INTRODUCTION TO LOADS

REQUIREMENTS AND COMPUTATION

Toulouse

Gennaro Squeglia

Copyright©
CONTENT
 CONTENT

•1- Loads basic principles

•Loads for what?
•Loads classification
•The rules for loads assessment
•The static strength loads – Aim and philosophy
•The fatigue loads

•2- The static strength conditions

•Elements defining the design conditions
•The design weights
•The flight envelope
•3- General information on data for loads
•The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure
• The inertia loads
•The Loads Model

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1 - LOADS : BASIC PRINCIPLES
 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

LOADS FOR WHAT?

The external loads are a fundamental input to structure designers and to stress
specialists throughout the process that, starting from the establishment of the
design principles, ends with the certification of the aeroplane through the
delivery of the manufacturing drawings of the airframe structures.

Even if differences exist in the way each manufacturer works, the following
steps in airframe development must be supported by suitable loads information:

•Pre-design phase: identification of the design solutions and assessment

of component weight objectives.
•Design phase: final sizing and detail drawings
•Check stress: sizing verification
•Certification: final validation.

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

LOADS CLASSIFICATION

A definition of ‘Load’: Any physical quantity able to define the criticality of a loading
condition (envelope loads) or any physical quantity or set of physical quantities
enabling the design or stress specialists to design , size, or verify a structural
component (time and space correlated loads).

According to the above definition we may classify the following as ‘Loads’:

•The bending moment at wing root.

•A landing gear pintle load or an engine to pylon attachment load.
•The aerodynamic pressure distribution on a fairing.
•The fuel pressure on a tank wall.
•The hinge moment on a control surface.
•The accelerations at the centre of gravity of large concentrated masses.
•The set of discrete forces representing a gust encountering reduced to the nodal points
of the Finite Element Model (FEM) of the structure under analysis.

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

LOADS CLASSIFICATION (cont’d)

Depending on the type of structural analysis they are aimed for, the loads can be
classified as:
•Static Strength Loads
•Fatigue Strength Loads
•Residual strength loads

Depending on the phase in which they can be met, the loads can be classified
as:
•Flight loads
•Ground loads

Depending on the type of aeroplane model necessary for their calculation, the
loads can be classified as:
•Static or Quasi-Static Loads
•Dynamic Loads
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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

THE RULES FOR LOADS ASSESSMENT

Several bodies of rules exist giving minimum requirements for structure design
and qualification/certification according to the usage of the aeroplane (military
or civil), the category of the aeroplane etc.

Civil aeroplanes have to comply with FAR (Federal Aviation Requirements)

rules in the USA, or the almost equivalent JAR (Joint Aviation Requirements),
now EASA CS rules in Europe (FAR/JAR 23 being applicable to normal,
utility, acrobatic, and commuter aeroplanes, FAR/JAR/CS 25 being applicable
to transport category aeroplanes). Most of the loads requirements are in subpart
C (Structure) of FAR/JAR, but other side requirements are also in the subparts
B ‘Flight’, D (Design and Construction), E (Powerplant), F (Equipment) and G
(Operating Limitations and Information)

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

THE RULES FOR LOADS ASSESSMENT

Several Military Requirements also exist. We recall here the USA

MIL Standards, the UK DEF-STAN, the French AIR 2004...
We can remark that, as a matter of principle, the Civil Rules are
only safety oriented. The Military Requirements are in general
both safety and performance oriented since they are issued by the
customer of the product.

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

THE STATIC STRENGTH LOADS – AIM AND PHILOSOPHY

•The ‘static strength loads’ are the loads to be used for static strength
assessment. They ensure the structure has got adequate strength to
withstand extreme and very rare events implying the highest stress.
•The scenarios (manoeuvres, gust encountering, etc.) to be considered for static
strength loads are defined in
•The relevant basic regulation, or in
•Special Conditions issued by the Airworthiness Authorities
•Special Conditions take into account particular features of the
aeroplane not captured in the existing rules.
•In-house rules describing loads scenarios derived from the experience of
the manufacturer
•The loads evaluated for each prescribed scenario by the appropriate aeroplane
model provide a loading condition called limit loads.
•The limit loads must be factored by a coefficient, called the safety factor, to
obtain the ultimate loads.
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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

Basic CS25 Requirement

CS 25.301 Loads
(a) Strength requirements are specified in terms of limit loads (the maximum
loads expected in service) and ultimate loads (limit loads multiplied by
prescribed factors of safety). Unless otherwise provided, prescribed loads
are limit loads.
(b) Unless otherwise provided the specified air, ground, and water loads must
be placed in equilibrium with inertia forces, considering each item of mass in
the aeroplane. These loads must be distributed to conservatively
approximate or closely represent actual conditions. Methods used to
determine load intensities and distribution must be validated by flight load
measurement unless the methods used for determining those loading
conditions are shown to be reliable. (See AMC 25.301(b).)
(c) If deflections under load would significantly change the distribution of
external or internal loads, this redistribution must be taken into account.

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

Structural Certification acknowledges the structural capacity of the product to satisfy technical
requirements linked to a specific operating envelope.

These envelopes are defined through :

- external events (atmospheric conditions ... ) Covered by Certification
- Aircraft conditions (normal or failures cond... )
- Human actions (pilots inputs ... ) exceptional operation

Normal
And are specified by :
Operation
- general requirements (airworthiness ...)
- specific requirements (technical clauses,
special conditions, manufacturer’s choices... )

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Loads basic principle
Incremental loads in flight

MANEUVERS

THERMAL

TURBULENCES ACCELERATIONS (Load Factors)

GUSTS (INERTIA FORCES TO THE STRUCTURE)

GROUND EFFECTS

WIND SHEAR

WIND STREAMS

FAR/JAR 25:
+2.5
Flight envelop boundaries
-1
load factor +2.5 g, -1 g)

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 I – Loads basic principle
Mod.
Ground loads
STEADY LOADS on ground

C.G.

INCREMENTAL LOADS on ground

TAXIING TURNING PIVOTING TOWING

MANEUVERS / BUMPS
BRAKING

TAKEOFF

LANDING For Landing: Steady Loads @ one g Flight

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

THE STATIC STRENGTH LOADS – AIM AND PHILOSOPHY (cont’d)

It must be demonstrated that the structure, when submitted to limit
load conditions, does not suffer permanent detrimental
deformation. Moreover, it must not loose its operating capability
(for example, it must be possible to deflect a control surface under
limit loads).
In house rules can add other requirements (e.g. no buckling) at
Limit Loads
Each structure must be able to sustain the ultimate loads without
rupture. The demonstration of the capability of the structure to
sustain ultimate loads is, in general, based on theoretical analyses
and validated by static tests; during such a test the structure must
sustain ultimate loads during at least three seconds without
collapsing
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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

THE STATIC STRENGTH LOADS – AIM AND PHILOSOPHY (cont’d)

•The value of the safety factor is prescribed by the regulation and,

in general, it is equal to 1.5. Lower values may be prescribed for
more rare events. For example, extreme loads conditions due to
rare events (manoeuvres, gust…), experienced by an aeroplane
with the failure of a system that can interact with the load level
itself, call for a safety factor ranging between 1 and 1.5 according
to the probability of the failure.

•Other extremely rare events, such as a fan blade failure or a

landing impact with one or more landing gear retracted, are
considered ultimate loads conditions. For these conditions, a
safety factor equal to 1 is prescribed.

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

Safety factor for system failure conditions

At the time of the failure

For Continuation of Flight

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

THE STATIC STRENGTH LOADS – AIM AND PHILOSOPHY (cont’d)

In principle, even if not explicitly written in the rules, a limit loads

condition affected by a 1.5 safety factor corresponds to an event
with a probability of occurrence of about 10-5 per flight hour
(about once in an aeroplane’s lifetime). Nevertheless, most loads
conditions are still defined as deterministic, the probabilistic
approach being almost limited to the philosophy for assessment of
the safety factor for the loads in system failure conditions.

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

THE STATIC STRENGTH LOADS – AIM AND PHILOSOPHY (cont’d)

It is useful at this point to underline that the safety factor, was not
initially intended to account for the probability of the event, but it
was intended to cover uncertainties on the definition of the load
condition (which may, in some extent, to be linked to the
probability of the event), the approximation in the loads model, the
uncertainties in the material properties, the manufacturing
tolerances, the approximation in the stress analysis and/or on test
execution. More recently the regulation trend is to include in some
extent the safety factor in the frame of an overall safety analysis
aiming to fix an overall objective in terms of ‘tolerated’ risk,
similar to the approach widely applied in the system safety
assessment.

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

Factor of safety
CS 25.303 Factor of safety
Unless otherwise specified, a factor of safety of 1·5 must be applied to the
prescribed limit load which are considered external loads on the structure.
When loading condition is prescribed in terms of ultimate loads, a factor of
safety need not be applied unless otherwise specified.

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

Loads

1.5 ULTIMATE LOADS

1.0 LIMIT LOADS

NORMAL IN-SERVICE LOADS

Service life

LIMIT LOADS: - Maximum loads anticipated on a/c structure during its lifetime.
- A/C able to sustain LL without detrimental permanent deformations

ULTIMATE LOADS = LIMIT LOADS X 1.5 (Safety Factor)

STRUCTURE STATIC STRENGTH DESIGN

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Mod. LOADS
I – Loads basic BASIC PRINCIPLES
principle

Factor of safety
Requirement The structure must be designed to withstand the
ultimate loads envelope

Loads
Conditions

1,5 usually ( § 25.303 ) covering the variability on :

Loads Calculations • Loads/ abnormal loads
• Production/ workmanship
• analysis
LIMITS LOADS • materials characteristics
( LL ) • thickness and strength degradation during service life

Safety Factor

ULTIMATE LOADS
( UL )

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

THE STATIC STRENGTH LOADS – AIM AND PHILOSOPHY (cont’d)

The previous points may be summarised in the following way:

•The limit loads ensure an adequate level of protection against

local damages due to extreme (about once per lifetime) events.
The airworthiness of the airframe is also ensured by the ability in
detecting these events on each individual aeroplane in service to
trigger the necessary maintenance actions. It is obvious that the
means for detecting such events are relatively limited.
Nevertheless, based on the in service record, the design limit loads
level, together with the existing detection techniques can be
considered adequate to ensure satisfactory continuous
airworthiness.
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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

THE STATIC STRENGTH LOADS – AIM AND PHILOSOPHY (cont’d)

• The ultimate loads prescribed by the rule ensure adequate

strength to withstand loads arising from extremely rare events. A
fundamental role is played by the safety factor applied to the limit
loads, which has as an effect of lowering the probability of
structural failures well below the probability of meeting limit
loads conditions.

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Mod. LOADS
I – Loads basic BASIC PRINCIPLES
principle

Load versus strength

CS 25.613 Material strength properties and design values

(a) Material strength properties must be based on enough tests of material
meeting approved specifications to establish design values on a statistical
basis.
Just like the external loads, the mechanical properties
of materials are of a statistical nature. Design values
must be chosen such that that the probability of a
structure being overstressed because of material
properties variation is extremely remote.
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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

THE STATIC STRENGTH LOADS – AIM AND PHILOSOPHY (cont’d)

Some elements to understand the general philosophy that inspired the

assessment of the static loads conditions:

•The load conditions requiring the highest static strength are fortunately rather
rare events, far from the events experienced in normal daily operation. When
these events occur, they present an array of different features. Therefore, it is
quite difficult to prescribe a complete set of detailed scenarios capturing all
possible events.
•The philosophy used in the past and leading to the present rules has been to
assess the design conditions as few, simple, tailored, ‘stylised’ cases supposed
to be ‘envelope’ conditions, representative of worst case scenario conditions.
• Even if the rules prescribe more or less complex assumptions and modelling,
these conditions still remain more or less arbitrary.

