Public Speaking: The Virtual Text

introduction to public speaking Public Speaking: The Virtual Text

chapter 1

By Lisa Schreiber, Ph.D. and Morgan Hartranft

Millersville University, Millersville, PA

introduction
Humans’ ability to communicate chapter objectives chapter outline
using formalized systems of language After reading this chapter, you should be  Introduction
sets us apart from other living creatures able to:  Benefits of Public Speaking
on the Earth. Whether these language o Personal
conventions make us superior to other 1. Articulate at least three o Professional
reasons why public o Public
creatures is debatable, but there is no
speaking skills are  Models of Communication
question that overall, the most
important. o Linear
successful and most powerful people o Transactional
2. Describe the difference
over the centuries have mastered the  Elements of the Communication
between the linear and
ability to communicate effectively. In the transactional model of Process
fact, the skill of speaking is so communication. o Encoding and Decoding
important that it has been formally 3. List, define, and give an o Communicator
taught for thousands of years (see example of each of the o Message
Chapter 2 “The Origins of Public components of o Channel
Speaking” by DeCaro). communication. o Noise
4. Differentiate between the o Worldview
The ironic feature of public speaking major types of speeches o Context
is that while we recognize that it is an 5. Identify the eleven core  Types of Speeches
important skill to have, many of us do public speaking  Speaking Competencies
not like or want to give speeches. You competencies. o Useful Topic
may be reading this book because it 6. Apply chapter concepts in o Engaging Introduction
was assigned to you in a class, or you final questions and o Clear Organization
may be reading it because you have to activities. o Well-Supported Ideas
o Closure in Conclusion
give a speech in your personal or
o Clear and Vivid Language
professional life. If you are reading o Suitable Vocal Expression
this book because you like public o Corresponding Nonverbals
speaking or you have a burning desire The purpose of this chapter is to
o Adapted to the Audience
to learn more about it, you’re in the familiarize readers with the basic o Adept Use of Visual Aids
minority. concepts of communication and public o Convincing Persuasion
speaking. The chapter begins with a  Conclusion
The good news about public description of the personal,  Review Questions and Activities
speaking is that although it may not be professional, and public benefits of  Glossary
on the top of the list of our favorite learning more about public speaking.  References
activities, anyone can learn to give Then the transactional model of
effective presentations. You don’t have communication is introduced along
to look like a Hollywood star and you with the fundamental components of
don’t have to use fancy words to be a the communication process. Next,
successful speaker. What is important readers will learn about different types Wherever I go meeting the
is that the audience understands you of speeches and the occasions for public... spreading a message
and remembers what you have to say. which they would be presented. The
By learning and using the techniques of human values, spreading a
chapter ends with an overview of
provided in this book, you will discover eleven primary public speaking message of harmony, is the
how to create engaging speeches and competencies. most important thing.
present them using your own delivery
style. ~Dalai Lama
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Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

fulfill essential roles in our family and But before you even start a career,
community. you have to get a job. Effective
Another great personal benefit of speaking skills make you more
public speaking is that it builds self- attractive to employers, enhancing your
confidence. It’s no surprise that chances of securing employment and
speaking in public is scary, but by later advancing within your career.
engaging in the activity you will build Employers, career counselors, and the
self-confidence through the experience. National Association of Colleges and
Chapter 11, “Speaking with Employers (NACE) all list good
Confidence” by Grapsy ( in this book) communication skills at the top of the
will give you advice on how to list of qualities sought in potential
minimize speech apprehension, and the employees. According to NACE’s
advice can be used in many other social executive director, Marilyn Mackes, the
situations as well. Job Outlook 2013 Report found that
employers are looking for people who
benefits of public speaking can communicate effectively (Koncz &
According to the Association of Allen, 2012). Monster.com advises,
American Colleges and Universities, Action is a great restorer and “articulating thoughts clearly and
there are a core set of skills that are builder of confidence. concisely will make a difference in
necessary “both for a globally engaged both a job interview and subsequent job
democracy and for a dynamic- Inaction is not only the result, performance” (McKay, 2005).
innovation fueled economy” (Rhodes, but the cause, of fear.
2010, p. 10). In the category of public
Perhaps the action you take Learning about public speaking will
“Intellectual and practical skills”
public speaking is listed as one of will be successful; perhaps allow you to participate in democracy
these core skills. This is not different action or at its most basic level. Public speaking
particularly surprising given that is important in creating and sustaining a
adjustments will have to society, which includes informed,
communication skills are critical for
intellectual development, career follow. But any action is active participants. Even if you do not
trajectory, and civic engagement. better than no action at all. plan to run for office, learning about
Public speaking is universally public speaking helps you to listen
~ Norman Vincent Peale more carefully to and critically evaluate
applicable to all types of majors and
occupations and is seen by U.S. other’s speeches. In fact the “Listening
employers as a critical employability professional Effectively” and “Critical Thinking and
skill for job seekers (Rockler-Gladen, TV announcers, teachers, lawyers, Reasoning” chapters in this book by
2009; U.S. Department of Labor, and entertainers must be able to speak Goddu and Russ will help you to
2000). No matter what your ambitions well, but most other professions require develop those skills. Listening and
and interests are, developing speaking or at the very least can benefit from the critical thinking allow you to
skills will benefit your personal, skills found in public speaking. understand public dilemmas, form an
professional, and public life. opinion about them, and participate in
It is believed 70% of jobs today resolving them. The progress of the
personal involve some form of public speaking past century involving segregation,
People don’t just give presentations (Aras, 2012). With the recent
on the job and in classes. At times we economic shift from manufacturing to
are called upon to give speeches in our service careers, the ability to
personal lives. It may be for a special communicate with others has become
event, such as a toast at a wedding. We crucial. Top CEOs advise that great
may be asked to give a eulogy at a leaders must be able to communicate
funeral for a friend or loved one. As a ideas effectively, they must be able to
part of volunteer work, one may have persuade, build support, negotiate and
to introduce a guest speaker at an event speak effectively in public (Farrell,
or present or accept an award for 2011). The chapters on “Informative
service. Chapter 17, “Special Occasion Speaking” and “Persuasive Speaking”
Speaking” by Scholl will help you to can help readers understand how to
prepare for these brief but important write presentations that enhance their
speeches. Developing the skill to give leadership skills.
these types of speeches can help us to

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women’s rights and environmental

protection are the result of people
advancing new ideas and speaking out
to others to persuade them to adopt
changes.
models of communication
It should be clear by now that public
speaking happens all around us in many
segments of our lives. However, to
truly understand what is happening
within these presentations, we need to
take a step back and look at some of the
key components of the communication
process.
linear model of communication
The first theoretical model of
communication was proposed in 1949
by Shannon and Weaver for Bell
Laboratories (Shannon & Weaver, transactional model of
1949). This three-part model was communication your new apartment, you would picture
intended to capture the radio and Models of communication have in your mind the landscape, streets and
television transmission process. evolved significantly since Shannon buildings, and then you would select
However it was later adapted to human and Weaver first proposed their well- the best words that describe the route
communication and is now known as known conceptual model over sixty so your aunt could find you.
the linear model of communication. years ago. One of the most useful Decoding is the reverse process of
The first part of the model is the models for understanding public listening to words, thinking about
sender, and this is the person who is speaking is Barnlund’s (2008) them, and turning those words into
speaking. The second part of the model transactional model of communication. mental images. If your aunt were
is the channel, which is the apparatus In the transactional model, trying to find her way to your
for carrying the message (i.e., the communication is seen as an ongoing, apartment, she would listen to your
phone or T.V.). The third part of the circular process. We are constantly words, associate these words with
model is the receiver, and this is the affecting and are affected by those we streets and landmarks that she knows,
person who picks up the message. In communicate with. The transactional and then she would form a mental map
this model, communication is seen as a model has a number of interdependent of the way to get to you. Ramsey’s
one-way process of transmitting a processes and components, including “Using Language Well” (Chapter 10)
message from one person to another the encoding and decoding processes, provides additional insight into the
person. This model can be found in the communicator, the message, the encoding and decoding process.
Figure 1.1. channel and noise. Although not
communicator
If you think about situations when directly addressed in Barnlund’s (2008)
The term communicator refers to all
you communicate with another person original transactional model,
of the people in the interaction or
face-to-face or when you give a speech, participants’ worldviews and the
speech setting. It is used instead of
you probably realize that this model is context also play an important role in
sender and receiver, because when we
inadequate – communication is much the communication process. See Figure
are communicating with other people
more complicated than firing off a 1.2 on the next page for an illustration.
we are not only sending a message, we
message to others. are receiving messages from others
simultaneously. When we speak, we
elements of the observe others’ nonverbal behavior to
He who would learn to fly communication process see if they understand us and we gauge
encoding and decoding their emotional state. The information
one day must first learn to Encoding refers to the process of we gain from these observations is
stand and walk and run and taking an idea or mental image, known as feedback. Over the
climb and dance; one cannot associating that image with words, and telephone, we listen to paralinguistic
then speaking those words in order to cues, such as pitch, tone, volume and
fly into flying. convey a message. So, if you wanted fillers (i.e., “um,” “uh,” “er,” “like,”
~ Friedrich Nietzsche to explain to your aunt the directions to and so on). This means that

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communication is not a one-way message same speech but speaks with a solemn
process. Even in a public speaking The message involves those verbal tone of voice. If there is ever a conflict
situation, we watch and listen to and nonverbal behaviors, enacted by between the verbal and the non-verbal
audience members’ responses. If communicators, that are interpreted aspects of a message, people will
audience members are interested, agree, with meaning by others. The verbal generally believe the nonverbal portion
and understand us, they may lean portion of the message refers to the of the message. To test this, tighten
forward in their seats, nod their heads, words that we speak, while the your muscles, clench your fists at your
have positive or neutral facial nonverbal portion includes our tone of sides, pull your eye brows together,
expressions, and provide favorable voice and other non-vocal components purse your lips, and tell someone in a
vocal cues (such as laughter, “That’s such as personal appearance, posture, harsh voice, “NO, I’m NOT angry!”
right,” “Uh huh,” or “Amen!”). If gestures and body movements, eye See if they believe your words or your
audience members are bored, disagree, behavior, the way we use space, and nonverbal behavior.
or are confused by our message, they even the way that we smell. For The message can also be intentional
may be texting or looking away from instance, the person who gets up to or unintentional. When the message is
us, shake their heads, have unhappy or speak wearing a nice suit will be intentional, this means that we have an
confused expressions on their faces, or interpreted more positively than a image in our mind that we wish to
present oppositional vocal cues (like person giving the exact same speech communicate to an audience or a
groans, “I don’t think so,” “That wearing sweats and a graphic t-shirt. person in a conversation, and we can
doesn’t make sense,” or “You’re Or if a speaker tries to convince others successfully convey the image from our
crazy!”). Thus, communication is to donate to a charity that builds wells mind to others’ minds with relative
always a transactional process – a give in poor African villages using a accuracy. An unintentional message is
and take of messages. monotone voice, she will not be as sent when the message that we wish to
effective as the speaker who gives the convey is not the same as the message

