

2010 1,167,306 526,163 641,143 54.93

2011 1,225,671 547,209 678,462 55.35

2012 1,286,955 569,097 717,858 55.78

2013 1,351,303 591,861 759,442 56.20

2014 1,418,868 615,535 803,333 56.62

2015 1,489,811 640,156 849,655 57.03

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Accordingly, as it is shown in the table the supply demand gap of coarse aggregate in Addis Ababa
is more than 57 %. From this figure it is clear that shortage in supply of the aggregate is imposing a
negative influence on the construction industry activities in the city.

3.4 Quantities of Construction and Demolition Wastes in Addis Ababa

Waste arising from construction and demolition of construction materials which are obtained from
demolished building and civil engineering infrastructures constitutes one of the largest waste streams
in many developed countries. Of this a large proportion of potentially useful material disposed of as
landfill. The environmental and economic implications of this are no longer considered sustainable
and, as a result, the construction industry in the developed countries is experiencing pressure to
overcome this practice.

There are difficulties to get information on demolition waste generation rates in Addis Ababa.
However, the international available data shown in Table 3-2 does allow predicting the amount of
construction and demolition waste generated yearly in Addis Ababa.
Table 3-2 Construction and demolition waste quantity generation rates in some countries around the world [14].

No Country Name construction and demolition Reference

waste rate per Capita/ year
1 Brazil 0.5 ton John et al, 2004
2 Denmark 0.506 ton Baum and Kats, 2003

3 Sweden 0.66 ton Baum and Kats, 2003

4 Iceland 0.6 ton Baum and Kats, 2003

5 Egypt 0.52 ton Egyptian ministry of environment

6 European Union   0.5 – 1 ton                          Lauritzen, 2004 

7 United states 1 ton LaCrossa and Graves, 2002

8 Israel 1 ton Israel min. of environmental

protection

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Table 3-2 shows that demolition waste generation is around 0.5 ton per capita per year [14]. So we
can assume generation rate of construction and demolition waste in Addis Ababa is around 0.5 ton
(0.23m3) per capita per year and since the population of Addis Ababa is expected to be around 6
million, so there will be 3.0 million ton or 1,363,636 m3 demolished waste generated per year in
Addis Ababa. Considering that 50 percent of demolition wastes are recycled and 85 percent of it is
used for recycled concrete aggregate [16]. Accordingly, the annual production of recycled aggregate
of Addis Ababa is 579,545m3; this amount covers 68 percent of the virgin aggregate supply gap of
Addis Ababa.

3.5 Potential Sources of Recycled Aggregate in Addis Ababa

The following are the potential sources to produce recycled concrete aggregate. The major sources
of recycled concrete aggregates are;

1. Demolished Buildings for expansion of city: The old houses and roads constructed are
demolished in all parts of Addis Ababa especially in central of the city for reconstruction
according the revised master plan. The amount of demolish in four sub city of Addis Ababa
starting from 2009 are shown in table 3.3 below;

Table 3-3 Construction and demolition waste quantity generation in Addis Ababa.

Year Area of demolish Population Volume of

(in hector) displaced demolish(m3)
2009 39 11,010 2,532
2010 112 35,150 8,085
2011 29 6,290 1,447
2012 9 9370 2,155
2013 26 3435 790
2014 78.4 22,335 5,137
2015 98.3 37,915 8,720

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According table 3.2 the amount of recyclable construction demolishes in only four sub city from the
ten sub city is not small in amount. Some of the pictures taken from the four sub city are shown in
index B.

Figure 3-1 Demolition of buildings around Arat kilo

2. Demolished concrete structure: Concrete demolished Structures like bridge, pillars and
columns and beams of buildings available every corner of Addis

Figure 3-2 Demolition of concrete structures

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3. Tested concrete samples from the Laboratory: The amount of concrete debris carted away
from laboratories is not small.

Figure 3-3 Tested concrete samples from laboratory in Saba Engineering Concrete laboratory

4. Rejected Structural Precast Elements and HCB: Considerable amount of wastes from
production areas are collected specially around condominium productions areas and
construction blocks.

Figure 3-4 Rejected HCB and Precast elements

3.6 Future of Recycled Aggregate in Addis Ababa

The quantity of construction and demolition wastes is very huge in Addis Ababa. Imagining the
quantity after three or four decades when old constructions have to be demolished, what will happen
to Addis Ababa?

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In Addis Ababa recycled aggregates can be used in concrete hollow blocks, window sill, Terrazzo
tiles, road construction as stated previously, but the recycled aggregate is still very huge; so it should
be used in other uses other than stated. Recycled aggregate should be used in concrete structures
instead of natural aggregates to accommodate the huge quantity of recycled aggregate. The full use
of recycled aggregates solves the serious environmental problem, save energy, save natural resources
and the cost concern.

Figure 3-5 Tile and HCB recycling in small scale around Goffa Comp

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CHAPTER FOUR: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

4.1 Conclusion

The trend towards urbanization in the Ethiopia, especially Addis Ababa has provided, and probably
will continue to provide, a strong demand for high-volume, low-cost aggregates material for repair
and development of additional infrastructure. The total demand for aggregates, driven by
demographics, urbanization, and the economy, is expected to remain strong in the short term.