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

THE STATIC STRENGTH LOADS – AIM AND PHILOSOPHY (cont’d)

•The in service experience has shown that these simplified cases are able to
provide a satisfactory safety level.

•Therefore it is a difficult to move towards more rational analyses which could

be possible by the knowledge gathered by the in service survey and by the
more and more increasing modelling and computing capability.

•Nevertheless challenging these simplified conditions for the most modern

aeroplanes to take benefits of the ability in reducing the loads by using the
opportunities offered by the present technologies, mainly in the field of the
flight control system, is one of the more interesting contribution that the loads
specialists can give to improve the structural performance of the aeroplane.

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

THE FATIGUE LOADS

One of the fundamental criterion for the sizing of the aeronautical

structures is their ability to sustain cyclic loads during normal
operation.

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

THE FATIGUE LOADS

•It is worth recalling that the general philosophy to deal with the
problem of fatigue on structures dramatically evolved in the 70’s when
the damage tolerance concept almost replaced or supplemented the
previous concepts of ‘safe life’ and ‘fail safe’ structure.

•In a few words, this means that the concept of conceiving a structure
with a well defined lifetime (safe life structure) has been replaced by the
concept of structures for which the location and the propagation of
eventual fatigue damage is known and controlled in such a way that it
can never grow in service to an extent such that the damaged structure
cannot sustain a minimum reference load level (residual strength loads).

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LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

Aloha Airline – B737 build in

1969
Date 8 April 1988
Alt 24000ft – Explosive
decompression
30000fh but 90000FC.
Cause: Fatigue exacerbée par
des criques de corrosion. La
cause principale du problème fut
un défaut sur un adhésif époxy
assurant la liaison entre les
plaques d'aluminium du fuselage.
Là où les deux surfaces n'étaient
pas correctement reliées, l'eau
put rentrer dans le sillon et
commença un lent processus de
corrosion.
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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

THE FATIGUE LOADS

•The structures conceived with this philosophy are called damage

tolerant structures.

• For such structures the continued airworthiness of the structures (that

is its capability of maintaining the required level of safety), is ensured
by an inspection program issued at the time of the certification.

•This program is based on theoretical fatigue and crack propagation

analyses supported by specific fatigue tests aiming to confirm/find the
critical fatigue locations and the propagation of eventual cracks, and to
validate the repairs for fatigue damages.

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

THE FATIGUE LOADS (cont’d)

•The contribution of the loads specialists in the fatigue analysis

consist in
•computing the cyclic loads necessary for endurance
assessment and for crack propagation analysis
•providing the set of loads necessary to the static residual
strength analysis.

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

THE FATIGUE LOADS (cont’d)

•The loads for residual strength analysis are a sub-set of the

limit loads used for the normal static strength analysis and they
are to be used without any additional safety factor.

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

THE FATIGUE LOADS (cont’d)

•The evaluation of the loads for endurance and crack propagation analyses
require the knowledge of :

•the probable usage of the aeroplane (fatigue missions)

•the knowledge of the type of loads actions encountered by the aeroplane at

each stage of the fatigue missions (for example flight in turbulent
atmosphere, in flight manoeuvres, landing touch-down , taxi on rough
ground, ground turning…)

•the statistic characteristics of the above ‘disturbances’ (e.g. number and

intensities of encountered gusts, number of pitching manoeuvres and
associated load factor, probability distribution of the sinking speed at the
landing, number and intensities of the peaks of vertical acceleration at the
taxi or statistical description of the ground roughness…)

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

THE FATIGUE LOADS (cont’d)

•The loads calculated for the aeroplane in the steady 1 g condition on each flight
or ground segment of the fatigue mission, together with:

•The loads calculated for ‘unit’ disturbance (e.g. loads for a unit gust intensity,
for a unit increment of the manoeuvre load factor etc.) and in conjunction with
the statistical characteristics of the disturbance

enable to compute

•The loads spectra (that is the steady load and the number of exceedence
of each given load level at each flight segment)

•These loads spectra are used by the stress analysts to load the Finite Element
Model and transformed into stress spectra that are the basis for the fatigue and
crack propagation analysis.

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

Define the fatigue missions Define the fatigue relevant disturbances

(manœuvres, gusts)…) Compute stress for 1g conditions

Cut each fatigue mission Define the spectra of the disturbances Compute stress for unit
in flight segments (disturbance level versus frequency) disturbance

Combine unit stress with disturbance spectra

Compute 1g load for to build stress incremental spectra
each segment

Combine 1g stress with incremental spectra

Compute incremental ‘ unit ’ to builld the overall stress spectra
loads for each segment and
for each relevant disturbance

STATISTICS Perform fatigue and crack propagation analysis

LOADS Define and perform

Define the inspection program
the fatigue test
STATISTICS
STRESS

TESTS CONCEPTUAL WORKFLOW FOR FATIGUE ANALYSIS

AND TESTS
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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

TYPICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE FATIGUE MISSIONS

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 DIST TIME FUEL WEIGHT
NET
THRUST
(nm) (kg) (kg) (kg) (daN)

1
START UP AND TAXI OUT 7.0 114 58 081

T.O. & INITIAL CLIMB 3.9 1.3 136

57 945 12 456
CLIMB 250 kt 10.7 2.4 233

5
57 712 10 192
ACCELERATION 250 kt TO 340 kt
57 633 9 290

85.5 11.7 888

CLIMB
340 kt/0.78 M 57 099 6 655

10
5 398
56 824
3 675

23314 ft
Fatigue - Stress spectrum

CRUISE 288.0 37.8 1487

1500 ft
5000 ft

15
0.78 M

10000 ft

SEA LEVEL
3 633
55 337 - 421
24554 ft

55 332 - 710
DESCENT
0.82 M/350 kt 37.3 4.9 29

20
55 308 - 920
DECELERATION 350 kt TO 250 kt - 422

ORIGINAL A320-200 FATIGUE MISSION

20.3 4.1 32 55 299 - 442
DESCENT 250 kt - 246
55 276
DECELERATION 250 kt TO 210 kt
5.0 141 55 271 3 013
HOLD 210 kt
25

3 006
55 135
DESCENT 250 kt 10.2 2.8 24 - 246
APPROACH 210 kt TO 145 kt 55 111 - 255
10.5 5.0 155
LANDING
54 956
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7.0 89
29

TAXI IN
TWO
ALL SPEEDS CAS TOTAL BLOCK 466.0 89.0 3 329 ENGINES
LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

TYPICAL DISTURBANCE SPECTRUM: VERTICAL LOAD FACTOR AT TAXI

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LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

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LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES
Dnz fatigue spectrum for taxi out Dnz FATIGUE SPECTRUM FOR TAKE OFF RUN
10000 10000

number of…
1000 ESDU 1000
Number of exceedances

100 100

10 10

1 1
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3
0,1 0,1
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35 0,4
Dnz

Dnz fatigue spectrum for landing run 10000

Dnz fatigue spectrum for taxi in
1000
(
100 1000
Number of exceedances

ESDU ESDU
Number of exceedances

10 100

1 10

0,1 1
-0,1 6E-16 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6

0,01 0,1
Dnz 0 0,02 0,04 0,06 Dnz
0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

TYPICAL DISTURBANCE SPECTRUM/ SINKING SPEED AT TOUCH DOWN

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Typical Stress Spectrum @ Wing Top Skin LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

Pre-Take off Post Landing

Ground Loads Ground Loads

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

LOADS VALIDATION

•The loads are in general calculated and monitored several times in loads
loops.

•Each loop takes benefit of:

•the improved knowledge of the aeroplane definition as it will be at
the entering in service and
•the improved knowledge of the data gathered by the progress of the
models provided by the other disciplines.

•At the end of the process, before the certification, a final analysis is
necessary to validate the loads information and therefore to validate the
adequacy of the structure.

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

LOADS VALIDATION

The final analysis is based on a number of tests:

•Landing gear drop test: validates the landing gear model at
the impact.
•Ground vibration test: validates the structure dynamic model
used for the dynamic tests
•Flight test: validates the overall loads model
•Other flight and ground tests, even if out of the responsibility
or the control of the loads domain, contribute to the validation
of the loads model. We recall the flutter flight test and some
labo tests on the flight control system.

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 LOADS BASIC PRINCIPLES

LOADS VALIDATION

•The Flight Test Campaign is performed on the flight test aeroplane

equipped with calibrated strain gauges allowing the measurement of the
loads on a selected number of representative sections (wing, fuselage,
empennages) or on elements such as the engine attachments, the landing
gear, the control surfaces…

•The program consist in performing flight or ground manoeuvres close to

those required by the rule (even if often at a reasonably lower level in order
to avoid damaging the structure) or prescribes other manoeuvre useful to
the identification of parts of the loads model.

•Other unplanned events leading to high loads level, such as hard landing,
relatively frequent in the early flights, are very useful for the validation
process.

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2 - THE STATIC STRENGTH DESIGN CONDITIONS
 THE STATIC STRENGTH DESIGN CONDITIONS

ELEMENTS DEFINING THE DESIGN CONDITIONS

The design conditions are identified by the following elements:

•The type of event (manoeuvre,gust…) and the associated scenario
(description of the pilot action, shape of the gust…)
•The aeroplane weight, centre of gravity and weight configuration
(fuel quantity, pay-load distribution…)
•The aeroplane speed and altitude.

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 THE STATIC STRENGTH DESIGN CONDITIONS

INCREMENTAL LOADS
STEADY LOADS CONDITIONS

IN FLIGHT

ON GROUND

- MANEUVERS
- GUSTS
- RUNWAY ROUGHNESS

LOAD FACTORS & LIMIT LOADS

Based on experience,

BASIS FOR STATIC STRUCTURAL STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS

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 THE STATIC STRENGTH DESIGN CONDITIONS

ELEMENTS DEFINING THE DESIGN CONDITIONS

The weight –centre of gravity envelope is one of the main characteristic of the
aeroplane. It is normally provided in a particular shape in which the vertical
axis represents the weight, and the horizontal axis represents the static moment
of the aeroplane (WxXcg), conventionally referred to the 25% of the mean
aerodynamic chord (see next figure). In this representation the constant-CG
position points lie on straight lines, each CG position having a different slope
(the 25% reference position being vertical, that is at static moment constantly
equal to zero). The advantage of this representation is that weight vectors can
be translated from one point to another. This means, for example, that if we
want to know the final centre of gravity of the aeroplane initially at a given
mass and at a given CG after adding N tns of fuel in a tank located at Xi%, it is
just necessary to translate a vector of N tns kept on the Xi% line to the point on
the diagram representing the initial weight and CG

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THE STATIC STRENGTH DESIGN CONDITIONS

TYPICAL WEIGHT - CENTRE OF GRAVITY DYAGRAM

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 THE STATIC STRENGTH DESIGN CONDITIONS

THE DESIGN WEIGHTS

The most important mass cases in the loads analysis are:

•The operating empty weight (OEW), the weight of the aeroplane without pay-
load and without usable fuel (but including crew, galleys, water etc.)
•The maximum take off weight (MTOW), the maximum weight authorised at
the take off.
•The maximum ramp weight (MRW), the maximum weight authorised for the
ground handling.
•The maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW), the maximum weight without
usable fuel. The difference between the MZFW and the operating empty weight
gives the maximum pay load weight
•The maximum landing weight (MLW), the maximum weight authorised for
landing.

