AERODYNAMICS 2 3.

GAS CONSTANT
J
Common Constants / Values R = 287.08 kg K

lb f ft
= 53.342 lb R
1. PRESSURE m

P0 lb f ft
= 1 atm = 1716
slug R
= 29.92 in Hg
4. DENSITY
= 2116.8 psf kg
ρ = 1.225 m3
= 14.7 psi
= 760 mmHg slug
= 0.002377 3
ft
= 760 TORR
5. VISCOSITY
= 101325 Pa
kg
= 101.325 kPa
μ = 1.7894 x 10−5 ms

= 1013.25 millibar slug

=3.7373 x 10−7 ft s
= 1.01325 bar
6. LAPSE RATE
2. TEMPERATURE
K
a1 = - 0.0065 m
T0 = 15 C
K
= 288.16 K = - 6.5 km
= 59 F R
= - 0.003566 ft
= 519 R
9 K
a2 = 0.003 m
C to F: °F = (
5
° C) + 32

5 −3 R
F to C: °C = (° F – 32) = 1.6463 x 10 ft
9

C to K: K = ° C + 273.16 7. GRAVITY
m
F to R: ° R = F + 460 g = 9.81 2
s
K to R: K = 1.8° R
 ft 1 long ton = 2240 lbs
= 32.174 2
s
1 short ton = 2000 lbs
1 ounce = 28.35 grams
CONVERSION FACTORS 1 dram = 1.772 grams
1. FORCE 5. LENGTH
1 lb f = 4.448 N 1m = 3.28 ft

2. POWER 1 in = 2.54 cm

1 hp = 746 W = 1000 mils

lb ft 1 statute mile = 5280 ft

= 550
s
= 8 furlongs
ergs
= 7,456,998,715.82 = 1760 yards
s
1 nautical mile = 6080 ft
BTU
= 42.4
min = 1.15 miles
1 BTU = 778.169 lb f ft 1 fathom = 6 ft

1 lb f ft = 1.35582 J 1 cable = 120 fathoms

3. TIME 1 league = 3 miles

1 min = 60 s 1 rod = 5.5 yards

1 hr = 3600 s 1 yard = 3 ft

1 day = 24 hrs 6. AREA

1 fortnight = 14 days 1 hectare = 10,000 m2

1 week = 1 sennight 1 acre = 4046.86 m2

4. MASS 1 are = 100 m2

1 slug = 32.2 lb m 7. VOLUME

1 kg f = 9.8066 N 1L = 1 kg (water)

1 lb f = 32.174 poundal 1m3 = 1000 L

1 kg = 2.2 lb m 1 quarts = 0.25 gallons

1 tonne = 1000 kg 1 pint = 0.5 quarts

= 0.984 long ton 1 peck = 2 gallons

1 boshel = 4 pecks that the aerodynamic forces of Lift (L)
and Drag (D) always act perpendicular
1 gallon of fuel = 6 lb of fuel
and parallel to the flight path,
respectively.

MIDTERM It can be seen that for climbing flight,

the thrust has to overcome both drag
MODULE 3 REVIEWER and a component of weight whereas in
level flight, the thrust only had to
overcome drag.
RATE OF CLIMB It can also be seen that for climbing
- The rate of climb is simply the vertical flight, that the lift is slightly less than
velocity of the aircraft, indicating how the weight since the thrust of the
quickly it gains altitude. aircraft is now also partially responsible
for overcoming the total weight of the
- The aircraft is said to be in climbing aircraft.
flight, when it is flying at an angle (θ )
above the horizontal. This means that Note that the total drag is smaller for
climbing flight is no longer level flight. climbing flight than for level flight at
the same velocity because the lift is
- Consider an aircraft in steady, smaller for climbing flight, and so the
unaccelerated, climbing flight: induced drag is therefore decreased.
From the vector resolution of the free-
stream velocity, we can see that the
velocity is resolved into its horizontal
and vertical components, and the
vertical velocity is known as the rate
of climb of the aircraft.
Horizontal velocity:
V H =V ∞ cos θ

Vertical Velocity / Rate of Climb:

V V =R/C=V ∞ sin θ

Climb Angle:
The following equations are apparent
from this free body diagram: −1 R/C
θ=sin ( ¿ )¿
V∞
T =D+W sin(θ ¿)¿
Taking the thrust equation for climbing
L=W cos (θ) flight and multiplying both sides by free
Where the angle θ is the angle between stream velocity:
the horizontal and the flight path. Note
 T V ∞=D V ∞ +W V ∞ sin(θ¿) ¿

