Capacitors

Chapter Four
 Capacitor
 A Capacitor is a passive electrical device consisting of two conductors separated by a
layer of an insulating or dielectric medium and carrying equal and opposite charges.
The conductors are called plates and may be of any shape. A capacitor is capable of
storing charge (electrical energy) with a certain voltage level by electrostatic stress in
the insulating or dielectric materials.

As a capacitor is passive component, it does not generate energy. But it is able to store
energy from an energy source like a battery or another charged capacitor.

The more commonly used capacitors are :

1. Parallel-plate capacitor
Commonly used dielectric materials :
2. Spherical Capacitor Glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper,
mica and oxide layers.
3. Cylindrical capacitor
 How to charge a Capacitor
 A parallel plate capacitor formed of two parallel
conducting plates of area A and separated by a distance d
as shown in Fig. 1. One plate is joined to the positive
end of the supply and the other to the negative end or is
earthed. When such a capacitor is put across a battery,
there is a momentary flow of electrons from A to B. As
negatively charged electrons are withdrawn from A, it
becomes positive and as these electrons collect on B, it
becomes negative. Hence, a potential difference is
established between plates A and B. The transient flow
of electrons gives rise to charging current. The strength
of the charging current is maximum when the two plates
are uncharged but it then decreases when potential
difference across the plates becomes slowly and slowly
equal and opposite to the battery emf. Fig. 1
 Capacitance
 Capacitance is a measure of a capacitor’s ability to store charge. The
charge q of a capacitor is found to be directly proportional to the potential
difference between the plates, hence
qV or , q  CV
q
C 
V
The proportional constant C is called the capacitance of the capacitor.
If V = 1 volt, then q = C
Thus, the capacitance of a capacitor may be defined as the charge to be
given to the capacitor to raise its potential by unity. Its value depends on
(i) the geometry of each plate
(ii) the medium in which the plates are immersed.
(iii) the spatial relationship between the plates
 Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
 A parallel plate capacitor formed of two parallel conducting plates of area A and
separated by a distance d as shown in Fig. 2. If the plates are connected to the
opposite terminals of a battery, then a charge +q appears on one plate and a
charge –q on the other. Let us imagine a Gaussian surface of height h enclosed
by plane caps of area A of the same shape and size of the capacitor plates. The
electric field E between the plates will be uniform. According to Gauss’s law

q
0  E.dS  q or , 0 EA  q or , E 
0 A
(1)

Fig. 2
The potential difference V between the plates can be written as

  
V   E.dl   Edl  E  dl  Ed …………(2)
  

Since E is constant and dl is the plate separation.

Substituting the value of E in equation (2), we get

q
V d
0 A
The capacitance of the parallel-plate capacitor is, therefore, given by

q q 0 A 0 A
C  
V qd d
 Capacitance of a Cylindrical Capacitor
 A cylindrical capacitor consists of two coaxial cylinders of radius a and b and length l
as shown in Fig. 3. Let us construct a Gaussian surface of radius r and length l .
Applying Gauss’s law, we have

0  E.dS  q or, 0 E  dS  q
q
or, 0 E ( 2rl )  q E 
2 0 rl
where, 2rl is the area of the curved part of the Gaussian surface.

The potential difference between the plates is given by

b b b
q dr q b
V    E.dl   Edr    ln Fig. 3
a a a
2 0l r 2 0 l a
[E and dr points opposite direction]
Finally, the capacitance is, therefore, given by
q 2 0 l
C 
V ln( b a)
 Capacitors in Parallel
 Let us consider three capacitors C1, C2 and C3 connected in parallel between the terminals a
and b as in Fig. 4. The potential difference V across each capacitor will be the same.
Applying q = CV to each capacitor gives
q1  C1V ; q2  C2V and q3  C3V
The total charge q on the combination is
q  q1  q2  q3
 (C1  C2  C3 )V
Now, the equivalent capacitance C is

q (C1  C2  C3 )V
Cp   Fig. 4
V V
 C p  C1  C2  C3
N
We can easily extend to any number n of capacitors as Cequ   C j
j 1
 Capacitors in Series
 Fig. 5 shows three capacitors are connected in series. The magnitude q on each capacitor must
be the same.
Applying q = CV to each capacitor gives
q q q
V1  ; V2  and V3 
C1 C2 C3
The potential difference for the series combination is
1 1 1
V  V1  V2  V3  q(   )
C1 C2 C3
Now, the equivalent capacitance C is given by
q q 1
Cs   
V q( 1  1  1 ) ( 1  1  1 ) Fig. 5
C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3
1 1 1 1
   
Cs C1 C2 C3 1 N 1

We can easily extend to any number n of capacitors as


Cequ j 1 C j
 Charging and Discharging of a Capacitor
 In Fig.06, an arrangement is shown by which a capacitor C may be charged through a
high resistance R from a battery of V volts. When switch S is connected to terminal a,
C is charged but when it is connected to b, C is short-circuited through R and is thus
discharged. The voltage across C does not rise to V instantaneously but builds up
slowly. Charging current is maximum at the start i.e. when C is uncharged, then
gradually decreases and finally ceases when potential difference across capacitor
plates becomes equal and opposite to that of the battery.