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 THE STATIC STRENGTH DESIGN CONDITIONS

THE FLIGHT ENVELOPE

The analysed flight conditions (speed and altitude), must cover in

an exhaustive manner the flight envelope defined by the certified
range of operational altitudes and by the structural design speeds
and the minimum/maximum load factor prescribed by the rule.
Different flight domains are defined depending on the
configuration.

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 THE STATIC STRENGTH DESIGN CONDITIONS

THE FLIGHT ENVELOPE (cont’d)

Load Factor
nmax A D

A2
CLmax limit
1
VA VC VD
EAS
E
-1
H F

FLIGHT ENVELOPE IN CLEAN CONFIGURATION

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THE STATIC STRENGTH DESIGN CONDITIONS

THE FLIGHT ENVELOPE (cont’d)

2 A3 F1

F F'
1

VS1g VF VF + 25 fps

FLIGHT ENVELOPE IN HIGH LIFT CONFIGURATION

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 THE STATIC STRENGTH DESIGN CONDITIONS

THE FLIGHT ENVELOPE

Clean Configuration

•The flight domain is bounded by the 1g stall Vs1g speed in clean configuration
as the lowest value.
Other interesting speeds for loads computation are:

•VA or Manoeuvre Design Speed. This speed is also reported in the flight
manual as the maximum speed at which the pilot is allowed to abruptly act on
the flight control without any particular care. This speed is prescribed as the
stalling speed factored by the square root of the limit vertical load factor:
(VA = Vs1g nLIM)
Taking into account that the rule has been written several decades ago for
aircraft flying in the low subsonic region for which the maximum lift
coefficient was almost constant with Mach number, we can understand that
the intent was to describe the minimum speed at which the limit load factor
can be achieved

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 THE STATIC STRENGTH DESIGN CONDITIONS

THE FLIGHT ENVELOPE (cont’d)

•VB or Speed for Maximum Gust Intensity. This speed is often in

relation with the operational speed VRA (given in the Flight
Manual) which is the speed recommended to the crew for flight in
strong turbulence. VB is prescribed as Vs1g factored by the square
root of the vertical load factor due to the limit gust at the design
speed VC
VB = Vs1g ng

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 THE STATIC STRENGTH DESIGN CONDITIONS

THE FLIGHT ENVELOPE (cont’d)

•VC or Structural Cruise Design Speed.This speed is in relation with the

operational speed VMO (Maximum Operating Speed), which is the speed
that cannot be deliberately exceeded by the pilot.

•VMO is selected by the manufacturer and it cannot be greater than VC

•A minimum margin is required between VB and VC in such a way to

limit the risk of exceeding VC in the case of strong gust encountering.

•In the high altitude range, where the effect of the compressibility
becomes large, the structural/operational limitations are prescribed in
terms of Mach numbers Mc and MMO respectively.

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 THE STATIC STRENGTH DESIGN CONDITIONS

THE FLIGHT ENVELOPE (cont’d)

•VD or Dive Speed. This speed constitutes the upper limit of the
flight domain. It must provide sufficient margin with respect to VC
and it is computed by simulating some dive manoeuvres starting
from VC or taking into account some scenarios in terms of wind
shear or head-on gust.

•The VD, that also plays an important role in flutter justification,

has to be demonstrated during the flight test campaign by
performing particular manoeuvres prescribed in the FAA Flight
Test Guide.

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 THE STATIC STRENGTH DESIGN CONDITIONS

THE FLIGHT ENVELOPE (cont’d)

High Lift Configuration

•For the High Lift configuration, a specific flight envelope must be defined for
each Flaps/Slats setting.

•The minimum speed to be considered is the Vs1g (1g stall speed) of the
considered configuration

•The upper limit of the high lift flight envelope is VF or Design Flap Speed,
which in the operational world corresponds to the Flight Manual speed VFE

• VFE is the maximum allowed flight manual speed in the specific flap
setting. A sufficient margin of a few kts between VF and VFE is in general
necessary.

Page 62
 THE STATIC STRENGTH DESIGN CONDITIONS

THE FLIGHT ENVELOPE (cont’d)

High Lift Configuration (cont’d)

The Minimum Design Flap prescribed for design must be

computed by factorising the Vs1g by a factor equal to 1.6 for
configurations used at take off or equal to 1.8 for configurations
used at the approach or at landing. Very often VF is chosen higher
than the minimum prescribed value due to constraints on VFE for
operational reasons.

Even if the loads conditions prescribed at VF are usually sizing

conditions for the high lift surface, they can result in critical
conditions also for the wing (bending /torque combination) and for
the empennage.
Page 63
3 - GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

The external loads are due to:

•The aerodynamic action acting on the external contour of the aeroplane
•The propulsion loads
•The loads introduced by the ground. It is worth to separate these loads
into two categories:
•The ground loads introduced directly by the ground on the landing
gear
•The ground loads introduced on the landing gear or on other parts of
the airframe by handling or maintenance devices such as towing
vehicles, jacking devices, tie-down devices.
•The gravitational loads
•The inertial loads, which are the aeroplane reaction to balance all the
loads above.

Page 65
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

LIFT

DRAG

DRAG LIFT

DRAG

THRUST CG

THRUST

DRAG DRAG

WEIGHT

Page 66
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

So, the force acting on each point of the loads model grid can be written in the
most general manner as:

{F} = {FAERO} + {FPROP} + {FGROUND} + {FINERTIAL}

•In general, each loads effect has got its own loading grid in the loads model.
•The aerodynamic forces are applied on the aerodynamic grid
•The inertia loads on the mass grid, the grid on which the masses are
concentrated
•The thrust effects are applied to points representative of the point of
application of the propulsive forces and torque
•The ground loads on points of the landing gear on points such as the
jacking and the tie-down points.

Page 67
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

The aerodynamic loads

•The aerodynamic loads are distributed loads.

•They act as pressure loads on each part of the aeroplane external
contour
•They are often considered as acting on the mean surface of the
lifting surfaces or as a local lift coefficient and moment on the
aerodynamic centre of each lifting surface section.
•Depending on their steady (or quasi-steady) or transient nature,
the aerodynamic forces are computed by different techniques
(tests and/or theoretical methods)

Page 68
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

The aerodynamic loads

•The steady aerodynamic still relies in large extent on wind

tunnel tests, which are more and more complemented now by
Computed Fluid Dynamics (CFD) methodologies.

The aerodynamic forces are more or less complex to be modelled

into the loads model depending on the type of the aeroplane and
on its flight envelope.

Page 69
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

The aerodynamic loads

•Whichever the way of modelling the steady aerodynamic, these

forces depend, for the rigid aeroplane, on the following
•The aeroplane configuration (flaps/slats position, airbrakes)
•The aeroplane position with respect to the airflow (the angle
of attack  and the sideslip angle )
•The HTP angle for trimmable horizontal tail plane
•The flight control surfaces deflection (elevator, rudder,
ailerons, spoilers)
•The aeroplane kinematics (pitch, roll and yaw rate)
•The Mach number

Page 70
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

The aerodynamic loads
•For propeller driven aeroplane, the engine thrust coefficient
(the ratio between the thrust developed by the engines and the
dynamic pressure factored by a reference surface)

•The aerodynamic forces above are normally provided for an unit

dynamic pressure, since the ratio between the force and the
dynamic pressure does not depend on the dynamic pressure itself
(linear relationship)

•This is not true for the flexible aeroplane, where the aerodynamic
normalised global forces and local pressures also depend on the
dynamic pressure (see static aeroelastic section)
Page 71
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

The aerodynamic loads

•A transonic jet aeroplane presents the difficulty of predicting and modelling the
aerodynamic force at high Mach number and close to CL of buffet

•For such type of aeroplanes the aerodynamic data must be provided

• as a function of the Mach number
•taking into account the effects of the non-linearities when convenient
•for each high lift configuration and with and without extended airbrakes
•for landing gear retracted and extended, with ground effect when relevant

Page 72
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

The aerodynamic loads
•For turboprop aeroplanes, which normally cruise at Mach well below 0.8, the
Mach effect is much less critical, even if the aero forces must be still modelled
as a function of Mach. The main difficulties come from
•The representation of the effect of the aerodynamic interaction with the
propeller. In fact, for high values of the traction coefficient CT (the ratio
between the propeller thrust and the dynamic pressure multiplied by a
reference surface) the effects of this interaction are quite important.
•The computation of the loads in one engine inoperative conditions which
in general requires a specific set of data.
•The identification of the direct effect on the propeller force (the so-called
‘1P’ forces) of the local angle of attack (inflow angle) of the propeller itself
that ‘looses’ its axial symmetry properties. The effects of the wing on the
propeller angle of attack (the aerodynamic upwash and the effect of the
wing distortion) are important in the definition of the propeller inflow angle

Page 73
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

The aerodynamic loads

•For the unsteady aerodynamics there is in general no wind tunnel test support.
•The intuitive physics of the unsteady aerodynamics is that, due to the inertia of
the airflow, a finite time is necessary to reach the steady state conditions after a
change of flight mechanics parameter (e.g. the angle of attack or a control
surface position).
•The aerodynamic transient behaviour may be represented, to better understand,
by an indicial function, which provides the aerodynamic response (e.g. the
local lift on a lifting surface) due to a step unit variation of the angle of attack
(see next slide).
•The normal, steady, wind tunnel tests cannot give information on the lift rise
period, but they are nevertheless useful because they still provide the
asymptotic value, useful to ‘calibrate’ the theoretical unsteady aero models.

Page 74
GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

UNSTEADY AERODYNAMICS – INDICIAL FUNCTION

CL

CL STEA DY

Angle of attack

time

Page 75
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

The aerodynamic loads

•The usual representation of the unsteady aerodynamics is not in the time

domain, but in the frequency domain.
•The most used technique is the Doublet Lattice Method, a three
dimensional, small disturbance, thin plate, linear model.
•This methodology provides aerodynamic influence coefficient complex
matrices, giving the relationship between the pressure on each point of the
aero grid for a harmonic unit variation of the angle of attack on another (or
the same) point of the aero grid.
•These aerodynamic matrices are function of the Mach number and of the
non-dimensional frequency (reduced frequency k = 2/Vc). Note that the
steady aero corresponds to the (real) matrix for k =0.

Page 76
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

The inertia loads

•The inertia loads are due to the response of the rigid and elastic
degrees of freedom of the aeroplane. Hereafter the elements to
understand the origin of the inertia loads acting on the airframe.

•The inertia forces generated in each mass in which the aeroplane

mass distribution has been modelled depend on the number of
degree of freedom attributed to the mass. As the most general case
each mass has got 6 degrees of freedom, 3 translational and 3
rotational.