T V ∞−D V ∞=W V ∞ sin (θ¿)¿

T V ∞ −DV ∞ Notice that at low speeds above
=V ∞ sin(θ¿)=R /C ¿ stalling, there is a large amount of
W
excess power for piston engine-
propeller driven aircraft to give them a
comfortable margin of safety in case
Wherein: T V ∞ is the power available
they need to climb again during the
(T is the thrust available)
landing approach.
D V ∞ Is the power required at level
However, the excess power available
flight
to a jet aircraft at low speeds above
DV is not exactly the power required for stalling is correspondingly small with
climbing flight since the power must also a correspondingly reduced rate-of-climb
overcome a portion of the weight. ability.

Because of this, the P R curves for level

flight are taken and used as an Methods for Determining the
appropriate approximation for the rate Maximum Rate of Climb:
of climb and is only good for small
values of θ . For the maximum rate of climb, it can be
seen from the previous equations that it
For small angles of climb, or θ<20 ° , it occurs in conjunction with the maximum
is reasonable to neglect this and excess power.
assume that DV is given by the level-
flight power required or P R at level R (Power Excess )max
( ) =
flight. C max W

The term T V ∞−D V ∞is also known as 1. The maximum excess power
the excess power or power excess; occurs at the velocity where the
since it is the difference between the maximum Power Available curve
available power and the power required and the Power Required curve
to maintain steady, climbing flight. are furthest apart, or has the
greatest vertical difference.
T V ∞−D V ∞=excess power

R excess power
=
C W
The excess power can be seen
graphically as the difference in high
between the P A and P R curves.
 2. Plot R/C versus the free stream
velocity V ∞ and determine the
maximum R/C by use of
horizontal tangent , or find the
R
d( ) It can be seen that the maximum climb
velocity where C =0
dV∞ angle θmax for which the airplane can
maintain steady flight occurs at the
point of tangency when a line is drawn
from the origin of the hodograph and lies
tangent to the hodograph (point 3
above)
It can be seen that the maximum R/C
does NOT occur at the maximum
climb angle (A.K.A the best climb
3. Construct a hodograph diagram, angle)
where a hodograph is a plot of
the aircraft’s vertical velocity V V
(A.K.A. it’s Rate of Climb R/C) vs. Formulas for Maximum Rate of Climb
its horizontal velocity V H . The For compactness, the variable Z in the
horizontal tangent to the following formulas is defined as:
hodograph defines the point of

√()
maximum R/C, shown below as 3
Z=1+ 1+ ¿
point 1: L 2
¿¿
D max

For a jet-propelled airplane:

For a propeller-driven airplane:

It is also worthy to note that any line

through the origin and intersecting
the hodograph (point 2) has the slope
VV
and defines the climb angle θ
VH
 Since the power curves are tangential to
each other at this point, there is zero
excess power, hence there is also
zero maximum rate of climb, or
maximum R/C = 0.
The altitude at which the maximum rate
Absolute and Service Ceilings
of climb is zero or (R/C)max =0 is defined
At this point, it should be well known as the absolute ceiling of the airplane.
that the available power declines with
increasing altitude, accordingly, the
excess power and maximum excess The service ceiling represents the
power decreases with increasing practical upper limit of steady flight. The
altitude. service ceiling is defined as the altitude
at which its associated maximum rate
of climb is defined as the following:
Type of Aircraft Maximum Rate
of Climb for
Service Ceiling
Propeller-Driven 100 feet / min
Jet-Driven 500 feet / min

A general plot of the relationship

between altitude and maximum R/C is
shown below:
Since the Rate of Climb (R/C) is directly
proportional to the excess power, the Propeller Driven:
rate of climb also decreases with
increasing altitude.
Once the altitude is increased to a high
enough elevation, the P A curve
becomes tangent to the P R curve. The
velocity at this point is the only value at
which steady, level flight is possible.
 R/Cs can be done through similar
triangles and by ratio and proportion.