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first type of noise is physiological

noise, and this refers to bodily
processes and states that interfere with
a message. For instance, if a speaker
has a headache or the flu, or if audience
members are hot or they're hungry,
these conditions may interfere with
message accuracy. The second type of
noise is psychological noise.
Psychological noise refers to mental
states or emotional states that impede
message transmission or reception. For
example, if someone has just broken up
with a significant other, or if they're
worried about their grandmother who is
in the hospital, or if they are thinking
about their shopping list, this may
interfere with communication processes
as well. The third type of noise is
actual physical noise, and this would
be simply the actual sound level in a
room. Loud music playing at a party, a
the other person receives. Let’s say person on television. One famous number of voices of people talking
you are returning from an outing with example of this is the 1960 televised excitedly, a lawnmower right outside
your significant other and she or he presidential debate between John F. the window, or anything that is overly
asks, “Did you have a good time?” Kennedy and Richard Nixon. loud will interfere with communication.
You did have a good time but are According to History.com (2012), on The last type of noise is cultural noise.
distracted by a T.V. commercial when camera, Nixon looked away from the Cultural noise refers to message
asked, so you reply in a neutral tone, camera at the reporters asking him interference that results from
“Sure, I had fun.” Your significant questions, he was sweating and pale, he differences in peoples’ worldviews.
other may interpret your apathetic tone had facial hair stubble, and he wore a Worldview is discussed in more detail
of voice and lack of eye contact to grey suit that faded into the set below, but suffice it to say that the
mean that you did not enjoy the background. “Chicago mayor Richard greater the difference in worldview, the
evening, when in fact you actually did. J. Daley reportedly said [of Nixon], more difficult it is to understand one
Thus as communicators, we cannot ‘My God, they've embalmed him another and communicate effectively.
always be sure that the message we before he even died” (History.com,
worldview
wish to communicate is interpreted as 2012). Kennedy, on the other hand, Most people don’t give a lot of
we intended. looked into the camera, was tanned,
thought to the communication process.
wore a dark suit that made him stand In the majority of our interactions with
channel
The channel is very simply the out from the background, and appeared others, we are operating on automatic
means through which the message to be calm after spending the entire pilot. Although the encoding and
travels. In face-to-face communication weekend with aides practicing in a decoding process may appear to be
hotel room. Most of those who
the channel involves all of our senses,
so the channel is what we see, hear, listened to the radio broadcast of the
touch, smell and perhaps what we taste. debate felt that it was a tie or that
When we're communicating with Nixon had won, while 70% of those
someone online, the channel is the watching the televised debate felt that
Kennedy was the winner.
computer; when texting the channel is
the cell phone; and when watching a noise
movie on cable, the channel is the TV. The next aspect of the model of
The channel can have a profound communication is noise. Noise refers
impact on the way a message is to anything that interferes with
interpreted. Listening to a recording of message transmission or reception
a speaker does not have the same (i.e., getting the image from your
psychological impact as listening to the head into others’ heads). There are
same speech in person or watching that several different types of noise. The

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fairly straightforward, it is actually One of the ways that you can tell what
much more complicated than it seems. people value is to ask them what their
The reason for this is because we all goals are, or to ask them what qualities
have different worldviews. Worldview they look for in a life partner. Our
is the overall framework through which values represent the things that we hope
an individual sees, thinks about, and for --they do not represent reality.
interprets the world and interacts with Values can have an impact on multiple
it. There are five core components to levels of the public speaking process,
our worldview. but in particular values impact speaker
1. Epistemology is the way that we credibility and effectiveness in
acquire knowledge and/or what counts persuasion. For instance, some cultures
as knowledge. Think about the process value modest dress in women, so a
of conducting research. Thirty years female speaker wearing a sleeveless
ago, to find a series of facts one had to blouse while speaking could cause her
use a card catalogue and scour the to lose credibility with some audience
library stacks for books. Now members. Or if audience members
researchers can access thousands of value the freedom to bear arms over the 5. Praxeology denotes our preferred
pages of information via their computer benefits of government regulation, a method of completing everyday tasks
from the comfort of their own home. speaker will have a difficult time or our approach to solving problems.
Epistemology is linked to public convincing these audience members to Some speech writers may begin
speaking because it governs audience vote for stricter gun control legislation. working on their outlines as soon as
members’ preferred learning styles and they know they will need to give a
who or what they consider to be speech, while others may wait until a
credible sources. It is always good to explore few days before their speech to begin
preparing (we do not recommend this
2. Ontology refers to our belief the stuff you don't agree with, approach). Praxeology may also have
system, how we see the nature of to try and understand a an impact on a speaker’s preference of
reality or what we see as true or false. delivery style, methods of arranging
We may (or may not) believe in aliens
different lifestyle or foreign
main points, and choice of slideware
from outer space, that butter is bad for worldview. I like to be (i.e., Power Point versus Prezi).
you, that the Steelers will win the challenged in that way, and
Superbowl, or that humans will be It is important to understand
extinct in 200 years. Speech writers
always end up learning worldview because it has a profound
should be careful not to presume that something I didn't know. impact on the encoding and decoding
audience members share the same process, and consequently on our
~ Laura Linney ability to be understood by others. Try
beliefs. If a speaker claims that illness
can be aided with prayer, but several this simple experiment. Ask two or
people in the audience are atheists, at 4. Cosmology signifies the way that three people to silently imagine a dog
best the speaker has lost credibility and we see our relationship to the universe while you imagine a dog at the same
at worst these audience members could and to other people. Cosmology time. “Dog” is a very concrete word
be offended. dictates our view of power (a word that describes a tangible object
relationships and may involve our that can be perceived through the
3. Axiology represents our value religious or spiritual beliefs. senses), and it is one of the first words
system, or what we see as right or Controversial speech topics (like children in the United States learn in
wrong, good or bad, and fair or unfair. universal health care and the death school. Wait a few seconds and then
penalty) are often related to this aspect ask each person what type of dog they
of worldview as we must consider our were thinking of. Was it a Chihuahua?
responsibilities to other human beings A greyhound? Golden retriever?
and our power to influence them. Rottweiler? Or some other dog? Most
Interestingly, cosmology would also likely each person you asked had a
play a role in such logistical points as different image in his or her mind than
who is allowed to speak, the order of you had in yours. This is our worldview
speakers on a schedule (e.g., from most at work.
to least important), the amount of time To further illustrate, you may tell a
a speaker has to speak, the seating co-worker, “I can’t wait to go home
arrangement on the dais, and who gets this weekend – we are having lasagna!”
the front seats in the audience. Seems like a fairly clear-cut statement,

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assume your listener will understand

you. It takes hard work to make
yourself understood by an audience.

Context is worth 80 IQ
points.
~ Alan Kay

context
The last element of the
communication process is the context
in which the speech or interaction takes
place. In the 1980’s context was taught
as the actual physical setting where
doesn’t it? Unfortunately, it is not.
communication occurred, such as in a
While “lasagna” is also a concrete types of speeches and
place of worship, an apartment, a
word, our worldviews cause us to
interpret each word in the statement
workplace, a noisy restaurant, or a speaking occasions
grocery store. People communicate There are three general purposes for
differently. Where is “home?” Who is
differently in each one of these places speaking in public. The general
making the meal? What ingredients
as there are unwritten rules of purpose of a speech is usually
will be used in the lasagna? Is this dish
communication (called norms) that determined by the occasion in which
eaten as a regular meal or for a special
govern these settings. More recently the speech will be presented. The first
occasion? Will there be leftovers? Are
the concept of context has evolved and general purpose is to inform your
friends invited? Since everyone who
expanded to include the type of audience. In an informative speech, the
has eaten lasagna has had a different
relationships we have with others and presenter will share information about a
experience of the cuisine, we all
the communicative rules that govern particular person, place, object,
acquire a different image in our mind
those relationships. So you do not process, concept, or issue by defining,
when we hear the statement “…we are
speak the same way to your best friend describing, or explaining. Occasions
having lasagna!”
as you do to a small child, your parent, for which an informative speech would
Complicating matters is the fact that your boss, your doctor or a police be presented include a report presented
the more abstract the word becomes, officer. And you may speak to your to coworkers, a teacher presenting
the more room there is for best friend differently in your information to his or her class, and a
interpretation. Abstract words (words apartment than you do in your parents’ training session for a job. The second
that refer to ideas or concepts that are home, and your communication may purpose for public speaking is to
removed from material reality) like also change when you are both out with persuade. In a persuasive speech, the
“peace,” “love,” “immoral,” “justice,” friends on the weekend. In sum, the presenter will attempt to reinforce or
“freedom,” “success,” and “honor” can context refers to the norms that govern change their audiences’ beliefs,
have a number of different meanings; communication in different situations attitudes, feelings, or values. Several
each of which is predicated on one’s and relationships. occasions where persuasion is used
worldview. Communicators have their include a sales pitch to potential
own unique worldviews that shape both customers, a politician’s campaign
the encoding and decoding processes, speech, or a debate during a public
which means that we can never be forum. The last general purpose is to
completely understood by another commemorate or entertain. These types
person. People from the Midwest may of speeches often strengthen the bonds
call carbonated beverages “pop,” while between audience members from
those from the east coast may say recalling a shared experience or intend
“soda,” and those from Georgia may to amuse audiences through humor,
say “coke.” Even when simple terms stories, or illustrations. Examples of
are used like “oak tree” or “fire this purpose include a toast, such as a
hydrant,” each listener will form a best man’s speech at a wedding
different mental image when decoding reception; a eulogy to praise the dead; a
the message. Never take commencement speech at graduation;
communication for granted, and never or presenting an award. It is important

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to note that these general purposes may 2. engaging introduction are somewhat organized, but the
overlap one another. One might wish to To formulate an introduction that content of these points may overlap.
use some forms of entertainment while orients the audience to the topic and Transitions may also be present in his
informing or persuading his or her the speaker is the second speaking speech, but they are not particularly
audience. competency. An advanced speaker effective. In the ineffective speaker’s
writes an introduction that contains an speech, there is no clear organizational
excellent attention-getter. She firmly pattern, there are no transitions, and it
A desire presupposes the establishes her credibility. She sounds as if the information is
provides a sound orientation to the randomly presented.
possibility of action to topic, states her thesis clearly, and
achieve it; action previews her points in a cogent and
presupposes a goal which is memorable way. For the beginning Don't leave inferences to be
speaker, her attention-getter is drawn when evidence can be
worth achieving. mundane and she somewhat develops
~ Ayn Rand her credibility. Her thesis is presented.
awkwardly composed and she provides ~ Richard Wright
little direction for the audience. The
speaking competencies ineffective speaker has no opening 4. well-supported ideas
We assume you are reading this technique, no credibility statement and Fourth on the list of speaking
book or chapter because you wish to provides no background on the topic. competencies is to locate, synthesize,
improve your speaking skills – a In addition she has no thesis statement and employ compelling supporting
worthy goal. As Ayn Rand alludes to and no preview of her points. materials. In the advanced speaker’s
in her quote, a desire to succeed is the speech, her key points are well
first step in achieving this objective. supported with a variety of credible
Nevertheless, you cannot hit a target materials, and her sources provide
unless you know what it is. Thus, the excellent support for her thesis. In
final portion of this chapter is devoted addition, all of her sources are clearly
to an overview of eleven speaking cited. A beginning speaker has points
competencies which we consider to be that are generally supported with a fair
the standards for evaluating a variety of mix of materials. Only some of her
presentations at every level of mastery. evidence supports her thesis, and her
These are based on the Public Speaking source citations need to be clarified.
Competence Rubric [PSCR] (Schreiber, An ineffective speaker gives a speech
Paul & Shibley, 2012). A complete with no supporting materials or no
copy of the rubric can be found at source citations.
http://www.publicspeakingproject.org/
activities.html.
5. closure in conclusion
The fifth speaking competency is to
1. useful topic develop a conclusion that reinforces
The first speaking competency is to the thesis and provides psychological
select a topic that is appropriate to the closure. The advanced speaker
audience and the occasion. An provides a clear and memorable
advanced speaker selects a worthwhile summary of his points, and he refers
topic that engages the audience. His back to the thesis or big picture. His
topic also presents the audience with speech also ends with a strong clincher
new information that they did not know 3. clear organization or call to action. A beginning speaker
before the speech. A beginning Competency three is to use an provides some summary of his points,
speaker selects a topic that lacks effective organizational pattern. An but there is no clear reference back to
originality or is out of date. His topic advanced speaker is very well his thesis. The closing technique of his
provides no new information to the organized and delivers a speech with speech can also be strengthened. In an
audience. An ineffective speaker may clear main points. His points are ineffective speaker’s speech, there is no
give a speech in which a single topic mutually exclusive and directly related conclusion. His speech ends abruptly
cannot be deduced by the audience. to the thesis. Further, he employs and without closure.
effective transitions and signposts to
help the speech flow well. The
beginning speaker has main points that

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8. corresponding nonverbals shows how information is important to

Eighth on the list of competencies is audience members, and his speech is
to demonstrate nonverbal behavior that tailored to their beliefs, values and
supports the verbal message. An attitudes. He may also make allusions
advanced speaker has posture, gestures, to culturally shared experiences. A
facial expression and eye contact that beginning speaker assumes but does
are natural, well developed, and display not articulate the importance of the
high levels of poise and confidence. topic. His presentation is minimally
Some reliance on notes is seen with the adapted to the audience, and some of
beginning speaker, but she has the ideas presented in the speech are
adequate eye contact. She also removed from the audience’s frame of
generally avoids distracting reference or experiences. An
mannerisms. The ineffective speaker ineffective speaker’s speech is contrary
usually looks down and avoids eye to the audience’s beliefs, values and
contact. She has nervous gestures and attitudes. His message may be generic
other nonverbal behaviors that distract or canned and no attempt is made to
from or contradict the message. establish common ground.