Page 77
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

The inertia loads

•In the most general case the inertia force acting on each mass
greed (a point at which a mass is attached) is equal to

{Fin} = - [M] {am} + Mgy

Where
{Fin} is the inertia force vector (3 forces and 3 moments)
[M] is the 6x6 mass matrix describing the individual mass
{am} is the acceleration vector (3 linear and 3 angular) of
the individual mass
Mgy is the gyroscopic moment acting on the mass in the
case of rotating mass (e.g. engine rotors)
Page 78
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The first part of the previous equation is explicitly given hereafter

 Finx   m 0 0 0 Sz − Sy  ax 
 Finy   0 m 0 − Sz 0 Sx  ay 
    
 Finz   0 0 m Sy − Sx 0   az 
  = −  
Minx   0 − Sz Sy Ixx − Ixy − Ixz  x 
Miny   Sz 0 − Sx − Ixy Iyy − Iyz  y 
    
Minz   − Sy Sx 0 − Ixz − Iyz Izz  z 
Where m is the mass; Sx, Sy and Sz are the static moments of the mass wrt
the grid point; Ixx, Iyy and Izz are the direct moments of inertia of the mass;
Ixy, Iyz and Ixz are the cross moments of inertia of the mass

Page 79
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

The inertia loads

•The accelerations acting on each mass are those due to the

response to the external loads of the aeroplane as a rigid body
(rigid body degrees of freedom) plus the accelerations due to the
airframe elastic response (elastic degrees of freedom
corresponding to the elastic modes in which the elastic response
has been decomposed)

{am} = {amR} + {amE}

Page 80
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The inertia loads

•It is easy to demonstrate the following equation

amRx  axcg + (zcgdy − ycgdz ) + [( pr )dz + ( pq )dy − (q + r )dx ]
2 2

amRy  aycg + (xcgdz − zcgdx ) + [( qr )dz + ( pq)dx − (r 2 + p 2 )dy ]

   
 amRz  azcg + (ycgdx − xcgdy ) + [( qr )dy + ( pr )dx − ( p + q )dz ]
2 2

amR =   =  

  
mRx  xcg

mRy   ycg 
   

  
mRz  zcg 

Where p, q and r are the angular speeds around the aircraft centre of
gravity, axcg, aycg ,acg, xcg, ycg and zcg are the linear and angular
accelerations around the A/C centre of gravity and dx, dy and dz are the
components of the distance vector of the mass from the A/C centre
of gravity

Page 81
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

The inertia loads due to the aeroplane CG angular speed

The accelerations due to the angular speeds can be easily derived from
the following relationships:

(1) The local speed at the grid mass point due to the angular speed at
A/C CG is:

V = iVx+jVy+ kVz = d = i(qdz-rdy)+j(-pdz+rdx)+k(pdy-qdx)

where d = idx+jdy+ kdz is the distance vector from the grid point to the
A/C CG
and  = ip+jq+ kr is the angular speed vector at the A/C centre of
gravity

Page 82
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

The inertia loads due to the aeroplane CG angular speed

(2) Vector derivative (Poisson formula)

di/dt = i = jr - kq  d(iVx)/dt =

= i[(dq/dt)dz-(dr/dt)dy]+ (jr - kq)(qdz-rdy)

dj/dt = j = -ir + kp  d(jVy)/dt =

= j[-(dp/dt)dz+(dr/dt)dx)] + (-ir+kp)(-pdz+rdx)

dk/dt = k = iq - jp  d(kVz)/dt =

= k[(dp/dt)dy-(dq/dt)dx)]+( iq - jp) (pdy-qdx)

Page 83
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

The inertia loads due to the aeroplane CG angular speed

•Grouping the contributions of the above equations (second term only)

on the x, y and z axis (i, j and k respectively)we get the following
accelerations:

ax = (pr)dz + (pq)dy - r2 dx - q2dx

ay = (qr)dz + (pq)dx - r2dy - p2dy

az = (qr)dy + (pr)dx - q2dz - p2dz

Page 84
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

The inertia loads due to the flexible degrees of freedom

Wing 1st Symmetrical Bending

Wing 4 nodes Bending

Page 85
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

The inertia loads due to the flexible degrees of freedom

For the flexible degrees of freedom, where the modal approach is

followed,the accelerations (six in the most general case) at each
mass grid may be written as

{amE} = [] {d2q/dt2}

where [] is the mode matrix at the mass grid point, and q is the
generalised co-ordinate vector (in the number of the modes).

In principle, once the accelerations are computed, the same

process shown for the rigid body degrees of freedom can be used
to compute the inertia integrated loads for a unit mode response.

Page 86
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

The inertia loads due to the gyroscopic effect

The gyroscopic forces are, for the aeroplane loads, a very particular case. These
inertia force are developed by bodies having an axial symmetry and rotating
around this axis at a so high rotational speed that the contribution to the
rotational momentum of the rotations around the other normal axes is negligible
In this case the Euler equations are simplified in the very simple one:

Mgy = I 

Where Mgy is the gyroscopic moment

I is the moment of inertia of the body around the symmetry axis
 is the rotational speed around the symmetry axis
 is the processional speed normal to the symmetry axis

Page 87
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

The inertia loads due to the gyroscopic effect

•The gyroscopic moment is important, and explicitly required by

the FAR/JAR25 in the computation of the engine loads.
•The gyroscopic forces on the engine are due to the the response
of the rigid body and to the response of the flexible degrees of
freedom.

Page 88
 GENERAL INFORMATION ON DATA FOR LOADS

The elements contributing to the loads on the aeroplane structure

The inertia loads due to the gyroscopic effect

Besides the problem of the engine loads, the gyroscopic effect plays an
important role for the analysis of the whirl flutter (particularly important for the
turboprop installations), the study of the aeroelastic instability taking into
account the aerodynamic unsteady action on the propeller blade due to the
motion of the propeller plane
.
Another area of concern for the gyroscopic effect is the study of the shimmy,
where the inertia gyroscopic forces generated on the wheel by the effect of the
rotation of the wheel plane can be important.

Page 89
 THE LOADS MODELS

A MAIN INTEGRATOR

•The loads model is the crossing point of several disciplines

•In this respect, the loads specialist is one of the main integrators in the design
office
•Due to the need of accurately describing the movement of the aeroplane in
flight and on ground to get reliable loads, many synergies exist between the
loads activities other design and development processes
•A main challenge at the present time and in the future is to take all the possible
benefits offered by these synergies
•Take benefits from the most accurate models produced and used in the
engineering community
•Work in an integrated concurrent engineering environment
•Reduce the cycle and the costs

Page 90
Loads and its dependencies

Configuration

Aerodynamics

Structure (FEM)

Masses/Fuel Loads

FCS

Landing gear

Power plant
 THE LOADS MODELS

THE CONTENT OF THE LOADS MODEL

The following aircraft models are necessary for loads
computations:
•A steady aero model providing global coefficients and pressure
distributions
•A unsteady aero model to compute the generalised aerodynamic
forces and unsteady pressure (meanly for the transient forces due
to the gust and to elastic modes)
•A mass model giving the global masses and the associate mass
distributions (structure, payload, fuel, systems)
•A FEM (Finite Element Model) of the complete aeroplane
coupled with the mass distribution model to compute the elastic
degree of freedom characteristics (e.g. normal modes)

Page 92
 THE LOADS MODELS

THE CONTENT OF THE LOADS MODEL (cont’d)

•A Flight Control System model for the flight mechanics

equation solution.
•An engine model to introduce the propulsion force (thrust,
torque)
•A landing gear model (elastic model, shock absorber, tyres,
brakes, steering system…)
•A fuel system model to identify the fuel mass distributions
consistent with the refuelling, fuel transfer and fuel consumption
logics.

Page 93
 AIRCRAFT FLIGHT
LOADS CALCULATION

Maneuver loads

Flight Loads
 Introduction

• loads level the aircraft may face due to pilot action

(maneuvers)

• Static loads :
– Consideration of exceptional Maneuvers, probability of
about once/ aircraft life
• Fatigue loads :
– Consideration of operational Maneuvers occurring at
each flight

Flight Loads
 Elements for maneuver loads computation :

• Three elements are coupled together to compute

maneuver loads :
– maneuver definition
– flight mechanics model
– loads derivation
1) 2) 3)
Define Simulate A/C Compute loads
Maneuvers response

Regulation Flight mechanics

Loads model
+ others … model

Flight Loads
 maneuvers definition philosophy

• It is not the objective to analyze all potential

maneuvers the aircraft may be faced to

• But a list of maneuvres has been defined that

provide an adequate load level to cover all
reasonable maneuvers

• Note : (more specific for civil aircraft): The

regulation does not requires the structure to
sustain all inputs the pilot may perform

Flight Loads
Maneuvers definition : general characteristics

• Exceptional maneuvers :
– max load factor
– max control surface deflection
– maneuvers tuned to obtain critical combination of flight
mechanics parameters and control surfaces

• Consideration of :
– steady maneuvers, (eg trimmed state of the aircraft)
“book cases”
– rational maneuvers (time domain realistic simulations)
Flight Loads
 Example of maneuvers required for loads

• Symmetrical steady maneuver

– Trimmed state of the aircraft at the max load factor
defining the load envelope (2.5gs for modern airliners)
– No pitch acceleration
– The following limitations may be taken into account
and lead to a lower Load factor :
• Aerodynamic Cl max
• Limitations of the flight control system (eg actuator
stall load, or angle of attack protection law)
• Typical design condition for the wing
Flight Loads
 Example of maneuvers required for loads
• Sinus longitudinal maneuvers
– Sine shape or “streched sinus” shape of pitch control
column deflection
– creates combination of max Nz and max elevator
deflection
• Typical design condition for the horizontal tailplane

Flight Loads
 Example of maneuvers required for loads
• Sinus longitudinal maneuvers (streched maneuver)

Tailplane bending

Elevator position
Pilot input

Angle of attack Nz

Flight Loads
 Example of maneuvers required for loads
• Roll maneuver
– Combination of load factor (0g and 2/3 of max load factor)
– With roll order :
• max control deflection at Va,
• Control deflection to reach the same roll rate at Vc
• Control deflection to reach 1/3 of this roll rate at Vd
• Typical design condition for outer part of the wing

Flight Loads
 Example of maneuvers required for loads
• Yawing maneuver
– Max pedal deflection,
– Followed by return to neutral when max sideslip is reach
– Produces critical combination of sideslip and rudder
deflection for the vertical tailplane
– Typical design condition for the vertical tailplane and rear
fuselage lateral bending

Flight Loads
 Example of maneuvers required for loads
• Yawing maneuver

Pilot pedal input

Tailplane bending

Rudder position sideslip

Flight Loads
 Illustration of loads critical combination of
HQ parameter and control surface
• Example on the Yawing maneuver
FDR FDR = 0
FDR
FBETA
FBETA=0 FBETA

BETA
BETA

Maneuver initialization Stabilized sideslip Pedal return

dr=max, b=0 dr=max, b=max dr=0, b=max
(or dr may be < 0 with FCS)
• Load = b-0.5.dr : sizing load reached at pedal return
Flight Loads
 aircraft modelling for maneuver loads

• Usually large angle flight mechanics model

• Non linear aerodynamics
• Consideration of either only symmetrical
movements, or only lateral ones, or combined
symmetrical+lateral ones
• Drag equation (eg velocity variations) usually not
considered, due to short duration of the maneuvers

Flight Loads
 aircraft modelling for maneuver loads

• Quasi static flexibility must be considered

(dynamic flexibility not needed)
– Airframe distortions due to aerodynamic loads
– induces both a variation of flight mechanics behavior
and variation of load distribution

Flight Loads
 Loads computation from aircraft response

• For flight mechanics model, only global

aerodynamic derivatives and global mass data
(mass, cg position and inertia) are needed