Jet-Driven:
Equation for the Absolute ceiling (H)
of a given Airplane as a function of
wing loading (W/S), and the power
loading, W/( P A ,0 ¿¿ max, where ¿ is the
maximum power available at sea
level:

Derivation can be found in: Introduction

to Flight (8th Ed.) – Pages 496 to 498

Time to Climb
The time for an airplane to climb to a
specific altitude is called “time to
Assuming that the variation of the Rate climb”. Here we can use a different
of Climb with altitude is reasonably definition for “rate of climb” as the time-
linear: rate of change of altitude:
dh
R/C=
dt
Therefore, the time to climb is therefore:
dh
dt=
R/ C
Then integrating both sides, with the
bounds of integration being from one,
initial altitude (h1 ¿to another altitude (h 2):
h2
dh
t=∫
h1
R /C
Problems involving Absolute ceilings,
Service Ceilings, and finding other
altitudes with their respective maximum
This is the general formula for the time This equation becomes valid for any
to climb from one altitude to another two altitudes when given RC 0 and AC.
where R/C is a function of altitude (h)
To solve for the service ceiling:
AC SC
=
RC 0 RC 0−RC SC
From the approximation of the linear
relationship between maximum R/C and
altitude: For solving the time to climb from sea
level (h1 =0 ¿ to any altitude h2 :

( RC 0 ) h
RC h =RC 0−
AC

( ACh )
RC h =RC 0 1−

RC =RC (
AC )
AC −h
h 0

h2
dh
t=∫
Big Triangle=
AC
RC 0
0
RC 0(AC −h
AC )
h2

Small Triangle=
h
RC 0−RC h
t=
( )
AC
RC 0 0
dh
∫ ( AC −h )
Similar Triangles:
AC h
t=
( RCAC ) ln [ ( ACAC−h) ]
0
=
RC 0 RC 0−RC h Alternate formula:
Solving for RC h :

( RC 0 ) h
t=2.303
( ) AC
RC 0
log10 [
AC
( AC−h)
]
RC h =RC 0−
AC Wherein:
This becomes a general equation for RC 0 =Max Rate of Climb at Sea Level
any rate of climb at a specific altitude
h when given RC 0 and AC. Substituting RC h =Max Rate of Climb at any Altitude
into the time of climb equation: RC SC =Max Rate of Climb( Service Ceiling)
h2
dh
t=∫
h1 ( RC 0 ) h
RC 0− AC= Absolute Ceiling
AC
 SC=Service Ceiling
h=any arbitrary altitude
Finding the Absolute Ceiling using From the FBD:
the Time to Climb Formula
D=W sinθ
Important Assumptions:
L=W cos θ
 The time it takes to go from 0 to
The glide angle can be calculated by
h2 is twice as long as the time it
dividing these equations:
takes to go from 0 to h1 , or:
D W sin θ
t 2=2 t 1 =
L W cos θ
 The climb from 0 to h1 then from D 1
=tan θ∨tan θ=
h1 to h2 must be continuous, or it L L/ D
must be a continuous climb.
−1 1
θ=tan ( )
Formula: L/ D

(h 1)
2
For the smallest or minimum glide
AC= angle (θmin ) occurs at the maximum L/D
( 2h 1−h2 )
ratio and it corresponds to C D ,0=C D ,i
Note: The derivation can be and also corresponds to the maximum
found within Learning Module 3 – range for the glide.
Climb and Drift Performance
−1
(Pages 18 – 19) θmin=tan ¿ ¿

GLIDING FLIGHT Gliding Range and Gliding Velocity

Consider an aircraft in a power-off
glide (power-off means Thrust (T) = 0).
Since the aircraft is gliding, the angle θ
is below the horizontal reference
axis.

From the figure:

D Height (h)
tan θ= =
L Range (R)
To solve for the maximum range: For the minimum rate of descent:

√
h 1
tan θ min = = ¿ 2W cos 3 θ
Rmax (L¿¿ D)max RD =
min
C L3
ρ∞ S ( 2 )
Rmax =h( L¿ ¿ D)max =h ¿ ¿ ¿ C D max
To solve for the Gliding Velocity (V g ¿ : From the discussion of minimum power
1 C L3 /2
2
L= ρ ∞ V ∞ S C L =W cos θ required that also relied on :
2 CD

√
3
2 cos θ W CL2
V g= ( )
ρ∞CL S C D ,i=3 C D , 0 for ( )
C D max
Rate of Descent ( R D ¿

From the figure:

RD
sin θ=
Vg
R D=V g sinθ

Using the following formulas:

V g=
√ 2 W cos θ
ρ∞ S CL

sin θ D C D
= =
cos θ L C L
CD
sin θ=cos θ( )
CL

√ ( )
2W cos θ CD
R D= ( cos θ )
ρ∞ S C L CL

R D=
√ 2W cos 3 θ (C D )2
ρ ∞ S (C L )3