6. clear and vivid language 10. adept use of visual aids

To demonstrate a careful choice of Body language is a very To skillfully make use of visual aids
words is the sixth speaking is the tenth competency. Exceptional
competency. An advanced speaker’s
powerful tool. We had body
explanation and presentation of visual
language is exceptionally clear, language before we had aids is characteristic of the advanced
imaginative and vivid. Her language is speech, and apparently, 80% speaker. Her speech has visuals that
also completely free from bias, of what you understand in a provide powerful insight into the
grammatical errors and inappropriate speech topic, and her visuals are of
usage. The beginning speaker selects conversation is read through high professional quality. The
language that is adequate to make her the body, not the words. beginning speaker’s visual aids are
point. She has some errors in grammar generally well developed and
and occasionally uses slang, jargon or
~ Deborah Bull
explained, although there may be minor
awkward sentence structure. The errors present in the visuals. An
ineffective speaker has many errors in 9. adapted to the audience ineffective speaker uses visual aids that
her grammar and syntax. She also The ninth speaking competency is to distract from her speech. Her visuals
mispronounces words and extensively successfully adapt the presentation to may not be relevant, or her visuals may
uses slang, jargon, and/or sexist or the audience. The advanced speaker be of poor professional quality.
racist terms.

7. suitable vocal expression

Competency number seven is to
effectively use vocal expression and
paralanguage to engage the audience.
Excellent use of vocal variation,
intensity and pacing are characteristics
of the advanced speaker. His vocal
expression is also natural and
enthusiastic, and he avoids fillers.
Some vocal variation is evident in the
beginning speaker’s speech. He also
enunciates clearly, speaks audibly, and
generally avoids fillers (e.g., “um,”
“uh,” “like,” etc.). An ineffective
speaker is inaudible, enunciates poorly,
and speaks in a monotone voice. His
speech also has poor pacing, and he
distracts listeners with fillers.

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11. convincing persuasion

The eleventh and final speaking
competency is to construct an effectual
persuasive message with credible
evidence and sound reasoning. An
advanced speaker articulates the
problem and solution in a clear,
compelling manner. He supports his
claims with powerful and credible
evidence while completely avoiding
reasoning fallacies. His speech also
contains a memorable call to action. In
the beginning speaker’s speech, the
problem and solution are evident, and
most claims are supported with
evidence. He also has generally sound
reasoning and a recognizable call to
action. For the ineffective speaker, the
problem and/or solution are not
defined. His claims are not supported
with evidence, his speech contains poor
reasoning, and there is no call to action.
Readers should note that the
competencies listed above are not all The speeches you present will be Each one of the competencies just
inclusive. Ultimately one must adjust, given in a particular context. In your listed is covered in depth in one or
expand, and apply these competencies role as communicator, you will encode more chapters in this book.
as best fits the requirements of the and deliver a message which will then The authors of this textbook hope
speaking situation. But they do provide be decoded by audience members (also that readers will find the chapters
a starting point for new or less communicators). At the same time you useful in developing their own
experienced speakers to begin to are speaking, you will be receiving communication competence. Whether
understand all of the interrelated verbal and nonverbal feedback from the you are new to giving presentations, or
components of a speech. audience. The way that the message is a more experienced speaker, it is
decoded will depend entirely on the important to remember that the best
amount of noise interfering with the way to improve your public speaking
message as well as the worldviews of skills is through preparation and
Being ignorant is not so audience members. practice. Although it may take time to
much a shame, as being Every new speaker should work to learn effective speaking skills, the
unwilling to learn. become skilled at the eleven core effort is well worth the benefits you
~ Benjamin Franklin public speaking competencies. These will reap in your personal, professional,
competencies include: selecting a and public life.
useful topic, writing an engaging
conclusion introduction, organizing the points of
Our capacity to communicate the speech, finding effective supporting
through systems of language
An effective speaker knows
materials for the points, adding a
differentiates us from other species, but conclusion that provides closure, using that the success or failure of
the use of that language to clear and vivid language, making sure his talk is not for him to
communicate effectively is actually that one’s vocal expression corresponds
harder than anticipated, particularly in
decide -- it will be decided in
to the goals of the speech, using
front of an audience. Fortunately, by nonverbals that complement the the minds and hearts of his
reading this book, you can learn the message, adapting the message to one’s hearers.
skills required to communicate more audience, using visual aids effectively,
effectively one-on-one and in a
~Dale Carnegie
and using credible evidence and sound
speaking situation. .
reasoning in persuasive messages.

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review questions and activities

review questions
1. What are the personal, professional and public benefits of enhancing your public speaking skills?
2. What is the difference between the linear and transactional model of communication?
3. Define and give an original example of each of the elements of the communication process.
4. Which of the elements of the communication process do you think has the greatest impact on the way a message
is interpreted. Explain.
5. What are the three types of speeches? For each of the three types of speeches, give two examples of an occasion
or situation in which that type of speech might be given.
6. List the eleven speaking competencies. For each competency listed, describe the differences between the
advanced speaker and the inexperienced speaker.

activities
1. Working in groups of 3 – 5, generate a list of the characteristics of ineffective speakers you have seen. Next, generate
a list of the characteristics of the effective speakers you have seen. What three qualities do you believe are most
important to be a successful speaker? Explain.

2. Locate a speech on YouTube. While watching the speech, identify the strengths and weaknesses of the speaker’s
content and delivery? What three things could the speaker improve on? What three things did you like about the
speaker? If you were to deliver the speech, how would you do things differently?

3. Locate a copy of the Public Speaking Competence Rubric at http://www.publicspeakingproject.org/activities.html.

Read through each of the levels of each of the competencies, and try to determine what your level of skill is for each
of the speaking competencies. If you are able, have a friend or colleague watch one of your speeches and ask him or
her to evaluate your level of skill for each of the competencies. Compare your responses to see how much
correspondence there is between your responses and the evaluator’s responses. In what areas are you strongest? What
do you need to improve upon?

glossary
Abstract Word Context Encoding
Words that refer to ideas or The communication rules that The process of taking a mental
concepts that are removed from govern different physical settings image, associating the image with
material reality. and/or different types of words, and then speaking those
Axiology relationships. words.
A part of worldview; refers to an Cosmology Epistemology
individual or group’s value A part of worldview; refers to the A part of worldview; refers to the
system. way individuals and groups see way an individual or group
Channel themselves in relation to other acquires knowledge or what
The means through which the people and their view of their counts as knowledge.
message travels. place in the universe. Listening
Communicator Cultural Noise The psychological process of
The people in the interaction or Differences in worldview that interpreting and making sense of
speech setting who encode and cause message interference. the messages we receive.
decode messages simultaneously. Decoding Message
Concrete Word The process of listening to words The words, nonverbal behavior,
A word that describes a tangible and interpreting the words so they or other signals transmitted from
object that can be perceived are associated with a mental one person to another.
through the senses. image.

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Noise Ontology Physical Noise

Any thing that interferes with the A part of worldview; refers to an Message interference that results
message transmission or the individual’s or group’s belief when the noise level (as
encoding and decoding process. system. measured in decibels) makes it
Nonverbal Behavior Praxeology difficult to hear a message.
All of the messages we send --- A part of worldview; refers to the Public Speaking
except for the words we say. Can way an individual or group goes The act of delivering a speech in
include appearance, eye behavior, about tasks or solving problems. front of a live audience.
kinesics (body movement), Psychological Noise Worldview
proxemics (use of space), touch, Message interference that results The overall framework through
time, and smell. from disturbed or excited mental which an individual sees, thinks
Norms states. about, and interprets the world
The verbal and nonverbal rules Physiological Noise and interacts with it.
(usually unspoken) that govern Message interference that results
communicative behavior. from bodily discomfort.

references
Aras, K. (2012). The nuts and bolts of http://www.history.com/topics/kenne knowledge. Suite 101.com.
public speaking: Practical tools for dy-nixon-debates Retrieved from
powerful presentations. Retrieved http://studyskills.suite101.com/articl
Koncz, A. and Allen, C. (2012).
from http://www.thecommuni e.cfm/job_skills_that_every_college
Employers look for communication
cationfactory.com/seminars/skills/Pu skills, ability to work in a team in _student_needs
blicSpeaking.php new college grads. Schreiber, L., Paul, G. & Shibley, L. R.
Barnlund, D. C. (2008). A transactional www.naceweb.org/pressreleases/. (2012). The development and test of
model of communication. In. C. D. the Public Speaking Competence
McKay, J. (2005). Employers complain
Mortensen (Eds.), Communication about communication skills. Rubric. Communication Education,
theory (2nd Ed), pp. 47-57. New Pittsburgh Post Gazette. 61 (3), 205 – 233.
Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction.
Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949).
Rhodes, T. (Ed.) (2010). Assessing
Farrell, R. (2011). Soft skills all great outcomes and improving The mathematical theory of
leaders should have. CareerBuilder. achievement: Tips and tools for communication. Urbana: University
http://www. of Illinois Press
using rubrics. Washington D. C.:
careerbuilder.com/Article/CB-2335-
Association of American Colleges U. S. Department of Labor (2000). Skills
Leadership-Management-Soft-skills-
and Universities. and tasks for jobs: A SCANS report
all-great-leaders-should-have/
Rockler-Gladen, N. (2009, March 21). for America 2000. The Secretary’s
History.com. (2012). The Kennedy- Commission on Achieving
Job skills that every college student
Nixon Debates. History.com. Necessary Skills. Washington, D.C.
needs: Writing, speaking,
Retrieved from
professionalism, and other important

photo credits
p. 1 The Dali Lama p. 6 FEMA worker talking to woman p. 9 Reasons not to like public speaking
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co http://www.flickr.com/photos/codepo8/4
Dalai-Lama-talking-to-KD.jpg By mmons/1/17/FEMA_-_32747_- 348896264/
Wakan Foundation for the Arts _FEMA_Community_Relations_worker_ by Christian Heilmann
p. 2 Ronsenbaum talking to woman talking_to_a_Ohio_resident.jpg By John p. 9 Woman drawing
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Ficara / FEMA http://www.flickr.com/photos/jonnygolds
Michael_Rosenbaum_(4995506953).jpg p. 6 Superfans tein/3958940167/sizes/m/in/photostream/
By Vagueonthehow http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: by Jonny Goldstein
p. 2 Alice Walker NFL_Superfans.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: By HMJD02
Alice_Walker_(cropped)1.jpg By p. 7 Hand cyclists at Warrior Games
Virginia Debolt http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
p. 5 The Kennedy / Nixon Debate 1960 Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kenned _Talking_technique.jpg By U.S. Army
y_Nixon_Debat_(1960).jpg By the
National Park Service

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audience analysis Public Speaking: The Virtual Text

chapter 5

By Peter DeCaro, Ph.D. Tyrone Adams, Ph.D. Bonnie Jefferis, Ph.D.