• For loads computation the distribution of these

aero and inertia forces along the structure have to
be known, eg :
– Aerodynamic balance between wing and tailplane
– Lift distribution along the wing span

Flight Loads
 Maneuver loads : role of the Electronic flight
control systems

• For aircraft with FCS, the “loads maneuvers”

originally specifying “control surfaces
movements” are used to specify “control column
movement”
• The flight control system directly influence the
maneuver loads :
– From loads aspect, the best FCS” is to cut the link
between control columns and control surfaces !
– Flight control system sets up the trade off between
maneuvrablity and loads

Flight Loads
 Maneuver loads : role of the Electronic flight
control systems

• Load alleviation through the FCS :

– Specific limitations, and filtering of control surfaces
displacements implemented in FCS to alleviate loads
– Specific functions to alleviate loads (eg ailerons and
spoilers deflection to modify the lift distribution along
the wing)

Flight Loads
 Note on Flight Control system and structure
interaction:
• Systems take a growing part in the definition of
the loads applied to the structure through :
– Generic influence of FCS normal law on the load level
– Loads alleviation specific functions
– System failures inducing loads (eg oscillatory failures,
runaway, …)
• Any system failure not shown extremely
improbable (eg >10-9) must be considered when
computing loads, associated to a reduced safety
factor
• Distinction between Time of occurrence and
Continuation of Flight
Flight Loads
 Note on Flight Control system and structure
interaction:
• Time of occurrence : Active failure, creating loads
in the aircraft (eg oscillation of a control surface)
• Safety factor to be used for failure justification, at
Time of occurrence :

Flight Loads
 Note on Flight Control system and structure
interaction:
• Continuation of flight : gust and maneuver loads
to be assessed in the failed state:
• Safety factor to be used for failure justification,
continuation of flight :

Flight Loads
 AIRCRAFT FLIGHT
LOADS CALCULATION

Gust loads

Flight Loads
 Gust and turbulence loads

Overview
• Introduction
• Gust and turbulence models
• Aircraft modelling for gust loads analyses
• Gust loads computation process
• Application. Example

Flight Loads
Introduction : gust phenomenon and effects on
aircraft

• Gust or turbulence phenomena:

– the atmosphere the aircraft is flying into is not “calm”
but is moving with respect to earth reference
– external disturbances on the aircraft flight
• Gust can be characterized by :
– Meteorogical origin , Direction, Amplitude, Pattern of
the gust velocity (eg isolated sharp edge, or complex
pattern), Frequency contain

Flight Loads
 Turbulence effects on aircraft (1/2) :

• Discomfort :
– Excitation of the structural modes, creating vibrations
making some tasks difficult (sleeping, reading, …)
– Excitation of rigid body movements, driving passenger
to motion sickness (eg “fishtailing” at rear fuselage)

• Injuries on unfasten passengers

– Major cause of passenger injuries
– Example : From 1994 such events lead to an average of
15000 workdays of flight attendants lost per year
Flight Loads
 Turbulence effects on aircraft (2/2) :

• Loads : static and fatigue loads :

– Gust/turbulence loads is a design condition for nearly all part of
the structure of modern airliners,
– For static and fatigue loads as well

• A significant mass of the structure of modern civil airliners

is associated to gust/turbulence conditions

• Gust loads computation process, criteria, are adequate :

There is nearly no event of a structure failure due to a gust
in recent aviation history

Flight Loads
 Gust : perturbation of the angle of attack and
Nz variation rough estimation (1/2)
• Lift equation :
1
mg = V 2 SCz 
2

• Consider a vertical gust, velocity uz ,  = uz/V :

Uz v
VTAS

Flight Loads
 Gust : perturbation of the angle of attack and
Nz variation rough estimation (1/2)
• This gust induces a lift variation and the
associated vertical load factor variation :
1 1 u 
F = V 2 SCz  = V 2 SCz = uVSCz
2 2 V 2
F 
n = = uVSCz
m 2m
• Due to unsteady aerodynamic effect and aircraft
response movement, the actual load factor will be
slightly lower (see Pratt formula)

Flight Loads
 Gust : perturbation of the angle of attack and
Nz variation rough estimation (2/2)
• Driving parameters of gust induced load factor :
➢ Nz is proportional to the aircraft speed
➢ Nz is proportional to 1 / wing loading
• Example of exceptional gust :

– Angle of attack variation about 4degrees, comparable to

cruise angle of attack of many civil airliners
load factor in exceptional gust typically between 0g to 2g
Flight Loads
 Gust models for gust loads computation :

• Gust models : a long story, not ended!

• The need to size aircraft structure has been
recognize since about the 1930’s
• Since then, various gust models had been defined,
with increasing complexity
• And researches are still in progress that may lead
to future gust model and regulation evolutions

Flight Loads
 Gust models for gust loads computation :
• General philosophy to define gust models :
– Atmospheric disturbances are of very complex nature;
– And gust loads has to be determine for exceptional gusts, of a very
small occurrence probability
– It is impossible to define a mathematical model of gust allowing to
determine exactly all potential extreme gust effects on aircraft
• Gust models have been defined by considering :
– Mathematical models of the atmosphere behavior,
– Data recorded on airliners in operation
– And are validated by the experience (no structure failure due to
gusts)
• It is important to monitor that the gust models validated
with today’s aircraft technology, aircraft models, structure
design rules, remain suitable in the future, or to make them
evolve if necessary
Flight Loads
 Gust models for gust loads computation :
• Today, two gust models are used to determine gust
loads :
– The discrete gust model
– The continuous turbulence model

• Remark : researches leading to unify these models

are in progress

Flight Loads
 Gust models for gust loads computation :
• Some hypothesis used for gust models for loads
– The gust field velocity is stationnary
– The gust velocity is considered as « one
dimensionnal ». Researches in progress to evaluate the
need to use « 2D » models

x x

y
y

– For some specific structure parts (eg under wing

engine), the regulation requires to analyze combined
vertical and lateral gust
Flight Loads
 gust models for gust loads computation

• The discrete gust model :

Gust Gradient
Gust Velocity, U ~ Ft/Sec EAS Distance, H = 290 Ft

Uds

U ds   S  
U= 1 − cos  
2   H 

H = 50 Ft H = 170 Ft

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Gust Penetration Distance, S ~ Feet

• Model formulated in the time domain

• “1-cosine“ gust shape
Flight Loads
 gust models for gust loads computation :

• The continuous turbulence model

– Model introduced in order to represent gust profiles
containing simultaneously different frequencies
– Can be seen as an association of various gusts
• Stochastic model defined by
– A gaussian process
– its amplitude : standard deviation
– its spectra (Von Karman or Dryden)

Flight Loads
 gust models for gust loads computation :

• Continuous turbulence model spectra :

1.E+3

1.E+2
() ~ (Ft/Sec)2/(Rad/Ft)

1.E+1 8
1+ (1339
. L) 2
L 3
1.E+0  I ( ) =
 [1+ (1339 2 116
. L) ]
L = 2500 Feet
1.E-1

1.E-2
1.0E-5 1.0E-4 1.0E-3 1.0E-2 1.0E-1 1.0E+0
Reduced Frequency,  ~ Rad/Ft

Flight Loads
 gust models for gust loads computation :

• Example of Continuous turbulence model time

history :

Flight Loads
Aircraft modelling for gust loads computation

• Gust and turbulence excites both dynamics :

– The flight mechanics : rigid body motion of the aircraft
(short period mode, dutch roll, …)
– The structural modes : structure vibrations (eg wing and
fuselage bending, engine vertical and lateral modes, …)
• Depending on the element to be sized, ratio
between flight mechanics and structural dynamics
contribution to loads can vary :
– Eg vertical tailplane : nearly 100% dutch roll mode,
– Wing bending : short period mode and wing bending
mode at comparable contributions
– Engine pylon lateral load : nearly 100% engine
structural mode
Flight Loads
Aircraft modelling for gust loads computation

• Aircraft models representing both flight

mechanics and structural modes are necessary for
gust loads computations
• “flexible aircraft models”

• No pilot action considered

• But aircraft model coupled with electronic flight
control system (manual and autopilot)

Flight Loads
 Some Notes on flexible aircraft model
formulation
• Model is built from the assembly of :
– A structure dynamics model (FEM with mass
distributions)
– An unsteady aerodynamic model (Usually panel based
models)

• The model dynamic equation, is usually

transferred into modal space, using modal
truncation hypothesis

Flight Loads
 Some Notes on flexible aircraft model
formulation
• Dynamic equation, in modal coordinates :
1 1 u
q + bq + q =V 2 .FGM ( M , k ).q + V 2 .FGT ( M , k ).
2 2 V
  
FGM =  T A( M , k ) − jk 
 x 
FGT =  T A( M , k ) exp( − jkx)

• FGM : generalized aerodynamic forces (rigid body

movements and flexible deformations
• FGT : generalized aerodynamic forces created by
gust excitation
Flight Loads
 Some Notes on flexible aircraft model
formulation

• Computation of transfer functions between gust

excitation and generalized coordinates :
 1  1 u
 −   + jb +  − V .FGM ( M , k ) q = V .FGT ( M , k ).
2 2 2

 2  2 V
−1
1  1  u u
q = V 2 −  2  + jb +  − V 2 .FGM ( M , k ) .FGT ( M , k ). = H ( ).
2  2  V V

Flight Loads
 Some Notes on flexible aircraft model
formulation
• Computation of physical outputs : dispacements,
velocities, accelerations :
Z ( ) = q( ) = .H ( ).u ( ) = H Z ( ).u ( )
Z ( ) = q ( ) = j ..H ( ).u ( ) = H  ( ).u ( )
Z

Z( ) = q( ) = − 2.H ( ).u ( ) = H Z ( ).u ( )

• Computation of internal loads inside the structure :

Fi = KZ + BZ  KZ = Kq =  2 Mq
Fi ( ) =  2 M.H ( ).u ( ) = H Fi ( ).u ( )

Flight Loads
 gust loads computation procedure
For the discrete gust
Computation of the time domain response of the
aircraft
– Generally aircraft model is formulated in the frequency
domain
– Computation of transfer functions between gust excitation
and load responses
– Convolution between gust input fourrier transformation,
and the above transfer function to obtain fourrier transform
of the output
– Inverse fourrier transformation to translate the output into
the time domain
Flight Loads
 gust loads computation procedure
For the discrete gust
• For a given mass cases, flight condition, …
Design discrete gust loads are extracted as the
envelope, over the time domain response, and the
gust gradient variations :
Yi _ des = max (max ( yi (t ))) For load output ni
H t

Flight Loads
 gust loads computation procedure
For the discrete gust :
• Computation of correlated loads :
– Correlated loads are extracted as the set of loads at the
time instant when the maximum load (eg design load)
occur

Yi _ des = max (max ( yi (t ))) → H i ,t i

H t

Y j _ corr _ i = ( y j (ti ) ) , with the gust gradient H i

Y j _ corr _ i  Y j _ des

– (with of course 1 g loads to be added to gust

incremental loads)
Flight Loads
 gust loads computation procedure
Continuous turbulence loads :
• Gust input = gaussian stochastic process
• Considering a linear aircraft model, the input are also
gaussian distributed
• Probability to exceed any load level is directly related to
level/root mean square ratio
• Design loads level will be selected at a given probability
• Eg at a given level/rms ratio K=Y/rms

• Computation of gust loads in continuous turbulence =

Computation of the rms of the loads outputs

Flight Loads
 gust loads computation procedure
Continuous turbulence loads :