Fig. 6
 Charging of a Capacitor
 At any instant, let v = potential difference across C, i = charging current, q = charge
on capacitor plate. The applied voltage V is always equal to the sum of (i) resistive
potential drop and (ii) voltage across capacitor

V  iR  vc .......... ...... (i )
dq d dvc
Now, ic   (Cvc )  C
dt dt dt
dvc
V  vc  RC .......... .......( ii)
dt
Separating the variables, we have

dvc 1
or,   dt
V  vc RC
 Integrating both sides, we get
dvc 1
or,     dt
V  vc RC
t
log e (V  vc )    K ........ (iii) where, K is a constant of integration and
this can be found from initial conditions.
RC
We know that at the start of charging when t = 0, v = 0. Therefore, we have from
equation (iii)
loge V  K
Hence equation (iii) becomes
t
loge (V  vc )    loge V
RC
V  vc t V  vc 
t

or, loge  or,  e RC

V RC V
t 
 vc  V (1  e ) ....... (iv) Fig. 7

This gives the variation of voltage across the capacitor plates with time as in Fig. 7.
 q Q
Now vc  and V
C C
Equation (iv) becomes
t 
q Q t 
 (1  e )  q  Q (1  e ) .......(v)
C C
dq
Now, ic 
dt Fig. 8
Differentiating Equ (v) with respect to t, we get
t
dq d 1 
 Q (1  e t  )  Q( e  )
dt dt 
t
Q  CV  t V  t
or, ic  e 
 e  e
 RC R Fig. 9
t

 ic  I 0e  .......... .( vi )
where, I0 = maximum current = V/R.
As charging continues, charging current decreases according to equ (vi) as shown in Fig. 9.
 Discharging of a Capacitor
 In Fig. 10, when S is shifted to b, then C is discharging through R. At the beginning,
the discharging is maximum but then decreases till it ceases when capacitor is fully
discharged.
Since battery is cut out of the circuit, therefore, by putting V = 0 in equ. (ii), we get

dv dv
0  vc  RC or, vc   RC
dt dt
dvc 1 dvc 1
or,  dt or,    dt
vc RC vc RC
t
 loge vc    K  .......... ...( vii)
RC

where, K is the constant of integration.

Fig. 10
 At the start of discharging, when t = 0, v = V

loge V  K 
Putting this value in (vii), we get
t vc t
loge vc    loge V or, log e  
RC V RC
t

 vc  Ve 
t

t 
q Q
 e  or , q  Qe
Therefore, we have 

C C
t t
dq d  Q  
Now, ic   Q (e )   e

dt dt 
CV  t 
t
 ic   e   I 0e 
RC Fig. 11
The fall of potential and discharging current are shown in Fig. 11.
 Time Constant
We find from the variation of capacitor voltage with time as

vc  V (1  et  )
If t = , then the above equation becomes

  1 1
vc  V (1  e )  V (1  e )  V (1  )
e
1
 vc  V (1  )  0.632V Fig. 12
2.718
Hence, time constant may be defined as the time in which capacitor voltage actually
rises to 0.632 of its final steady value.
 Time Constant
We also find from the variation of charging current with time as
t

ic  I 0e 

If t = , then the above equation becomes


 1
ic  I 0e  I 0 
e
1
 i  I0  0.37 I 0
2.718 Fig. 13

Hence, time constant is also the time during which the charging current of the
capacitor falls to 0.37 of its final maximum value.
 Energy Stored in a Capacitor
 A charged capacitor has stored in it an electrical potential energy U equal to the work
done W required to charge it. On discharging the capacitor, the field collapses and the
stored energy is released.

Suppose at any stage of charging, the potential difference across the plates is V.
By definition, it is equal to the work done in shifting one Coulomb of charge from one
plate to another.

Suppose that at a time t a charge q has been transferred from one plate to the
other. The potential difference V between the plates at that moment is

q
v
C
If an extra increment of charge dq is transferred, the small amount of additional work
needed will be
q
dW  vdq  ( ) dq
C
If this process is continued until a total charge q has been transferred, the total work done
will be q
q q
W   dW   dq
0 0C
2
1 1 q 1 q
 . [ q 2 ] 
C 2 0 2C
This work is stored as the potential energy U in the capacitor, so that

q2
U
2C
From the relation q = CV, we can write this as

C2V 2 1
U  CV 2
2C 2
 Energy Density
Energy density u is defined as the stored energy per unit volume. If A is the area of the
capacitor plate and d the distance or separation between the plates, then the volume is Ad.
Hence 1 2
CV
u 2
Ad
Now the capacitance C for a parallel plate capacitor is given by
0 A
C
d
Then we obtain
1 0 A 2
V
2 d 1 V 2
u  0 ( )
Ad 2 d
But V/d is the electric field strength E between the capacitor plates, so that

1
u  0 E 2
This is the expression for energy density.
2
Problems
1. A capacitor C1 is charged to a potential difference V0. This charging battery is then
removed and the capacitor is connected to an uncharged capacitor C2 as shown in
Fig.14. (a) What is the final potential difference V across the combination ? (b)
What is the stored energy before and after the switch is closed?

2. Two capacitors have a capacitance of 5 F when connected in parallel and 1.2 F

when connected in series. Calculate their individual capacitances.

Fig. 14