University of Alaska - University of Louisiana - St. Petersburg College
Fairbanks Lafayette

introduction
Robert E. Mullins, a well-known
local bank officer, was preparing a chapter objectives chapter outline
After reading this chapter, you should be able
speech for the Rotary Club in Dallas, to:
Texas on the topic of “finding the • Introduction
1. List techniques for • Approaches to Audience
right loan” for a rather diverse analyzing a specific target
Analysis
audience. He knew his topic audience.
o Direct Observation
extremely well, had put a lot of hard 2. Explain audience analysis
o Inference
work into his research, and had his by direct observation.
o Sampling
3. Describe audience analysis
visual aids completely in order. One • Categories of Audience
by inference.
of the things he had not fully Analysis
4. Identify the purpose of a
considered, however, was the o Situational Analysis
basic questionnaire.
audience to which he would be o Demographic Analysis
5. Recognize and apply data
speaking. On the day of the o Psychological Analysis
sampling.
presentation, Mr. Mullins delivered a o Multicultural Analysis
6. Determine when to use a
flawless speech on “secured” car and o Interest and Knowledge
Likert-type test.
Analysis
home loans, but the speech was not 7. Define the five categories
• Conclusion
received particularly well. You see, of audience analysis.
• Review Questions and Activities
on this particular week, a major 8. Summarize the purpose of
• Glossary
segment of the audience consisted of the situational analysis.
• References
the “Junior Rotarians” who wanted 9. Explain audience analysis
to hear about “personal savings by demography.
accounts” and “college savings 10. Recognize the difference
between beliefs, attitudes We analyze our audience because we
plans.” It was a critical error. Had
and values. want to discover information that will
Mr. Mullins considered the full 11. Identify reasons for help create a bond between the speaker
nature and demographic makeup of sampling a multicultural and the audience. We call this bond
his audience prior to the event, he audience. “identification.” Aristotle loosely called
might not have been received so 12. Apply the chapter it “finding a common ground.” This
poorly. concepts in final questions isn’t a one-way process between the
and activities.
In contemporary public speaking, the speaker and the audience; rather, it is a
audience that you are addressing is the two-way transactional process. When
entire reason you are giving the speech; you ask an audience to listen to your
accordingly, the audience is therefore ideas, you are inviting them to come
the most important component of all audience is assembled for a very real partway into your personal and
speechmaking. It cannot be said often and significant reason: they want to professional experience as an expert
or more forcefully enough: know your hear what you have to say. So, be speaker. And, in return, it is your
audience! Knowing your audience— prepared. responsibility and obligation to go
their beliefs, attitudes, age, education partway into their experience as an
level, job functions, language, and audience. The more you know and
culture—is the single most important Spectacular achievement is always understand about your audience and
aspect of developing your speech preceded by unspectacular their psychological needs, the better
strategy and execution plan. Your preparation. you can prepare your speech and your
audience isn’t just a passive group of ~ Robert H. Schuller enhanced confidence will reduce your
people who come together by own speaker anxiety (Dwyer, 2005).
happenstance to listen to you. Your
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-
nd/3.0/us/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA.
PDF documents prepared by Donna Painter Graphics.
Chapter 5 Audience Analysis www.publicspeakingproject.org

This chapter is dedicated to

understanding how a speaker connects Table 5.1 Tailoring a Speech to Demographic Characteristics
with an audience through audience
analysis by direct observation, analysis Demographic Do’s and Don’ts
Characteristics
by inference, and data collection
Don’t try to use words or phrases to “cuddle up” to one
(Clevenger, 1966). In addition, this Ethnicity race or another. You would lose some credibility if you
chapter explores the five categories of made a point in your speech and then said, “So get jiggy
audience analysis: (1) the situational with it” or “You could enjoy that with your afternoon tea
analysis, (2) the demographic analysis, ceremony” (Pearson, et al, 2011).
(3) the psychological analysis, (4) the Stay away from jargon from one age range or another,
multicultural analysis, and (5) the topic Age like “OMG” or “the cat’s pajamas” (Gamble & Gamble,
interest and prior knowledge analysis. 2013).
Use words that are not sex/gender-specific. Instead of
Sex/Gender policeman, fireman, and stewardess, use police officer,
firefighter, and flight attendant. Do not use one-
approaches to audience
sex/gender pronouns, like assuming a teacher is a “she”
analysis and a dentist is a “he” (Eisenberg & Wynn, 2013).
Whenever thinking about your Some people in your audience will have more
speech, it is always a good idea to Income money than others. So if you keep fit by maintaining
begin with a thorough awareness of membership in a prominent gym and you take classes
your audience and the many factors there also, don’t assume everyone else can afford to do
comprising that particular audience. In so. You can tell your audience what you do, but give
speech communication, we simply call them options like parking far from the store and working
out with a yoga or Pilates CD at home.
this “doing an audience analysis.” An
Unless you are speaking at a convention where
audience analysis is when you consider
Occupation everyone in your audience works in the same field, make
all of the pertinent elements defining your speech more explanatory. Your audience has not
the makeup and demographic had extensive training in medical terms nor legal terms.
characteristics (also known as So you need to explain what you are talking about,
demographics) of your audience without using the big words which would make your
(McQuail, 1997). From the Greek audience feel confused, stupid, and put down.
prefix demo (of the people), we come Realize that your audience will likely have a wide
to understand that there are detailed Religion variety of religions represented, and some people may
accounts of human population have no religious or spiritual beliefs. So you can say that
characteristics, such as age, gender, YOU read the Bible every night for 10 minutes, but that you
are suggesting that everyone choose a religious or
education, occupation, language,
inspirational reading for pre-sleep relaxation (Gamble &
ethnicity, culture, background Gamble, 2013).
knowledge, needs and interests, and Even if you are speaking to an audience of college
previously held attitudes, beliefs, and Education freshman, not everyone has had the same educational
values. Demographics are widely used Level experiences. For example, some of the people in your
by advertising and public relations class may have completed a high school equivalency
professionals to analyze specific program like the GED, some may be high school students
audiences so that their products or ideas who are taking a college class, some may have gone to
will carry influence. However, all good secondary school in another country, some may be
public speakers consider the home-schooled, and some may have gone to a private
demographic characteristics of their honors-based prep school. You need to be careful not to
talk down to your audience and not to use fancy
audience, as well. It is thefundamental
sentences and words to try to impress your audience.
stage of preparing for your speech. Gauging the right level of communication for your speech
Table 5.1 shows some examples of is an important challenge.
demographics and how they may be
used when developing your speech. Of
course, this is not an all-inclusive list.
But, it does help you get a good general audience?” First, you need to know to know how these methods work, you
understanding of the demographics of that there are three overarching should be able to select which one (or
the audience you will be addressing. methods (or “paradigms”) for doing even combination of these methods) is
an audience analysis: audience analysis right for your circumstances.
So now you may be saying to by direct observation, audience analysis
yourself: “Gee, that’s great! How do I by inference, and audience analysis
go about analyzing my particular through data collection. Once you get
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appreciate each audience member as always best to try and find some time to
both a human being and as an audience sit down and talk with someone you
Nothing has such power to member. You will come to understand trust (or even several people) who
broaden the mind as the ability to what interests them, convinces them, or might be familiar with the given
investigate systematically and even makes them laugh. You might audience. These conversations can be
truly all that comes under thy arouse interest and curiosity in your very constructive in helping you
observation in life. topic while you also gain valuable data. understand the context in which you
will be speaking.
~ Marcus Aurelius
Not understanding the basic
demographic characteristics of an
direct observation audience, or further, that audience’s
Audience analysis by direct beliefs, values, or attitudes about a
observation, or direct experience, is, by given topic makes your presentation
far, the most simple of the three goals haphazard, at best. Look around
paradigms for “getting the feel” of a the room at the people who will be
particular audience. It is a form of listening to your speech. What types of
qualitative data gathering. We perceive gender, age, ethnicity, and educational-
it through one or more of our five level characteristics are represented?
natural senses—hearing, seeing, What are their expectations for your
touching, tasting, and smelling. presentation? This is all-important
Knowledge that we acquire through information you should know before
personal experience has more impact you begin your research and drafting
on us than does knowledge that we your outline. Who is it that I am going
learn indirectly. Knowledge acquired to be talking to?
from personal experience is also more For example, you want to deliver a
likely to affect our thinking and will be persuasive speech about boycotting
retained for a longer period of time. farm-raised fish. You could conduct a
We are more likely to trust what we If we knew what it was we were
short attitudinal survey to discover doing, it would not be called
hear, see, feel, taste, and smell rather what your audience thinks about the
than what we learn from secondary topic, if they eat farm-raised fish, and if
research, would it?
sources of information (Pressat, 1972). they believe it is healthy for them. This ~ Albert Einstein
All you really need to do for this information will help you when you
method of observation is to examine construct your speech because you will inference
your audience. If you are lucky enough know their attitudes about the subject. Audience analysis by inference is
to be able to do this before speaking to You would be able to avoid merely a logical extension of your
your audience, you will be able to constructing a speech that potentially observations drawn in the method
gather some basic reflective data (How could do the opposite of what you above. It is a form of critical thinking
old are they? What racial mix does this intended. known as inductive reasoning, and
audience have? Does their non-verbal Another example would be that you another form of qualitative data
behavior indicate that they are excited want to deliver an informative speech gathering. An inference is when you
to hear this speech?) that will help you about your town’s recreational make a reasoned tentative conclusion
arrange your thoughts and arguments activities and facilities. Your focus can or logical judgment on the basis of
for your speech (Nierenberg & Calero, be aligned with your audience if, before available evidence. It is best used
1994). you begin working on your speech, you when you can identify patterns in your
One excellent way to become find out if your audience has senior evidence that indicate something is
informed about your audience is to ask citizens and/or high school students expected to happen again or should
them about themselves. In its most and/or new parents. hold true based upon previous
basic form, this is data collection. experiences. A good speaker knows
Clearly this cannot be done in every how to interpret information and draw
Whenever possible, have conversations speaking situation, however. Often, we
with them – interact with members of conclusions from that information. As
are required to give an unacquainted- individuals we make inferences—or
your audience – get to know them on a audience presentation. Unacquainted-
personal level (Where did you go to reasonable assumptions—all the time.
audience presentations are speeches For example, when we hear someone
school? Do you have siblings/pets? when you are completely unfamiliar
What kind of car do you drive?) speaking Arabic, we infer that they are
with the audience and its from the Middle East. When we see
Through these types of conversations, demographics. In these cases, it is
you will be able to get to know and this person carrying a copy of The

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Koran, we infer that they are also a known as variables (Tucker, et al, questionnaire (examples of attitudinal
follower of the Muslim faith. These are 1981), and are assigned a numerical questions are shown in Figure 5.1).
reasoned conclusions that we make value so we can systematically collect These questions probe more deeply
based upon the evidence available to us and classify them. They are reported as into the psyche of your audience
and our general knowledge about statistics, also known as quantitative members, and will help you see where
people and their traits. analysis or quantitative data collection. they stand on certain issues. Of course,
When we reason, we make Statistics are numerical summaries of you may need to tighten these questions
connections, distinctions, and facts, figures, and research findings. to get to the heart of your specific
predictions; we use what is known or Audience analysis by data sampling topic. But, once you do, you’ll have a
familiar to us to reach a conclusion requires you to survey your audience wealth of data at your disposal that,
about something that is unknown or before you give your speech. You need ultimately, will tell you how to work
unfamiliar for it to make sense. to know the basics of doing a survey with your target audience.
Granted, of course, inferences are before you actually collect and interpret
sometimes wrong. Here’s a familiar your data.
example: You reach into a jar full of
jelly beans, and they turn out to be all
black. You love black jelly beans. If you make listening and
You reach back into the jar and take observation your occupation, you
another hand full, which turn out to be, will gain much more than you can
again, all black. Since you can’t see by talk.
the jelly beans inside the jar you make ~ Robert Baden-Powell
an assumption based on empirical
evidence (two handfuls of jelly beans)
that all of the jelly beans are black. basic questionnaire
There are a great number of survey
You reach into the jar a third time and
methods available to the speaker.
take a hand full of jelly beans out, but
However, we will cover three primary
this time they aren’t any black jelly
types in this section because they are
beans, but white, pink, and yellow.
utilized the most. The first type of
Your conclusion that all of the jelly
survey method you should know about
beans were black turned out to be
is the basic questionnaire, which is a
fallacious.
series of questions advanced to produce
data sampling demographic and attitudinal data from
Unlike audience analysis by direct your audience. ordered categories
observation and analysis by inference, Another method of finding out your
Clearly, audience members should
audience analysis by data sampling audience’s value set is to survey them
not be required to identify themselves
uses statistical evidence to quantify and according to their value hierarchy. A
by name on the basic questionnaire.
clarify the characteristics of your value hierarchy is a person’s value
Anonymous questionnaires are more
audience. These characteristics are also structure placed in relationship to a
likely to produce truthful information.
given value set (Rokeach, 1968). The
Remember, all you are looking for is a
way to determine a person’s value
general read of your audience; you
hierarchy is to use the ordered
should not be looking for specific
categories sampling method. Here,
information about any respondent
each audience member is given a list of
concerning your questionnaire in
values on a piece of paper, and each
particular. It is a bulk sampling tool,
audience member writes these values
only.
on another piece of paper in order
While you can easily gather basic according to their importance to
demographic data (examples of him/her. Each response is different, of
demographic questions are shown in course, because each audience member
the chart following this section), we is different, but when analyzed by the
need to adjust our questions a bit more speaker, common themes will present
tightly, or ask more focused questions, themselves in the overall data.
in order to understand the audience’s Accordingly, the speaker can then
“predispositions” to think or act in identify with those common value
certain ways. For example, you can put themes. (Examples of an Ordered
an attitudinal extension on the basic Value Set appear in Figure 5.1).