• The load RMS is computed in the frequency

domain from the load power Spectral Density:
2
 yi ( ) = H yi ( ).H yi ( ). K ( ) = U 2 . H yi ( ) . K _ normalise ( )
1 U 2
  yi ( )d = 
2
 =
2
H yi ( ) . K _ normalise ( )d
 
yi

• U is the turbulence intensity (RMS) multiplied

by a peak/RMS ratio :
1

2
A= H yi ( ) . K _ normalise ( )d

Yi _ des = A.U  =  yi
Flight Loads
 gust loads computation procedure
Continuous turbulence loads :

• Example : Wing root bending moment

H() • Transfer function

between gust and
load

• Power spectral
|H()|²(w) density of the load in
turbulence

Flight Loads
 gust loads computation procedure
Continuous turbulence loads :
• Extraction of correlated loads
– Several sets of correlated loads associated to a design
load can be defined (form an allipse when consideing 2
loads; isoprobability ellipse)
– These different sets of correlated loads can be
computed from the cross correlation coefficients :


 I  
()real hi (i)h * j (i) d
 ij = 0

Ai A j

Flight Loads
 gust loads computation procedure

• Continous turbulence loads correlated loads :

Design Value Design Value

of Shear of Torsion
B T C
For lines AB and EF :
D

T
PLi = P(1-g)i  iU [(1 +  ij)/2]
Equal Probability PLj = P(1-g)j  jU [(1 +  ij)/2]
Design Ellipse
Shear
One-g Load E

Torsion
For lines CD and GH :
T PLi = P(1-g)i +/- iU [(1 - ij)/2]
H PLj = P(1-g)j -/+ jU [(1 -  ij)/2]
G T F

Flight Loads
Example : continuous turbulence

Flight Loads
Example : discrete gust

Flight Loads
 Gust loads : references

• Hoblit : “Gust loads on aircraft: concept and

Applications”
AIAA education series, 1988

• FAR/JAR §25.341

• Advisory circular on gust/turbulence loads,

interpretative material A1023

Flight Loads
Loads on Ground

Copyright©
Ground Loads

Contents

1. Introduction – Where do Ground Loads come from ?

2. Ground Loads models
3. Shock Absorber model
4. Tyre model
5. Main Ground Loads Conditions
6. Unsymmetrical loads on multiple wheel units

Page 2
Where do Ground Loads Come From?

Ground Handling
Includes towing and pushback

Page 3
Where do Ground Loads Come From?

Ground Handling
Ground Manoeuvring
Low speed and high speed turns
Braked pivot
Take off roll on uneven runway

Page 4
Where do Ground LoadsFrom?
Loads Come Come From?

Ground Handling
Pre-Flight Checks
Ground Manoeuvring
Rotation
Significant elevator loading

Page 5
Where do Ground Loads Come From?
Ground Handling
Pre-Flight Checks
Ground Manoeuvring
Rotation
Landing Phase
Flare, Landing,
Lift Dumping,
Braking, Taxi In

Page 6
Where do Ground Loads Come From?

Or from maintenance / ground handling procedures and FAL….

• Aircraft Jacking
• Undercarriage Jacking
• Picketing (tie down) / Tethering

Page 7
Ground Loads

Contents

1. Introduction – Where do Ground Loads come from ?

2. Ground Loads models
3. Shock Absorber model
4. Tyre model
5. Main Ground Loads Conditions
6. Unsymmetrical loads on multiple wheel units

Page 8
Aircraft Model
Level Loads
for Ground
Modeling
Loads Models

As for flight loads, the mathematical models for ground loads need
to capture the relevant features of the whole aircraft.

The aircraft and landing gears may be viewed as mass-spring-

damper system, acted upon by external inputs

Page 9
Aircraft Level
Landing Gear Loads
Model Modeling
for Ground Loads Models

The aircraft and landing gears may be viewed as mass-spring-

damper system, acted upon by external inputs
Page 10
Aircraft Level
Landing Gear Loads
Model Modeling
for Ground Loads Models

Page 11
Aircraft Level
Landing Gear Loads
Model Modeling
for Ground Loads Models

1. Retraction actuator
attachment

5. Torque links
(lugs & pins)
2. Bogie/Sliding tube lug

4. Axles
Page 12
Aircraft Level
Ground LoadsLoads
Models
Modeling

Two different ground models must in general be developed. They

are used for computing and validating ground loads.
The first model is a full dynamic model, in which the dynamic
response of the structure is taken into account. In this model, the
ground reaction loads are coupled with the dynamic response of
the structure. This model is to be used in the analysis of loads
conditions in which the structural dynamic response is relevant,
such as touch-down, taxiing on rough ground, abrupt braking.
The second model is a quasi-static model to be used for ground
handling conditions. For multi-legs configuration, due to its
statically undetermined nature, the model must embed the
airframe and landing gear static flexibility to get the right load
sharing on the different gears.
Both models are used in conjunction with a flight loads model
when the aerodynamic effect is not negligible (e.g. flight loads just
before the landing impact, aerodynamic loads at take off run…)

Page 13
Aircraft Level
Ground LoadsLoads
Models
Modeling
(cont’d)

Both models call for the following elementary models:

As for flight, aircraft structure model consisting of:

Mass model, defining the design mass cases and
associated mass distributions. These cases are normally
chosen as boundary cases on weight/CG envelope or as
typical cases for fatigue analysis
Airframe static (flexibility matrices) or dynamic flexibility (in
terms of normal modes)
Aircraft Aerodynamic model consisting of:
Steady air loads model coming from handling qualities
including all specific effects associated to the ground
conditions such as the ground effects, the LG down effects,
the thrust reversers effects.
As for flight loads, when computing aircraft loads, these
effects on the whole aircraft have to be distributed on the
aircraft and to be in equilibrium. (integral of the distribution
equals the global values)
Page 14
Aircraft Level
Ground LoadsLoads
Models
Modeling
(cont’d)

Both models call for the following elementary models (cont’d):

Landing gear model consisting of:
Landing gear mass model
For large aeroplanes, landing gear static (flexibility matrices) and
dynamic flexibility (in terms of normal modes)
Oleo characteristics (mainly spring curve and oleo damping)
Tyre characteristics (spring curve, sideslip lateral loads, drag
loads...).
Aircraft system model consisting of
Wheels and brakes model (mainly weight, polar inertia, braking
torque rise time and maximum value, braking logics)
Steering system (mainly steering law, maximum steering angles
and maximum steering torque)
Rotation law and lift dumpers law.
Environmental model consisting of
Runway crown and/or ground roughness (runway continuous
roughness or discrete bump)
External temperature
Wind direction and intensity
Page 15
Aircraft Level
Ground LoadsLoads
Models
Modeling
Structural model Aerodynamic model “Flight” Control system model

• finite elements • Steady air loads • lift dumper law

• stiffness • rotation law
• masses incl. fuel & payload • braking system
• steering system

A
K
S
M S

Ground Loads model

M K
M K
S A
Page 16
Ground Loads

Contents

1. Introduction – Where do Ground Loads come from ?

2. Ground Loads models
3. Shock Absorber model
4. Tyre model
5. Main Ground Loads Conditions
6. Unsymmetrical loads on multiple wheel units

Page 17
Aircraft Level
Landing Gear Loads
DesignModeling
Functions

 The undercarriage design functions are the followings:

 Absorb vertical speed at landing

 Taxi and take off
 Decelerate the aeroplane on ground (braking
system)
 Steer the aircraft on ground (mainly nose gear but
also possible on the main gear group).
 Retract in flight

Page 18
AircraftAbsorber
Shock Level Loads
Model
Modeling
(cont’d)

 The shock absorber itself contains two components

 One storing and then releasing mechanical energy
(Spring function),
 Another transforming mechanical energy in thermal
energy (damping function)

 The shock absorber is usually designed as an Oleo-

pneumatic (Nitrogen) system. The key roles of the
shock absorber are:
 Absorb vertical speed of the aircraft at landing
 Provide smooth taxiing

Page 19
AircraftAbsorber
Shock Level Loads
Model
Modeling
(cont’d)

Idealised Oleo Strut Model

Aircraft pintle
attachment Linear spring representing oil compression

Stiction / Friction Force Ff

OIL
Orifice Hydraulic force due to forcing oil through orifice

Fd = k.[X']2 .sign (X’)

hydraulic constant 'k' may vary with x

Floating Gas Spring [single stage in this example]

Piston or not
Fs

Axle / bogie GAS

attachment TOTAL ENDLOAD Fsa = Fs + Fd + Ff

AA Course - Module xxxx Page

Page20
20
AircraftAbsorber
Shock Level Loads
Model
Modeling
(cont’d)

The shock absorber total

force (FSA) is modelled as an
element capable of transmitting
a ground reaction in the
direction of its own axis to the
airframe depending on the
actual stroke and on the rate of
change of the stroke versus the
time for a given temperature
and shock absorber setting:

FSA=FS+FD+FF
Where FS is the spring force
Where FD is the damping
force
Where FF is the friction force
Page 21
AircraftAbsorber
Shock Level Loads
Model
Modeling
(cont’d)

This spring function is obtained by compression of gaseous nitrogen.

For one stage shock absorber, the load versus stroke is the following:

With pVg = constant

With P0 , V0 (V0=l0xS) : pressure and volume of nitrogen, landing

gear fully extended
With S : Surface of reference (V0=l0xS with l0 being the theoretical
length of the SA)
With Vh : Oil volume in the shock absorber
With Z being the Shock absorber stroke, which is the displacement of
the shock absorber from its fully extended position towards the roof of
the shock absorber chamber.

Page 22
AircraftAbsorber
Shock Level Loads
Model
Modeling
(cont’d)

 P0 (V0 + DVh0)g = P (V0 - S Z + DVh )g

2,5E+06

Shock Absorber

Load (N)
DVh : Oil volume contraction for a given 2,0E+06
pressure
 g is the polytropic power index, equal to 1
for quasi-static (slow) shock absorber 1,5E+06

displacements, and ranges between 0.9 and

Isotherm
1.4 for dynamic shock absorber
displacements. The  value for each gear will
1,0E+06 Spring
be validated by drop test results. Curve
5,0E+05

With F=PxS and V0=Sxl0 Stroke (m)

FS0 is the shock absorber maximum 0,0E+00

0 0,2 0,4 0,6
reaction at zero stroke.

 l 0  Vh (0) / S 
F S  FS 0   spring function
 l 0  Z  Vh / S 
Page 23
AircraftAbsorber
Shock Level Loads
Model
Modeling
(cont’d)

The damping function is provided by throttling oil through a

hole.
The holes may have a variable section “needle” in order to
increase the shock absorber efficiency.
For a single stage shock absorber, the oleo damping force FD
can be modelled as:
FD = (Poil – Pn2) Shc
FD = 1/2pV12 Shc with VShc= (dz/dt) Shc = S1V1
FD = (1/2p Shc3 / S12) x V2 = K x (dz/dt)2 x sign(dz/dt)
Where Shc is the hydraulic surface of the landing gear and
S1V1 the surface of the hole and the efficient speed of the oil in
that hole.

Page 24
AircraftAbsorber
Shock Level Loads
Model
Modeling
(cont’d)

damping function

2
 dz   dz 
F D K   .sign 
 dt   dt 

K is known as the oleo-damping coefficient. In some

cases, this coefficient depends on the stroke value or the
differential pressure between oil and air.
The shock absorber efficiency is the ratio between the
actually absorbed energy and the energy that would have
been absorbed if the max shock absorber load would have
acted all along the shock absorber travel.