Recycling of construction materials has grown along with demand for aggregates. Recycled
aggregates compete favorably with natural aggregates in many local markets as road base material in
most country. Recycling has the potential to reduce the amount of waste disposed of in landfills,
preserve natural resources, and provide energy and cost savings while limiting environmental
disturbance. Potential sources for recycled material grow as maintenance or replacement of the
Nation’s infrastructure continues. Because of the finite life of such infrastructure, this “urban
deposit” may be considered a renewable resource.

The relative costs and charges of recyclers, and landfills determine the amount of material ultimately
available for recycling. The amount of material available overall for recycling is insufficient to meet
present industry demand. On a national basis, it is unlikely that recycling will ever completely
replace natural aggregates in the construction industry. The above analysis concludes;

 There are sufficient recyclable construction wastes which can cover more than 50 percent of
the demand and supply gap.
 Demolished materials if not used, will have to be disposed of as landfills; this will accelerate
the depletion of the precious landfill spaces.
 The demand of aggregates is growing very rapidly which will surly result in scarcity and
high price of the material.
 The usage of wastes from construction concrete is very important because these leftovers or
demolished materials are gradually increasing and the natural resources of aggregate
production are becoming depleted.
 Recycling appears to be profitable and in most cases can meet demand requirements of lower
value product applications such as road base, thereby freeing up higher quality material for
higher value applications.
 The properties of concrete containing RCA is comparable to that of the concrete containing
virgin aggregate.

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 The use of RCA helps to reduce disposal cost of demolition concrete waste construction
materials and have overall project savings.
 Data gaps still remain in assessing aggregates recycling. Reliable data on how much
recyclable material is available at the different sub-city is needed to quantify future market
potential and industry impact
 The more thoroughly the waste is treated, the higher the quality of the aggregate. However,
high-quality aggregate is expensive, and thus, economically unavailable in countries where
natural aggregate is cheaply obtained.
 In Addis Ababa there is a potential source of concrete debris from the demolition of old
buildings, expansion areas and roads.

4.2 Recommendation

Based upon economic considerations alone, aggregate recycling should continue. The aggregates
demand and supply gap, depletion of the virgin aggregate and landfill problems are the most
significant factors to look at the recycling of aggregate. Under the conditions specified in this
analysis and study, the following should be noted;

 Since there is a gap between supply and demand of aggregates, potential aggregate resources
should be identified and be prepared for future use.
 Since the natural resources for aggregate production are becoming depleted, it is
recommended that Ethiopia especially Addis Ababa uses waste materials obtained from
demolished concrete debris as a recycled source of aggregate.

 Ethiopia should learn from the experience of other countries and start using recycled
aggregates to preserve its natural resources and to eliminate quantities of demolished
materials before they become unmanageable.

 In Ethiopia the concept of recycled concrete aggregate is not well known, therefore arranging
and giving trainings to the different construction parties and other concerned bodies is vital.
 Further tests and studies on the recycled aggregate concrete are highly recommended to
indicate the different characteristics of recycled aggregates for application in concrete. When

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using RCA as an aggregate for high strength concrete, for example, different tests should be
performed with different percent of replacement till a good quality concrete is obtained.

 Significant steps are being taken to improve the quality of recycled aggregate and new
standards are easing its use in higher value applications. However, this is very much limited
to few countries and the message has to travel worldwide including Ethiopia to make a
meaningful difference to the sustainable use of RCA in concrete.

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5. Reference

1. Dr. Edward G. Nawy, P.E., C.Eng. Concrete Construction Engineering Handbook, Second
Edition
2. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
3. Abebe Dinku , The Need For Standardization Of Aggregates For Concrete Production In
Ethiopian Construction Industry, Civil Engineering Department, Addis Ababa University,
Ethiopia
4. Denamo Addissie, Handling of Concrete Making Materials in the Ethiopian Construction
Industry, M.Sc. thesis, AAU, FOT, 2005.
5. Mikyas Abayneh, (1987), Construction Materials, a Teaching Material, Addis Ababa
University Press, June 1987.
6. Sandor Popovics, Concrete Materials, Properties, Specifications and Testing- Second Edition
7. ACI Education Bulletin E1-07, Aggregates for Concrete, Developed by ACI Committee E-
701, 2007
8. Neville A.M., Properties of concrete, fourth edition, 1996.
9. Shewaferaw Dinku Belay, The Use of Manufactured Sand in Concrete Production: Test
Results and Cost Comparison, M.Sc. thesis, AAU, FOT, 2006.
10. Report on Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia, Use of Recycled Aggregates in
Construction, May 2008.
11. US Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration, Applications Of
Recycled Concrete Aggregate, September 2004
12. Recycling of Portland cement Concrete Pavements. National Cooperative Highway Research
Program, Synthesis of Highway Practice 154.
13. “Recycling Concrete Pavement”. Concrete Pavement technology. American Concrete
Pavement Association. 1993.
14. Ayed Ahmad Zuhud, Performance of Recycled Aggregate Concrete, November 2008

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15. Best practice guide for the use of recycled aggregate in new concrete.
16. Aggregates from Natural and Recycled Sources, By David R. Wilburn and Thomas G.
Goonan
17. Alexandra Descarrega, Quality improvement of the recycled aggregates through surface
treatment,

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