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persuaded by—the information being “scouts” who do demographic research

presented. on an audience prior to a speaking
Sometimes audiences are mixed in event, and make interpretations on that
their situational settings, too. Take the audience based upon key visual cues.
everyday classroom situation, for For example, congresspersons and
instance. While students choose to senators frequently make public
attend higher education, many people appearances where they use stock
in the college classroom environment speeches to appeal to certain audiences
sadly feel as if they are still “trapped” with specific demographic uniqueness.
in school and would rather be In order to know what type of audience
elsewhere. On the other hand, some he or she will be addressing, these
students in college are truly there by politicians dispatch staff aides to an
choice, and attentively seek out event to see how many persons of
knowledge from their teacher-mentors. color, hecklers, and supporters will be
What results from this mixed audience in attendance. Of course, studying
situation is a hybrid captive-voluntary demographic characteristics is, indeed,
audience, with those who are only more an art form than a science. Still,
tone and agenda of your speech rests partially interested in what is going on it is a common practice among many
largely upon whether or not your in the classroom and those who are professional speakers.
audience even wants to hear from you. genuinely involved. You literally get to Consider for a moment how valuable
Many audiences are considered hone your speech skills on both types it would be to you as a public speaker
captive audiences in that they have no of audiences, thereby learning a skill to know that your audience will be
real choice regarding the matter of set that many never get to exercise. mostly female, between the ages of 25
hearing a given speech. In general, You should begin this wonderful and 40, mostly married, and Caucasian.
these are some of the most difficult opportunity by considering ways to Would you change your message to fit
audiences to address because these inform, persuade, and humor a mixed this demographic? Or, would you keep
members are being forced to listen to a situation audience. Think of it as a your message the same, no matter the
message, and do not have the full learning occasion, and you’ll do just audience you were addressing?
exercise of their own free will. fine. Chances are you would be more
Consider for a moment when you have inclined to talk to issues bearing upon
been called to a mandatory work Being popular with an audience is those gender, age, and race qualities.
meeting. Were you truly happy to a very rickety ladder to be on. Frankly, the smart speaker would shift
listen to the speaker, in all honesty? ~ Louis C. K. his or her message to adapt to the
Some might say “yes,” but usually audience. And, simply, that’s the
most would rather be doing something demographic analysis purpose of doing demographics: to
else with their time. This is an The second category of audience embed within your message the
important factor to keep in mind when analysis is demography. As mentioned acceptable parameters of your
preparing your speech: some people before, demographics are literally a audience’s range of needs.
simply do not want to listen to a speech classification of the characteristics of
they believe is compulsory. the people. Whenever addressing an
The voluntary audience situation, in audience, it is generally a good idea to
stark contrast, is completely different. know about its age, gender, major, year
A voluntary audience is willingly in school, race, ethnicity, religious
assembled to listen to a given message. affiliation, et cetera. There are two
As a rule, these audiences are much steps in doing an accurate demographic
easier to address because they are analysis: gathering demographic data
interested in hearing the speech. To and interpreting this data (Benjamin,
visualize how this works, reflect upon 1969).
the last speech, concert, or show you’ve Sometimes, this information is
chosen to attend. While the event may gathered by the questionnaire sampling
or may not have lived up to your method, and is done formally. On
overall expectations, the very fact that other occasions, this information is
you freely went to the occasion speaks already available in a database and is
volumes about your predisposition to made available to the speaker. Some
listen to—and perhaps even be noteworthy speakers even have

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This, of course, raises an extremely Table 5.2 because you wish for this behavior to
important ethical issue for the modern return, in kind. You may not think this
Examples of Attitudes
speaker. Given the ability to study at all, and believe quite the opposite.
demographic data and therefore to Pro-/Anti-war Either way, there is a belief in
study your audience, does a speaker Pro-diversity operation driving what you think.
shift his or her message to play to the Anti-affirmative action
Some examples of beliefs are located in
audience entirely? Ethically, a speaker Table 5.3.
Pro-choice
should not shift his or her message and
Pro-life Table 5.3
should remain true to his or her
Pro-/Anti-gambling Examples of Beliefs
motives. Only you will be able to
alleviate the tension between a Pro-/Anti-prostitution
Pro-/Anti-capital punishment The world was created by
speaker’s need to adapt to an audience God.
and his or her need to remain true to Pro-/Anti-free trade
Marijuana is an addictive
form (Natalle & Bodenheimer, 2004). Pro-/Anti-outsourcing
gateway drug.
Pro-/Anti-welfare
My greatest challenge has been to Ghosts are all around us.
Pro-/Anti-corporate tax cuts
change the mindset of people. Pro-/Anti-censorship Smoking causes cancer.
Mindsets play strange tricks on us.
We see things the way our minds Anyone can acquire HIV.
have instructed our eyes to see. enduring. Attitudes can change, and
sometimes do, whereas beliefs and
~ Muhammad Yunus Evolution is fact, not fiction.
values do not shift as easily. A sample
list of attitudes can be found in Table Marijuana is neither addictive
nor harmful.
psychological analysis 5.2.
Ghosts are products of our
Unless your selected speech topic is These are just a small range of issues imagination.
a complete mystery to your audience,
your listeners will already hold
that one can either be “for” or Smoking does not cause
“against.” And, while we are cancer.
“attitudes, beliefs, and values” toward simplifying the social scientific idea of
the ideas you will inevitably present. Only high-risk groups acquire
an attitude considerably here, these HIV.
As a result, it is always important to examples serve our purposes well.
know where your audience stands on Remember, attitudes are not as durable values
the issues you plan to address ahead of as beliefs and values. But, they are A value, on the other hand, is a
time. The best way to accomplish this good indicators of how people view the guiding belief that regulates our
is to sample your audience with a quick persons, objects, ideas, or events that attitudes (Rokeach, 1968). Values are
questionnaire or survey prior to the shape their world. the core principles driving our attitudes.
event. This is known as the third If you probe into someone’s attitudes
category of audience analysis, or Other people's beliefs may be and beliefs far enough, you will
psychological description. When myths, but not mine. inevitably find an underlying value.
performing a description you seek to ~ Mason Cooley Importantly, you should also know that
identify the audience’s attitudes, we structure our values in accordance
beliefs, and values (Campbell & to our own value hierarchy, or mental
Huxman, 2003). They are your keys beliefs schema of values placed in order of
to understanding how your Beliefs are principles (Bem, 1970) or
their relative individual importance.
audience thinks. assumptions about the universe.
Each of us has our own values that we
Beliefs are more durable than attitudes
attitudes subscribe to and a value hierarchy that
because beliefs are hinged to ideals and
In basic terms, an attitude is a we use to navigate the issues of the
not issues. For example, you may
learned disposition to respond in a world. But we really aren’t even aware
believe in the principle: “what goes
consistently favorable or unfavorable that we have a value hierarchy until
around comes around.” If you do, you
manner with respect to a person, an some of our values come in direct
believe in the notion of karma. And so,
object, an idea, or an event (Jastrow, conflict with each other. Then, we
you may align your behaviors to be
1918). Attitudes come in different have to negotiate something called
consistent with this belief philosophy.
forms. You are very likely to see an cognitive dissonance, or the mental
You do not engage in unethical or
attitude present itself when someone stress caused by the choice we are
negative behavior because you believe
says that they are “pro” or “anti” forced to make between two
that it will “come back” to you.
something. But, above all else, considerable alternatives.
Likewise, you may try to exude
attitudes are learned and not necessarily
behaviors that are ethical and positive
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of thinking and be sensitive to these

Table 5.4 Examples of Values differing logics.
Inner Harmony Enjoyment Belonging ethnocentricity
Friendship Trust Equality Remember that in many cases you
will be appealing to people from other
Control Family Security
cultures. Do not assume that your
Peace Wisdom Tradition culture is dominant or better than other
Unity Achievement Power cultures. That assumption is called
Generosity Conformity Intelligence ethnocentrism, and ethnocentric
Leadership Creativity Responsibility viewpoints have the tendency to drive a
Health Independence Loyalty wedge between you and your audience
(Pearson, et al, 2011).
For example, let’s assume that you recognize that the perspective you have Christian, Jew, Muslim, shaman,
value “having fun” a great deal. You on any given topic may not necessarily Zoroastrian, stone, ground,
like to party with your friends and truly be shared by all of the members of your
enjoy yourself. And, in this day and audience (Ting-Toomey & Chung,
mountain, river, each has a secret
age, who doesn’t? However, now that 2005). Therefore, it is imperative that way of being with the mystery,
you are experiencing a significant you become a culturally effective unique and not to be judged.
amount of independence and personal speaker. Culturally effective speakers ~ Rumi
freedom, you have many life options at develop the capacity to appreciate other
your disposal. Let’s also say that some cultures and acquire the necessary values
of your close personal friends are doing skills to speak effectively to people Not only do individuals have value
drugs. You are torn. Part of you wants with diverse ethnic backgrounds. Keep systems of their own, but societies
to experience the “fun” that your close these factors in mind when writing a promote value systems, as well. Keep
friends may be experiencing; but, the speech for a diverse audience. in mind the fact that you will be
more sane part of you wants to language appealing to value hierarchies that are
responsibly decline. In honesty, you Many people speak different socially-laden, as well as those that are
are juxtaposed between two of your languages, so if you are translating individually-borne.
own values—having “fun” and being words, do not use slang or jargon,
responsible. This real life example is communication styles
which can be confusing. You could While you are trying to balance
somewhat exaggerated for your benefit. add a visual aid (a poster, a picture, a
Realize that we make decisions small these language, cognition, cultural, and
PowerPoint slide or two) which would value issues, you should also recognize
and grand, based on our value show your audience what you mean –
hierarchies. Some basic values that some cultures prefer a more
which instantly translates into the animated delivery style than do others.
common to people around the world audience member’s mind (Klopf &
can be found in Table 5.4. The intelligent speaker will understand
Cambra, 1991; Tauber & Mester, this, and adapt his or her verbal and
Values aren't buses... They're not 1994). nonverbal delivery accordingly.
supposed to get you anywhere. cognition
They're supposed to define who Realize that different cultures have
different cultural-cognitive processes, interest and knowledge
you are.
or ways of looking at the very concept analysis
~ Jennifer Crusie of logic itself. Accordingly, gauge Finally, if the goal of your speech is
your audience as to their diverse ways to deliver a unique and stirring
multicultural analysis presentation (and it should be), you
Demography looks at issues of race need to know ahead of time if your
and ethnicity in a basic sense. audience is interested in what you have
However, in our increasingly diverse to say, and has any prior knowledge
society, it is worthy to pay particular about your topic. You do not want to
attention to the issue of speaking to a give a boring or trite speech. Instead,
multicultural audience (as discussed in you want to put your best work
Chapter 14 Speaking to a Global forward, and let your audience see your
Audience). Odds are that any real confidence and preparation shine
world audience that you encounter will through. And, you don’t want to make
have an underlying multicultural a speech that your audience already
dimension. As a speaker, you need to knows a lot about. So, your job here is