Page 25
Shock Absorber Model (cont’d)

The friction force FF comes from the “seals friction” (effect

of the piston internal pressure) and from the “bearing friction”.
(effect of the transversal load on the shock absorber)
The shock absorber energetic efficiency is provided
through both functions and may be optimised up to about 0.9

Z max

F SA .dZSA
SA  0
F max .Z max

Page 26
Ground Loads

Contents

1. Introduction – Where do Ground Loads come from ?

2. Ground Loads models
3. Shock Absorber model
4. Tyre model
5. Main Ground Loads Conditions
6. Unsymmetrical loads on multiple wheel units

Page 27
Wheel – Tires – Brakes

Page 28
Tyre Model

TYRE MODEL - NORMAL FORCE

The tyre reacts as a spring under a vertical loading. The
vertical loads due to a dynamic vertical tyre displacement is
modelled by the following relationship

FTV = FTVS + FTVdamping where

FTVS is the vertical load due to the static vertical tyre
displacement. The tyre manufacturer provides this vertical load
for several values of the tyre pressure.
FTVdamping is the damping force generated by the tyre,
depending on the tyre displacement rate. The tyre has nearly
no damping.
The tire efficiency is around 45%.
Page 29
Tyre Model (cont’d)

TYRE MODEL - DRAG FORCE

The drag force depends on the friction coefficient
between the tyre and the ground.
For a given couple of tyre and ground type and
texture, the friction coefficient varies versus the relative
slippage of the tyre and the ground.
This slippage effect can be expressed in terms of a non-
dimensional factor, the slip ratio:
 = (V - Rr)/V
V being the aeroplane or wheel centre speed,  the
tyre angular speed and Rr the tyre rolling radius.

Page 30
Tyre Model (cont’d)

TYRE MODEL - DRAG FORCE

Curves of slip ratio are available in the literature

(e.g. ESDU) for different grounds and for different
tyres and tyre pressures. A typical curve is shown on
the next slide.
The tyre develops a drag force only if it is
slipping.
The drag forces are important in two phases,
braking and spin up of the wheel at landing.

Page 31
Tyre Model (cont’d)
TYRE MODEL - DRAG FORCE

Typical Tyre Longitudinal Friction Coefficient versus Slip Ratio

Friction coefficient versus slip ratio
0,9

0,8
friction coefficient

0,7

0,6

0,5
max.
0,4

0,3

0,2 skid
0,1

0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1
slip ratio

Page 32
Tyre Model (cont’d)

TYRE MODEL - LATERAL FORCE

For a given ground, the tyre lateral forces depend on

the tyre specific characteristics (including the tyre
lateral stiffness), on the tyre pressure, on the tyre
vertical reaction and on the tyre sideslip.
This also means that, for a given ground, a given
tyre and a given sideslip, it is not possible to define a
friction coefficient, the ratio between the lateral and
vertical load not being constant
In particular, the ratio between the lateral and the
vertical force will increase when the vertical force
decreases.

Page 33
Tyre Model (cont’d)

TYRE MODEL - LATERAL FORCE

Stylised tyre lateral force versus tyre sideslip and tyre vertical force

FTL

FTVS increasing

sideslip

Page 34
Tyre Model (cont’d)

TYRE MODEL - LATERAL FORCE

Other effects affecting the lateral loads introduced by

the tyre into the landing gear are
the auto-aligning moment (depending on the
sideslip)
the tyre Cp shift and the tyre squash which,
modifying the position of the centroid of the
pressure on the ground, modify the moment
transmitted by the ground to the tyre axle (see
picture)
A tire develops lateral loads only if it is skidding.

Page 35
Tyre Model (cont’d)

TYRE MODEL - LATERAL FORCE

CP shift

Tyre Squash
Rolling radius (Rr)
R

Page 36
Ground Loads

Contents

1. Introduction – Where do Ground Loads come from ?

2. Ground Loads models
3. Shock Absorber model
4. Tyre model
5. Main Ground Loads Conditions
6. Unsymmetrical loads on multiple wheel units

Page 37
Ground Loads

Contents

5. Main Ground Loads Conditions

1. Touch Down at landing
2. Taxi on rough ground
3. High Speed ground turning
4. Slow Speed turn and Pivoting
5. Dynamic Braking
6. Static Braking
7. Towing
8. Others

Page 38
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions

Touch Down at Landing

https://actu.fr/occitanie/toulouse_31555/video-atterrissage-spectaculaire-
airbus-a380-pris-dans-tempete_12888850.html

Page 39
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions

Touch Down at Landing

 Landing ( 25.473 )
 VZ = 10 fps (3.05 m/s) at MLW Tail down Landing
 VZ = 6 fps ( 1.8 m/s) at MTOW

Level Landing

Page 40
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions

Touch Down at Landing (cont’d)

One Wheel Landing

Lateral Drift Landing

Page 41
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions

Touch Down at Landing (cont’d)

 The contact of the tyre (initially at zero angular speed) with the
ground creates a drag force to accelerate the wheels (spin up
force).

This force depends on the before defined slip ratio.

The maximum friction coefficient, corresponding to values

of  close to 0.1, 0.15 should be taken equal to 0.8, unless
lower values can be demonstrated.

The value of skid , the friction coefficient for the tyre

‘ blocked ’ (this is the case at the time of the impact), also
plays an important role in the growing of the drag load and on
the landing gear elastic response.

Page 42
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions

Touch Down at Landing (cont’d)

 The drag force is amplified by the spring-mass system

constituted by the elasticity of the landing gear and by its mass.
Therefore:

 For this reason the drag force transmitted to the airframe

by the landing gear pintles is higher than the loads
transmitted to the tyre by the ground.

The elasticity then also creates a longitudinal reversed

force (forwards) called ‘spring back’.

Page 43
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions

Touch Down at Landing (cont’d)

AN IMPRESSIVE, VERY HARD, DYNAMIC LANDING…

Page 44
Main Ground Loads conditions

DROP TESTS
The drop test at limit sinking speed and below, is now interpreted as a
test to identify the dynamic behaviour of the landing gear to validate or
adjust the landing gear model used in the loads model for dynamic
landing analysis.
Usually the drop test is used by the landing gear manufacturer to
adjust the landing gear by appropriate physical modifications (in general
the modification of the damping hole surfaces) to fit with the expected
forces versus shock absorber stroke and time relationships.

Main verifications concern:

LG stiffness and frequencies
Spring curve
Damping characteristics
Bearings and seals friction

Each L/G is subject to limit and

ultimate conditions drop tests
Page 45
Main Ground Loads conditions

DROP TESTS: Rocking bogie concept

Page 46
Main Ground Loads conditions
DROP
TESTS

Page 47
 Main Ground Loads conditions
Example of model comparison and adjustment: Nose Landing Gear Drop Test
NLG DROP TEST m=64.8t, Vz=3.05 m/s, Vx=105.9 m/s

100000

80000

60000
Xs
load (daN)

Zs
40000
Tz, tuned data

Tx, tuned data

20000

-20000
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70
time (s)
Page 48
Practical examples and exercises on ground loads

Exercise 1
 Assuming aircraft landing weight of 200t (2wheels/gear, 2 MLGs) ,
(Constant lift not exceeding the aeroplane weight has to be
considered.
 hp = 0.45 is the efficiency of the tyre
 ha is the efficiency of the shock absorber and the metering pin
shape is such that ha has been optimised to 0.9 whatever the
aircraft.
 The same tyres are fitting the 3 aircraft and for the landing gear
reaction factor objective (N = F/mg = 1,1), where F is the landing
gear load, the tyre deflection Zp equals 0.1 meter.
 Question: What are the respective necessary strokes Za of the shock
absorbers to absorb the landing impact at 10 fps?

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Practical examples and exercises on ground loads

Exercise 1
 At landing 1/2mVv2 = ha F Za + hp F Zp

 Where Vv Is the aircraft sinking speed.

 With N = F/mg and therefore m = F/Ng
 We have F = h a F Z a + h p F Zp
Vv2
2 Ng

 The requested stroke or vertical movement of the wheels is

independent of aircraft weight!
Vv2 p 3,052 0,45
Za   Zp   x0,1  0,43m
2 Ng a  a 2 x1,1x9,81x0,9 0,9

Page 50
Practical examples and exercises on ground loads
Exercise 2
 Assuming the same reaction factor of 1.1 but 100% efficiency for
the shock absorber and tires during the compression phase, how
long does it take to absorb the sinking speed?
Exercise 3
 After the compression phase, the landing gear starts to extend.
Assuming
 100% efficiency for the shock absorber and no change
in stroke (shock absorber friction then very efficient
damping to avoid high out-stops loads)
 And 50% efficiency in the tyres
 How long does it take to rebound?
 What is the aircraft vertical speed at rebound?
 What is the aircraft vertical height after 3s after touch down?
Page 51
Practical examples and exercises on ground loads

Exercise 2
 R = 1,1 and therefore g = g0 = 1,1g = constant
 Maximum stroke is reached when the aircraft sinking speed is
reduced to zero:
V = g t + V0 with V0 = -3,05 m/s  t = 3,05 / (9,81x1,1) = 0,28 sec.

 In reality, the shock absorber reaches its maximum compression

after about 0.3 / 0.4 seconds because the global efficiency is
reduced.
 With the A330/A340 rocking bogie concept, it takes slightly longer
depending on the aircraft attitude. The maximum reaction factor
also depends on the aircraft attitude and goes from 1 (level
landing) to  0.5 (tail down)

Page 52
Practical examples and exercises on ground loads

Exercise 3
 50% efficiency means that the vertical load is proportional to the tire
deflection F = k X.
 g(t) = w2X(t) with g0 =1,1g and X0 =0,1 w2 = k/m = g0/ X0 =11*9,81
 V(t) = X0wsin (wt ) + V0’ with V0’ = 0
 X(t) = X0 cos (wt) and g(t) = w2X0 cos (wt)
 At rebound g(t) = 0 (No ground loads) and X = 0.
 Time at rebound t = p/2(X0 / g0 )1/2 = 0,15 s seconds after max. stroke.
 Vertical Speed V = X0wsin (wt )  V = 1,04 m/s at rebound
 3s after touch down Aircraft Height  2,7m above ground with g = 0
and V= 1,04 m/s which remain constants.
Height = (3 – 0,28 – 0,15) * 1,04 = 2,7

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Practical examples and exercises on ground loads

Exercise 4
 What are the differences between Exercise 3 results and real landing
behaviour? Load Share Problem
Exercise 4
 Time at rebound is slightly increased because the shock absorber
starts to extend (0,15  0,2 – 0,3)
 The vertical speed at rebound is correctly anticipated.
 There are no other differences versus drop test with lift equals weight
 BUT in real landings and in real drop tests, lift do not remain equals to
weight. The angle of attack is reducing (change in sinking speed and
attitude) and the longitudinal speed is reducing.
 Hence, in most soft landings, there is no rebound and for firm
landings, the change in A/C lift avoid too important rebounds.

Page 54
Ground Loads

Contents

5. Main Ground Loads Conditions

1. Touch Down at landing
2. Taxi on rough ground
3. High Speed ground turning
4. Slow Speed turn and Pivoting
5. Dynamic Braking
6. Static Braking
7. Towing
8. Others

Page 55
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions

Taxi on rough ground

This condition requires loads a model similar to the model

for the landing impact.