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or not your topic actually interests conclusion

them. If you find that many people are When considering topics for your
not interested in your topic, or already speech, it is critical for you to keep
know a lot about it, you have just saved your audience in mind. Not doing so
yourself from a potentially mind- will put your speech at risk of not
numbing exercise. After all, do you corresponding with the information
really want to give a speech where your needs of your audience, and further
audience could care less about your jeopardize your credibility as a speaker.
topic—or even worse— they know This chapter examined methods of
more about the topic than you do conducting an audience analysis and
yourself? Not at all! The purpose of five categories of audience analysis. In
this section is to help you search for the sum, this information equips you with
highly sought-after public speaking the foundational knowledge and skill-
concept called uniqueness, which is set required to ensure that your topic
when a topic rises to the level of being complements your audience. And,
to “test” your topic by sampling your singularly exceptional in interest and after all, if we are not adapting to meet
audience for their topic interest and knowledge to a given audience. the needs of our audience, we are not
topic knowledge. Defined, topic We know that you wish to excel in going to be informative or convincing
interest is the significance of the topic giving your speech, and indeed you speakers.
to a given audience; often related to the shall. But first, let’s make sure that
uniqueness of a speaker’s topic. your audience is engaged by your topic
Likewise, topic knowledge is the and hasn’t already heard the subject
general amount of information that the matter so much that they, themselves,
audience possesses on a given topic. could give the speech without much (if
These are not mere definitions listed for any) preparation.
the sake of argument; these are
essential analytical components of One final note: There’s an old adage
effective speech construction. in communication studies that reasons:
“know what you know; know what you
Anyone who teaches me deserves don’t know; and, know the difference
my respect, honoring and between the two.” In other words,
attention. don’t use puffery to blind your
audience about your alleged knowledge Winston Churchill is credited with
~ Sonia Rumzi the origin of the saying: “Fail to plan,
on a particular subject. Remember,
there is likely to be someone in your plan to fail” (Lakein, 1989). We, your
Unlike multicultural audience audience who knows as much about authors, believe that if you have failed
analysis, evaluating your audience’s your topic, if not more, than you do. If to fully consider the nature, make-up,
topic interest and topic knowledge is a you get caught trying to field an and characteristics of your audience,
fairly simple task. One can do this embarrassing question, you might just you are—for all intents and purposes—
through informal question and answer lose the most important thing you have neglecting the spirit of the public
dialogue, or through an actual survey. as a speaker: your credibility. If you speaking exercise. Confidently
Either way, it is best to have some know the answer, respond accordingly. speaking to audiences can be somewhat
information, rather than none at all. If you do not know the answer, respond addictive. The experience, when
Imagine the long list of topics that accordingly. But, above all, try and be properly executed, can be empowering
people have heard over and over and a resource for your audience. They and help you succeed personally and
over. You can probably name some expect you to be something of an professionally throughout your life.
yourself, right now, without giving it expert on the topic you choose to But, you must first consider the
much thought. If you started listing address. audience you will be addressing and
some topics to yourself, please realize take their every requirement into
that this is the point of this section of account (Lewis, 1989). We are linked
this module; your audience is literally Given the choice between trivial to, joined with, if not bound by, our
thinking the same exact thing you are. audiences. Your main speaking
Given that, topic preparation is
material brilliantly told versus ambition should be to seek
strategically important to your overall profound material badly told, an identification with them, and for them
speech success. audience will always choose the to seek identification with you.
Again, do not underestimate the
trivial told brilliantly.
power of asking your audience whether ~ Robert McKee
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Chapter 5 Audience Analysis www.publicspeakingproject.org

review questions and activities

review questions
1. Why is it important to conduct an audience analysis prior to developing your speech?

2. What is the purpose of performing a demographics survey?

3. Why is audience analysis by direct observation the most simple of the three paradigms?

4. What are some the problems a speaker faces when delivering an unacquainted-audience presentation?

5. Under what circumstances would a speaker make inferences about an audience during the course of an
audience analysis??

6. What is a variable, and how is it used in data sampling?

7. Why are statistics considered to be a form of quantitative analysis and not qualitative analysis?

8. How does conducting a value hierarchy help the speaker when developing a speech?

9. What value does performing a Likert-type testing of attitudes give the speaker?

10. Which of the Five Categories of Audience Analysis is the most effective, and why do you think that?

11. What are the differences between beliefs, attitudes, and values?

12. What challenges does a speaker face when delivering a speech to a multicultural audience?

activities
1. If you know who your audience will be prior to speaking, try performing a demographic analysis. You may
want to find out data, such as age, group affiliation, sex, socio-economic status, marital status, etc. Once
you’ve done that, see if any of that information can impact any aspects of your speech. If it does, then
determine how and why it impacts your speech.

2. Another survey to conduct is an attitudinal survey. If you are delivering a persuasive speech, you’ll want to
know what your audience thinks about your topic. Audience members who have opinions about things
generally have a self-interest in it; that is why they are interested in what you have to say. Perform a Likert-
type survey analysis to help you determine how best to create your speech.

3. As you know, a person’s values are the most difficult for any speaker to change. You can perform a values
survey to determine how difficult it will be to change the minds of your audience. Every persuasive speech
addresses some value or values. Take a position, such as “consuming horse meat as an alternative to beef,”
and ask potential audience members how they feel about eating horse meat – why and why not. By
conducting a hypothetical survey you begin to understand how to create an effective survey and why it is so
important to the speaker to conduct.

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glossary

Attitude Psychological Description

An attitude is a learned disposition to respond in a A psychological description is a description of the
consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with audience’s attitudes, beliefs, and values.
respect to a person, an object, an idea, or an event.
Quantitative Analysis
Audience Analysis A quantitative analysis is the process of
A speaker analyzes an audience for demographics, determining the value of a variable by examining
dispositions and knowledge of the topic. its numerical, measurable characteristics.

Beliefs Statistics
Beliefs are principles and are more durable than Statistics is the study of the collection,
attitudes because beliefs are hinged to ideals and organization, analysis, and interpretation of data.
not issues.
Unacquainted-Audience Presentation
Cognitive Dissonance An unacquainted-audience presentation is a
The psychological discomfort felt when a person speech when you are completely unaware of your
is presented with two competing ideas or pieces of audience’s characteristics.
evidence.
Uniqueness
Demographics Uniqueness occurs when a topic rises to the level
Demographics are the most recent statistical of being exceptional in interest and knowledge to
characteristics of a population. a given audience.

Demographic Characteristics Variable

Demographic characteristics are facts about the A variable is a characteristic of a unit being
make-up of a population. observed that may assume more than one of a set
of values to which a numerical measure or a
Demography category from a classification can be assigned.
Demographics are literally a classification of the
characteristics of the people. Value
A value is a guiding belief that regulates our
Inference attitudes.
Making an inference is the act or process of
deriving logical conclusions from premises known Value Hierarchy
or assumed to be true. A value hierarchy is a person’s value structure
placed in relationship to a given value set.
Ordered category
An ordered category is a condition of logical or
comprehensible arrangement among the separate
elements of a group.

Paradigm
A paradigm is a pattern that describes distinct
concepts or thoughts in any scientific discipline or
other epistemological context.

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references

Bem, D. J. (1970). Beliefs, works. New York: McGraw- Pearson, J.C., Nelson, P.E.,
attitudes, and human affairs. Hill. Titsworth, S. & Harter, L.
Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Jastrow, J. (1918). The (2011). Human
Pub. Co. psychology of conviction: A communication (4th Ed.).
Benjamin, B. (1969). study of beliefs and attitudes. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Demographic analysis. New New York: Houghton Mifflin. Pressat, R. (1972). Demographic
York: Praeger. Klopf, D.W. & Cambra, R.E. analysis; methods, results,
Caernarven-Smith, P. (1983). (1991) Speaking skills for applications. Chicago: Aldine-
Audience analysis & response prospective teachers (2nd Ed.). Atherton.
(1st Ed.). Pembroke, MA: Englewood, CO: Morton Rokeach, M. (1968). Beliefs,
Firman Technical Publishing Company. attitudes, and values; a theory
Publications. Lakein, A. (1989) How to get of organization and change
Campbell, K.K. & Huxman, S.S. control of your time and your (1st ed.). San Francisco:
The Rhetorical Act: Thinking, life. New York: Signet. Jossey-Bass.
Speaking, and Writing Lewis, D. (1989) The secret Tauber, R.T. & Mester, C.S.
Critically (3rd Ed.). Belmont, language of success. New Acting Lessons for Teachers,
CA: Wadsworth. York: Galahad Books. Using Performance Skills in
Clevenger, T. (1966). Audience the Classroom. Westport, CT:
McQuail, D. (1997). Audience Praeger Publishers.
analysis. Indianapolis: Bobbs- analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Merrill. Sage Publications. Ting-Toomey. S & Chung, L.C.
Dwyer, K.K. (2005) Conquer (2005). Understanding
Natalle, E.J. & Bodenheimer, F.R. intercultural communication.
your speech anxiety: Second (2004) The woman’s public
Edition. Belmont, CA: Los Angeles: Roxbury
speaking handbook. Belmont, Publishing.
Wadsworth. CA: Wadsworth.
Eisenberg, I. & Wynn, D. (2013) Tucker, K.T.; Weaver, II, R.L.;
Nierenberg, G.I. & Calero, H.H. Berryman-Fink, C. (1981).
Think communication. (1994) How to read a person
Boston: Pearson. Research in speech
like a book. New York: communication. Englewood
Gamble, T.K. & Gamble, M. Barnes and Noble Books. Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
(2013). Communication
photo credits

p. 1 Audience at RZA book reading

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:RZA_Audie p. 9 Audience enjoys Stallman’s jokes
nce_Shankbone_2009_Tao_of_Wu.jpg http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63
By David Shankbone /Audience_enjoy_Stallman%27s_jokes
By Damian Buonamico
p. 3 Mobile HCI 2008 Audience
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MobileHCI_ p. 9 Side shot audience
2008_Audience.jpg http://www.flickr.com/photos/us_embassy_newzealan
By Nhenze d/4747176345/
By U.S. Embassy New Zealand
p. 6 Speakers at Wiki Conference 2011
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_Confe
rence_2011.JPG
By Sucheta Ghoshal
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Chapter 6 critical thinking & reasoning www.publicspeakingproject.org

was sponsored by a multi-

national distributor of wine. In
fact, the study in question was
published in a trade journal
targeted to wine and alcohol
retailers. If Shonda had taken a
few extra minutes to critically
examine the study, she may have
been able to avoid the dreaded
“D.”