The FAR/CS describes the ground as:

A reference runway (the San Francisco 28R runway

with the roughness measured in the 70’s, when it was
considered as an extremely rough ground profile) and

A discrete single or double bump 1-cos shaped, with a

wavelength able to excite the heave and pitch rigid modes
of the aeroplane on the gear.

Page 56
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions
Taxi on rough ground (cont(d)
12,5

San Francisco Runway 28R elevation

12

height

11,5

11

10,5

feet
10
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

Page 57
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions
Taxi on rough ground (cont’d)

Discrete bump height versus bump wavelength (FAR/JAR Harmonised

Advisory Material)

60
bump height (millimeters)

50

40
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
bump wavelength (meters)

Page 58
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions
Taxi on rough ground (cont’d)

Page 59
Practical examples and exercises on ground loads

Exercise 5: Load Share Problem

For a given GW of 100 tons, with centre of gravity placed in the centre
of three legs with spring rates of 100 tons / meter

5.1Find the static equilibrium

5.2Increase the GW to 150 tons and find the static equilibrium
position and loads.

Now add a centre leg that is 40 cm shorter than the others with a
spring rate of 300tons / meter

5.3Find the static equilibrium position and loads at GW=100 tons

5.4Find the static equilibrium position and loads at GW=150 tons

Page 60
Practical examples and exercises on ground loads

Exercise 5: Load Share Problem

100t: 33.3 tons par leg and 33.3cm deflection for each leg.

150t: 50 tons per leg and 50 cm deflection for each leg.

With an additional centre gear

100t: 33.3 tons par leg and 33.3cm deflection for each leg.
150t X1 = 0.4 + X2
And 150 = 3K1 X1 + K2 X2 if (X1 above 0.4)
150 = 300X1 + 300 (X1 – 0.4)
150 = 600X1 – 120 so

X1 = 0.45 and X2 = 0.05

45tons per main leg and 15tons on the auxiliary leg
Page 61
Practical examples and exercises on ground loads
Exercise 5: Load Share Problem

Now, change the “camber” under aircraft such that the ground below
the centre leg is 10 cm above the other legs

5.5Find the static equilibrium position and loads at GW=100 tons

5.6Find the static equilibrium position and loads at GW=150 tons

Now, change the outside temperature from 15°C to –30°C. Nitrogen

characteristics are gas characteristics. For this exercise, assume that
each leg stiffness is now divided by two:

5.7Find the static equilibrium position and loads at GW=100 tons

5.8Find the static equilibrium position and loads at GW=150 tons

Now, add the airframe stiffness…Etc…

Both spring curve and tyre stiffness are ranging from 1 to 10 in the
working area  On ground, we have only non linear problems.
Page 62
Ground Loads

Contents

5. Main Ground Loads Conditions

1. Touch Down at landing
2. Taxi on rough ground
3. High Speed ground turning
4. Slow Speed turn and Pivoting
5. Dynamic Braking
6. Static Braking
7. Towing
8. Others

Page 63
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions

High Speed Ground Turning (FAR/CS 25.495)

This is a static condition that requires a steady ground turn at

high lateral load factor (0.5g).

It can be treated in a very simple manner (true ‘book

case’) for tricycle landing gear configuration or

it may require more sophisticated models, mainly of the

tyres, for heavy aeroplane with multiple gears.

Page 64
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions

High Speed Ground Turning (FAR/CS 25.495)

It must be noted that the lateral factor of 0.5 g is rather

unrealistic for heavy, large aeroplanes, and also beyond the
maximum tyre capability. For this reason lower loads factor
(0.45 g) have been demonstrated and accepted by the
Authorities for recent very large aeroplanes.

For multi-leg , the loads must be computed for flat and

crowned runways.

The high speed turn case, due to the high value of both
vertical and lateral load, is always a sizing condition for the
main gear and for the supporting structure.

Page 65
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions
High Speed Ground Turning (FAR/CS 25.495)

Aircraft level turning

-bookcase loads

W
0.5W

0.5Vm 0.5Vn 0.5Vm2

1
Vm1 Vn Vm2

Moments : (Vm2 - Vm1).t = 0.5 W.h

Vertical : Vm1 + Vm2 + Vn = W
Page 66
Ground Loads

Contents

5. Main Ground Loads Conditions

1. Touch Down at landing
2. Taxi on rough ground
3. High Speed ground turning
4. Slow Speed turn and Pivoting
5. Dynamic Braking
6. Static Braking
7. Towing
8. Others

Page 67
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions
Slow Speed Turn and Pivoting (FAR/CS 25.503)

The slow turn is a turn at very low speed and therefore with a lateral
acceleration close to zero. Both slow turn autonomous (by differential
engine power, differential braking, steering) and by towing should be
considered.

The slow turn loads depend on the steering angle, which drives the local
sideslip at each wheel and then the lateral load and torque.

For large aeroplanes (for which the landing gear exhibit large flexible
displacements), the effect of the gear and airframe deformations participate
in an important manner to the local sideslip of the tyre and then to the loads.

 The slow turn may produce high torque and lateral loads on the main
gear and can also size the supporting structure.

Page 68
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions
Slow Speed Turn and Pivoting (FAR/CS 25.503)

Page 69
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions
Slow Speed Turn and Pivoting (FAR/CS 25.503)

Direction of travel Reverse Braked

Pivot - bookcase
Slow turn: Un-braked
or braked pivoting
with multiple main
gears
Direction of travel
Direction of travel

THRUST THRUST

Centre of Rotation
Page 70
Ground Loads

Contents

5. Main Ground Loads Conditions

1. Touch Down at landing
2. Taxi on rough ground
3. High Speed ground turning
4. Slow Speed turn and Pivoting
5. Dynamic Braking
6. Static Braking
7. Towing
8. Others

Page 71
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions

Dynamic Braking (FAR/CS 25.493)

This condition results from the sudden application of the

maximum braking torque.

The mass cases at MTOW with maximum forward and

maximum upward aircraft CG provide, in general, the maximum
loads.

The maximum braking torque can be limited to the maximum

friction coefficient. This friction coefficient may be the same used
for the spin up loads in the dynamic landing analysis.

Page 72
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions

Dynamic Braking (FAR/CS 25.493)

The FAR/CS 25.493(e) provides a simplified formula to

compute this condition as a simple book case, based on

The landing gear lay out

The CG position

The friction coefficient

The damping of the pitching mode of the rigid

aeroplane on the landing gear elastic suspension

Page 73
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions
Dynamic Braking (FAR/CS 25.493)

Moment due to brake drag

increases NLG vertical load

1g Inertia Force = W

Rn Brake Drag = 0.8 Rm

A B

W 0.8 f.A.E where 0.8 is the coefficient of friction (bookcase)

Rn = --------- . B + -------------------- and f is a dynamic over-swing factor
A+ B A + B + 0.8E

Page 74
Ground Loads

Contents

5. Main Ground Loads Conditions

1. Touch Down at landing
2. Taxi on rough ground
3. High Speed ground turning
4. Slow Speed turn and Pivoting
5. Dynamic Braking
6. Static Braking
7. Towing
8. Others

Page 75
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions

Static Braking (FAR/CS 25.493)

Static braking. This is two static ‘book case’ conditions that

requires the static application of the maximum braking torque
limited by the maximum friction coefficient of the tyre with the
ground. This condition is very often sizing for the main gear and
for the supporting structure.

1st case is the same as the dynamic braking without over-

swing (f=1)

2nd case is as presented on next chart without NLG load.

The reverse braking load case is described in 25.507 (same

principle)

Page 76
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions

Static Braking (FAR/CS 25.493)

This book case has to be applied in the following conditions:

-1.2g at MLW = W and Nx=0.8g

-1g Inertia Force = W at MRW and Nx=0.8g
And assuming that the Pitch Acceleration put the A/C in equilibrium

Rn=0 Brake Drag = 0.8 W

Page 77
Ground Loads

Contents

5. Main Ground Loads Conditions

1. Touch Down at landing
2. Taxi on rough ground
3. High Speed ground turning
4. Slow Speed turn and Pivoting
5. Dynamic Braking
6. Static Braking
7. Towing
8. Others

Page 78
ACN Ground
Main Basic Concepts
Loads conditions

Towing (FAR/CS 25.509)

This is a static ‘book case’ condition requiring the application

of a towing (forward/backward) force equal to 15% of the weight
of the aeroplane at MRW if MRW is above 100000 pounds. This
case is very often sizing for the nose gear and for the nose
wheel bay.

The same book case also describes the loads quantity to be

applied when the nose gear is steered at 45°. (0.5 Tow load)

The book case also describes the towing loads to be applied

on the main landing gear for towing operations or debogging.
(0.75 Tow load)

Page 79
Main Ground Loads conditions

Towing (FAR/CS 25.509)

Tow Load = 0.15 MRW on Nose Landing Gear

Page 80
Ground Loads

Contents

5. Main Ground Loads Conditions

1. Touch Down at landing
2. Taxi on rough ground
3. High Speed ground turning
4. Slow Speed turn and Pivoting
5. Dynamic Braking
6. Static Braking
7. Towing
8. Others

Page 81
Main Ground Loads conditions

Rebound Landing (FAR/CS 25.487)

 This is a static ‘book case’ condition

which aims to design the shock absorber
out-stops
 The landing gear and its supporting
structure must be investigated for the
loads occurring during rebound of the
aeroplane from the landing surface
 With the landing gear fully extended and
not in contact with the ground, a load
factor of 20.0 must act on the unsprung
weights of the landing gear. This load Z
factor must act in the direction of motion
of the unsprung weights as they reach 20g on the unsprung mass
their limiting positions in extending with
relation to the sprung parts of the landing
gear
Page 82
Main Ground Loads conditions

Nose Wheel Yaw and Steering (FAR/CS 25.499)

This is a static ‘book case’ condition which aims to design

The nose landing gear maximum side load with or without the
maximum asymmetric braking on the main landing gear group.
The nose landing gear maximum steering torque.

Jacking and Tie-down position (FAR/CS 25.519)

This is a static ‘book case’ condition which aims to design

The Airframe structure for aircraft jacking.
The landing gear jacking dome for wheel changes
The landing gear tie-down points (with a 65 knots horizontal wind
from any direction)

Page 83
Ground Loads

Contents

1. Introduction – Where do Ground Loads come from ?

2. Ground Loads models
3. Shock Absorber model
4. Tyre model
5. Main Ground Loads Conditions
6. Unsymmetrical loads on multiple wheel units

Page 84
ACN Basic Concepts
Unsymmetrical loads on multiple wheel units

Unsymmetrical loads for multiple-wheel units (FAR/CS 25.511)

The most sizing cases for the landing gear and supported structures are
often offered by the consideration of possible asymmetry in the
introduction of the ground loads into the different wheels. Two different
causes of asymmetry are identified by the FAR/CS:

25.511(b) Introduction of the limit condition loads into a landing gear

presenting asymmetrical feature such as different inflation tyre
pressure inside 5% of the nominal pressure, different tyre growth and
wear, runway crown. In the past a simple share of 60% - 40% on the
right and left side of the same landing gear was acceptable to the
Authorities.

25.511(c) Consideration of one or two deflated tyres. The loads for

these conditions are derived from the limit conditions without deflated
tyres by the application of arbitrary coefficients.

Page 85