Shonda’s story is just one of many

ways that critical thinking impacts our
lives. Throughout this chapter we will
consider the importance of critical
thinking in all areas of communication,
especially public speaking. We will
first take a more in-depth look at what
critical thinking is – and isn’t.
Shonda was researching
information for her upcoming Before we get too far into the
specifics of what critical thinking is and The first key component of Dewey’s
persuasive speech. Her goal definition is that critical thinking is
how we can do it, it’s important to clear
with the speech was to persuade up a common misconception. Even active. Critical thinking must be done
her classmates to drink a glass of though the phrase critical thinking uses by choice. As we continue to delve
red wine every day. Her the word “critical,” it is not a negative deeper into the various facets of critical
argument revolved around the thing. Being critical is not the same thinking, we will learn how to engage
thing as criticizing. When we criticize as critical thinkers.
health benefits one can derive
from the antioxidants found in something, we point out the flaws and Probably one of the most concise and
errors in it, exercising a negative value easiest to understand definitions is that
red wine. Shonda found an
judgment on it. Our goal with offered by Barry Beyer: "Critical
article reporting the results of a criticizing is less about understanding thinking... means making reasoned
study conducted by a Dr. Gray. than about negatively evaluating. It’s judgments" (Beyer, 1995, p. 8). In
According to Dr. Gray’s study, important to remember that critical other words, we don’t just jump to a
drinking four or more glasses of thinking is not just criticizing. While conclusion or a judgment. We
wine a day will help reduce the the process may involve examining rationalize and justify our conclusions.
chances of heart attack, increase flaws and errors, it is much more. A second primary component of critical
levels of good cholesterol, and critical thinking defined thinking, then, involves questioning.
As critical thinkers, we need to
help in reducing unwanted fat. Just what is critical thinking then?
To help us understand, let’s consider a question everything that confronts us.
Without conducting further Equally important, we need to question
research, Shonda changed her common definition of critical thinking.
The philosopher John Dewey, often ourselves and ask how our own biases
speech to persuade her considered the father of modern day or assumptions influence how we judge
classmates to drink four or more critical thinking, defines critical something.
glasses of red wine per day. She thinking as: In the following sections we will
used Dr. Gray’s study as her explore how to do critical thinking
primary support. Shonda “Active, persistent, careful more in depth. As you read through
presented her speech in class to consideration of a belief or this material, reflect back on Dewey’s
waves of applause and support supposed form of knowledge in and Beyer’s definitions of critical
light of the grounds that support thinking.
from her classmates. She was
shocked when, a few weeks later, it and the further conclusions to
she received a grade of “D”. which it tends” (Dewey, 1933, p.
Shonda’s teacher had also found 9).
Dr. Gray’s study and learned it
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Chapter 6 critical thinking & reasoning www.publicspeakingproject.org

critical thinking traits Table 6.1 Traits of Critical Thinkers

and skills Open- Critical thinkers are open and receptive to all ideas and
Critical thinkers tend to exhibit Mindedness arguments, even those with which they may disagree.
certain traits that are common to them. Critical thinkers reserve judgment on a message until they
These traits are summarized in Table have examined the claims, logic, reasoning, and evidence
6.1 (adapted from Facione, 1990, p. 6): used. Critical thinkers are fair-minded and understand that a
message is not inherently wrong or flawed if it differs from their
Recall that critical thinking is an own thoughts. Critical thinkers remain open to the possibility
active mode of thinking. Instead of just of changing their view on an issue when logic and evidence
receiving messages and accepting them supports doing so.
as is, we consider what they are saying.
We ask if messages are well-supported. Analytic Nature Critical thinkers are interested in understanding what is
happening in a message. Critical thinkers ask questions of the
We determine if their logic is sound or
message, breaking it into its individual components and
slightly flawed. In other words, we act examining each in turn. Critical thinkers dissect these
on the messages before we take action components looking for sound logic and reasoning.
based on them. When we enact critical
thinking on a message, we engage a Systematic by Critical thinkers avoid jumping to conclusions. Critical thinkers
Method take the time to systematically examine a message. Critical
variety of skills including: listening,
thinkers apply accepted criteria or conditions to their
analysis, evaluation, inference and
analyses.
interpretation or explanation, and self-
regulation (adapted from Facione, Inquisitive Critical thinkers are curious by nature. Critical thinkers ask
1990, p. 6) questions of what is going on around them and in a message.
Critical thinkers want to know more and take action to learn
Next, we will examine each of these more.
skills and their role in critical thinking
Judicious Critical thinkers are prudent in acting and making judgments.
in greater detail. As you read through
Critical thinkers are sensible in their actions. That is, they don’t
the explanation of and examples for just jump on the bandwagon of common thought because it
each skill, think about how it works in looks good or everyone else is doing it.
conjunction with the others. It’s
important to note that while our Truth-Seeking Critical thinkers exercise an ethical foundation based in
discussion of the skills is presented in a Ethos searching for the truth. Critical thinkers understand that even
the wisest people may be wrong at times.
linear manner, in practice our use of
each skill is not so straightforward. We Confident in Critical thinkers have faith in the power of logic and sound
may exercise different skills Reasoning reasoning. Critical thinkers understand that it is in everyone’s
simultaneously or jump forward and best interest to encourage and develop sound logic. More
backward. importantly, critical thinkers value the power of letting others
draw their own conclusions.

most basic, hearing refers to the other bodily functions, it happens

physiological process of receiving without our willing it to happen.
sounds, while listening refers to the Critical thinking requires that we
psychological process of interpreting or consciously listen to messages. We
making sense of those sounds. must focus on what is being said – and
Every minute of every day we are not said. We must strive not to be
surrounded by hundreds of different distracted by other outside noises or the
noises and sounds. If we were to try to internal noise of our own preconceived
make sense of each different sound we ideas. For the moment we only need to
would probably spend our day just take in the message.
Without an open-minded mind, doing this. While we may hear all of
you can never be a great success. Listening becomes especially
the noises, we filter out many of them. difficult when the message contains
~ Martha Stewart They pass through our lives without highly charged information. Think
further notice. Certain noises, about what happens when you try to
however, jump to the forefront of our discuss a controversial issue such as
listening consciousness. As we listen to them,
In order to understand listening, we abortion. As the other person speaks,
we make sense of these sounds. We do you may have every good intention of
must first understand the difference
this every day without necessarily listening to the entire argument.
between listening and hearing. At its
thinking about the process. Like many

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However, when the person says number of other health typical questions we may ask, along
something you feel strongly about you problems. When I was with an evaluation of the ideas in
start formulating a counter-argument in conducting research for my Shonda’s speech.
your head. The end result is that both
sides end up talking past each other
speech, I read somewhere that
without ever really listening to what the heart attacks are the number one Is the speaker credible?
other says. killer of men and the number two Yes. While Shonda may not be an
killer of women. Think about expert per se on the issue of health
that. My uncle had a heart benefits related to wine, she has made
analysis attack and had to be rushed to herself a mini-expert through
Once we have listened to a message, conducting research.
the hospital. They hooked him
we can begin to analyze it. In practice
we often begin analyzing messages up to a bunch of different
while still listening to them. When we machines to keep him alive. We Does the statement ring true or
analyze something, we consider it in all thought he was going to die. false based on common sense?
It sounds kind of fishy. Four or more
greater detail, separating out the main He’s ok now, but he has to take a glasses of wine in one sitting doesn’t
components of the message. In a sense, bunch of pills every day and eat seem right. In fact, it seems like it
we are acting like a surgeon on the a special diet. Plus he had to might be bordering on binge drinking.
message, carving out all of the different
pay thousands of dollars in
elements and laying them out for
further consideration and possible medical bills. Wouldn’t you like
action. to know how to prevent this from Does the logic employed hold up
to scrutiny?
happening to you? Based on the little bit of Shonda’s
Let’s return to Shonda’s persuasive
speech to see analysis in action. As speech we see here, her logic does
part of the needs section of her speech, If we were to analyze this part of seem to be sound. As we will see later
Shonda makes the following remarks: Shonda’s speech (see Table 6.2), we on, she actually commits a few
could begin by looking at the claims fallacies.
she makes. We could then look at the
evidence she presents in support of
these claims. Having parsed out the What questions or objections are
various elements, we are then ready to raised by the message?
evaluate them and by extension the In addition to the possibility of
message as a whole. Shonda’s proposal being binge
drinking, it also raises the possibility of
creating alcoholism or causing other
evaluation long term health problems.
When we evaluate something we
continue the process of analysis by
assessing the various claims and How will further information
arguments for validity. One way we affect the message?
evaluate a message is to ask questions More information will probably
about what is being said and who is contradict her claims. In fact, most
saying it. The following is a list of medical research in this area

Table 6.2 Analysis of Shonda’s Speech

Claims Evidence

 Americans are unhealthy  Some news stories about America

Americans today are some of the  America is the fattest country
as the fattest country
unhealthiest people on Earth. It  Americans suffer from many
 Research about heart attacks
seems like not a week goes by health problems  Story of her uncle’s heart attack
without some news story relating  Heart attacks are the number
how we are the fattest country in one killer of men
the world. In addition to being  Heart attacks are the number two
overweight, we suffer from a killer of women

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contradicts the claim that drinking 4 or

more glasses of wine a day is a good
“Imply” or “Infer”?
thing.
For two relatively small words, imply and infer seem to generate an
inordinately large amount of confusion. Understanding the difference
Will further information between the two and knowing when to use the right one is not only a
strengthen or weaken the claims? useful skill, but it also makes you sound a lot smarter!
Most likely Shonda’s claims will be
weakened. Let’s begin with imply. Imply means to suggest or convey an idea. A
speaker or a piece of writing implies things. For example, in Shonda’s
speech, she implies it is better to drink more red wine. In other words,
What questions or objections are she never directly says that we need to drink more red wine, but she
raised by the claims? clearly hints at it when she suggests that drinking four or more glasses a
In addition to the objections we’ve day will provide us with health benefits.
already discussed, there is also the
Now let’s consider infer. Infer means that something in a speaker’s
problem of the credibility of Shonda’s
words or a piece of writing helps us to draw a conclusion outside of
expert “doctor.”
his/her words. We infer a conclusion. Returning to Shonda’s speech, we
can infer she would want us to drink more red wine rather than less. She
never comes right out and says this. However, by considering her
A wise man proportions his belief overall message, we can draw this conclusion.
to the evidence.
Another way to think of the difference between imply and infer is:
~ David Hume
A speaker (or writer for that matter) implies.
The audience infers.
inference and interpretation Therefore, it would be incorrect to say that Shonda infers we should
or explanation drink more rather than less wine. She implies this. To help you
The next step in critically examining differentiate between the two, remember that an inference is
a message is to interpret or explain the something that comes from outside the spoken or written text.
conclusions that we draw from it. At
this phase we consider the evidence and
the claims together. In effect we are you’re writing a speech on why we injuries. For example, if you’re in an
reassembling the components that we should wear our seatbelts at all times accident where your car is partially
parsed out during analysis. We are while driving. You’ve researched the submerged in water, wearing a seatbelt
continuing our evaluation by looking at topic and found solid, credible may impede your ability to quickly exit
the evidence, alternatives, and possible information setting forth the numerous the vehicle. Does the fact that this
conclusions. reasons why wearing a seatbelt can evidence exists negate your claims?
Before we draw any inferences or help save your life and decrease the Probably not, but you need to be
attempt any explanations, we should number of injuries experienced during thorough in evaluating and considering
look at the evidence provided. When a motor vehicle accident. Certainly, how you use your evidence.
we consider evidence we must first there exists contradictory evidence
determine what, if any, kind of support arguing seat belts can cause more A man who does not think for
is provided. Of the evidence we then himself does not think at all.
ask: ~ Oscar Wilde
1. Is the evidence sound?
2. Does the evidence say what the self-regulation
speaker says it does? The final step in critically examining
3. Does contradictory evidence a message is actually a skill we should
exist? exercise throughout the entire process.
4. Is the evidence from a valid With self-regulation, we consider our
credible source? pre-existing thoughts on the subject and
any biases we may have. We examine
how what we think on an issue may
Even though these are set up as yes have influenced the way we understand
or no questions, you’ll probably find in (or think we understand) the message
practice that your answers are a bit and any conclusions we have drawn.
more complex. For example, let’s say Just as contradictory evidence doesn’t

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automatically negate our claims or Table 6.3 thought, we know intuitively that
invalidate our arguments, our biases simply buying a product will not
don’t necessarily make our conclusions Universal Standards of Reasoning magically change our lives. Even if we
wrong. The goal of practicing self- All reasoning has a purpose. can’t identify the specific fallacy at
regulation is not to disavow or deny our work in the argument (non causa in this
opinions. The goal is to create distance All reasoning is an attempt to case), we know there is some flaw in
between our opinions and the messages figure something out, to settle the argument.
we evaluate. some question, to solve some
By studying logic and fallacies we
problem.
can learn to formulate stronger and
All reasoning is based on more cohesive arguments, avoiding
assumptions. problems like that mentioned above.
The study of logic has a long history.
All reasoning is done from some
We can trace the roots of modern
point of view.
logical study back to Aristotle in
All reasoning is based on data, ancient Greece. Aristotle’s simple
information, and evidence. definition of logic as the means by
which we come to know anything still
All reasoning is expressed
provides a concise understanding of
through, and shaped by, logic (Aristotle, 1989). Of the classical
concepts and ideas. pillars of a core liberal arts education of
All reasoning contains inferences logic, grammar, and rhetoric, logic has
or interpretations by which we developed as a fairly independent
draw conclusions and give branch of philosophical studies. We
meaning to data. use logic everyday when we construct
statements, argue our point of view,
All reasoning leads somewhere and in myriad other ways.
or has implications and Understanding how logic is used will
consequences. help us communicate more efficiently
the value of critical thinking and effectively.
In public speaking, the value of being
a critical thinker cannot be logic and the role of defining arguments
overstressed. Critical thinking helps us arguments When we think and speak logically,
to determine the truth or validity of We use logic every day. Even if we we pull together statements that
arguments. However, it also helps us have never formally studied logical combine reasoning with evidence to
to formulate strong arguments for our reasoning and fallacies, we can often support an assertion, arguments. A
speeches. Exercising critical thinking tell when a person’s statement doesn’t logical argument should not be
at all steps of the speech writing and sound right. Think about the claims we confused with the type of argument you
delivering process can help us avoid see in many advertisements today – have with your sister or brother or any
situations like Shonda found herself in. Buy product X, and you will be other person. When you argue with
Critical thinking is not a magical beautiful/thin/happy or have the your sibling, you participate in a
panacea that will make us super carefree life depicted in the conflict in which you disagree about
speakers. However, it is another tool advertisement. With very little critical something. You may, however, use a
that we can add to our speech toolbox. logical argument in the midst of the
As we will learn in the following
pages, we construct arguments based
on logic. Understanding the ways logic
can be used and possibly misused is a
vital skill. To help stress the
importance of it, the Foundation for
Critical Thinking has set forth universal
standards of reasoning. These
standards can be found in Table 6.3.

When the mind is thinking, it is

talking to itself.
~ Plato

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3. Therefore, Sydney should clean is therefore stuck with scrubbing the

the bathroom. toilet.

Harrison’s argument here is a form of

deductive reasoning, specifically a
syllogism. We will consider syllogisms
in a few minutes. For our purposes
here, let’s just focus on why Harrison’s
argument fails to persuade Sydney.
Assuming for the moment that we
agree with Harrison’s first two
argument with your sibling. Consider
premises, then it would seem that his
this example:
argument makes sense. We know that
Brother and sister, Sydney and Sydney is a girl, so the second premise
Harrison are arguing about is true. This leaves the first premise
that girls are better at cleaning
whose turn it is to clean their bathrooms than boys. This is the exact
bathroom. Harrison tells Sydney point where Harrison’s argument goes
she should do it because she is a astray. The only way his entire
girl and girls are better at argument will work is if we agree with defining deduction
cleaning. Sydney responds that the assumption girls are better at Deductive reasoning refers to an
cleaning bathrooms than boys. argument in which the truth of its
being a girl has nothing to do premises guarantees the truth of its
with whose turn it is. She Let’s now look at Sydney’s argument conclusions. Think back to Harrison’s
reminds Harrison that according and why it works. Her argument can be argument for Sydney cleaning the
to their work chart, they are summarized as follows: bathroom. In order for his final claim
responsible for cleaning the 1. The bathroom responsibilities to be valid, we must accept the truth of
bathroom on alternate weeks. alternate weekly according to the his claims that girls are better at
She tells him she cleaned the work chart. cleaning bathrooms than boys. The key
2. Sydney cleaned the bathroom last focus in deductive arguments is that it
bathroom last week; therefore, it must be impossible for the premises to
is his turn this week. Harrison, week.
3. The chart indicates it is be true and the conclusion to be false.
still unconvinced, refuses to take The classic example is:
Harrison’s turn to clean the
responsibility for the chore. All men are mortal.
bathroom this week.
Sydney then points to the work 4. Therefore, Harrison should clean Socrates is a man.
chart and shows him where it the bathroom. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
specifically says it is his turn this
week. Defeated, Harrison digs Sydney’s argument here is a form of We can look at each of these
out the cleaning supplies. inductive reasoning. We will look at statements individually and see each is
inductive reasoning in depth below. true in its own right. It is virtually
Throughout their bathroom For now, let’s look at why Sydney’s impossible for the first two
argument, both Harrison and Sydney argument succeeds where Harrison’s propositions to be true and the
use logical arguments to advance their fails. Unlike Harrison’s argument, conclusion to be false. Any argument
point. You may ask why Sydney is which rests on assumption for its truth which fails to meet this standard
successful and Harrison is not. This is claims, Sydney’s argument rests on commits a logical error or fallacy.
a good question. Let’s critically think evidence. We can define evidence as Even if we might accept the arguments
about each of their arguments to see anything used to support the validity of as good and the conclusion as possible,
why one fails and one succeeds. an assertion. Evidence includes: the argument fails as a form of
testimony, scientific findings, statistics, deductive reasoning.
Let’s start with Harrison’s argument. physical objects, and many others.
We can summarize it into three points: Sydney uses two primary pieces of A few observations and much
1. Girls are better at cleaning evidence: the work chart and her reasoning lead to error; many
bathrooms than boys. statement that she cleaned the
observations and a little reasoning
2. Sydney is a girl. bathroom last week. Because Harrison
has no contradictory evidence, he can’t to truth.
logically refute Sydney’s assertion and ~ Alexis Carrel

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or soundness.
Another significant difference
between deduction and induction is
inductive arguments do not have a
standard format. Let’s return to
Sydney’s argument to see how
induction develops in action:
1. Bathroom cleaning
responsibilities alternate weekly
according to the work chart.
2. Sydney cleaned the bathroom last
week.
3. The chart indicates it is
Harrison’s turn to clean the
bathroom this week.
4. Therefore, Harrison should clean
the bathroom.

What Sydney does here is build to

her conclusion that Harrison should
2. The terrorists hated existence of a fallacy in an inductive
clean the bathroom. She begins by
America. argument weakens the argument but
stating the general house rule of
does not invalidate it.
alternate weeks for cleaning. She then 3. Therefore, all Muslims (or
adds in evidence before concluding her Arabs or Middle Easterners) It is important to study fallacies so
argument. While her argument is hate America. you can avoid them in the arguments
strong, we don’t know if it is true. you make. Studying fallacies also
There could be other factors Sydney provides you with a foundation for
has left out. Sydney may have agreed Clearly, we can see the problem in evaluating and critiquing other
to take Harrison’s week of bathroom this line of reasoning. Beyond being a arguments as well. Once you start
cleaning in exchange for him doing scary example of hyperbolic rhetoric, studying and thinking about fallacies,
another one of her chores. Or there we can all probably think of at least one you’ll find they are everywhere. You
may be some extenuating counter example to disprove the could say that we live in a fallacious
circumstances preventing Harrison conclusion. However, individual world!
from bathroom cleaning this week. passions and biases caused many
otherwise rational people to say these The study of fallacies can be dated
things in the weeks following the back to the start of the study of logic.
You should carefully study the Art In ancient Greece, Aristotle classified
of Reasoning, as it is what most attacks. This example also clearly
illustrates how easy it is to get tripped fallacies into two categories – linguistic
people are very deficient in, and I and non-linguistic. Within these two
up in your use of logic and the
know few things more importance of practicing self- categories, he identified 13 individual
disagreeable than to argue, or regulation. fallacies. Through time we have
even converse with a man who has reclassified fallacies using various
no idea of inductive and deductive typologies and criteria. For our
purposes, we will focus on formal and
philosophy. understanding fallacies
When we form arguments or examine informal fallacies.
~ William John Wills
others’ arguments, we need to be
cognizant of possible fallacies. A
Let’s return to the world stage for fallacy can be defined as a flaw or error
another example. After the 9/11 in reasoning. At its most basic, a
attacks on the World Trade Center, we logical fallacy refers to a defect in the
heard variations of the following reasoning of an argument that causes
arguments: the conclusion(s) to be invalid,
1. The terrorists were Muslim unsound, or weak. The existence of a
fallacy in a deductive argument makes
(or Arab or Middle Eastern).
the entire argument invalid. The

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formal fallacies require a certain look or the ability to conclusion is necessarily true. Even if
A formal fallacy exists because of an put together interesting outfits. (Just Ginny did steal Chris’s car, this fact
error in the structure of the argument. look around your campus or workplace doesn’t make the conclusion true. The
In other words, the conclusion doesn’t and you’ll probably see how true this existence of this fact cannot be
follow from the premises. All formal is.) As such, the reasons for presumed to change what Chris told the
fallacies are specific types of non concluding the new faculty member police.
sequiturs, or arguments in which the should be fired are bad. We commit a
conclusions do not follow from the fallacy if the conclusion to fire him is
premises. Formal fallacies are also bad or wrong. While the given
identified by critically examining the reasons don’t necessarily support the
structure of the argument exclusive of conclusion, there may be others that
the individual statements. As you read do.
through the following types of formal
fallacies and examples, this definition
will become more clear. Bad reasoning as well as good
reasoning is possible; and this
fact is the foundation of the
bad reasons fallacy
practical side of logic.
(argumentum ad logicam)
In this fallacy, the conclusion is
~ Charles Sanders
assumed to be bad because the Peirce
arguments are bad. In practice, a
premise of the argument is bad and masked man fallacy fallacy of quantitative logic
therefore the conclusion is bad or (intensional fallacy) Fallacies of quantitative logic revolve
invalid. This fallacy is seen often in The masked man fallacy involves a around the grammatical structure of the
debate or argumentation. We substitution of parties. If the two things proposition. The focus is on the use of
summarize the fallacy as: He gave bad we substitute are identical, then the some sort of quantifying word such as
reasons for his argument; therefore, his argument is valid: “all” or “some.” Consider this
argument is bad. Consider the example:
following claim: Rosamond Smith wrote the book
Nemesis. All philosophers are wise.
Rosamond Smith is an alias for
Joyce Carol Oates. We can show the flaw in this
Joyce Carol Oates wrote the statement by simply finding a counter-
example. And since the fact of being
book Nemesis. wise is abstract, how do we truly know
if one is wise or not? Consider how the
This argument is valid because statement changes with the use of a
Rosamond Smith is in fact an alias for different quantifier:
Joyce Carol Oates, so there is no flaw
in the structure of the argument. Some philosophers are wise.
Consider the following example:
This statement is stronger because it
Chris told police that a red- allows for the possibility there are
haired woman stole her car. counter-examples. However, the error
Ginny is a red-haired woman. arises from the fact that it is not a
Therefore, Chris told police that known quantity. We must infer from
the statement that some philosophers
Ginny stole her car. are not wise.
The new employee is too quiet Let’s look at another example:
The fallacy in this example occurs
and has no sense of style. We between the second premise and the
should fire him. All conservatives are
conclusion. Looking at each premise Republicans.
individually, we can see that each is
The problem here should be obvious. true. However, simply because each
Therefore, all Republicans are
To be a good employee does not premise is true doesn’t mean the conservatives.

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Without thinking too hard you can Jane: Well, you’re a big jerk
probably think of one counter-example.
Let’s try one more:
and don’t know anything, so we
don’t have to go back to class.
Some doctors are not MDs.
Therefore, some MDs are not If we examine this exchange we can
see that Bill’s arguments are sound and
doctors. supported by what appears to be good
evidence. However, Jane ignores these
While the first premise is true (there and focuses on Bill’s supposed
are other types of doctors), the second character – he’s a big jerk. The fallacy
is clearly not true. happens when we connect the truth of a
The fallacy here should be clear. I
love dogs and coyotes, but I don’t proposition to the person asserting it.
know that I would want a coyote for a
pet. The fallacy in this case could be
easily fixed with the use of a simple
qualifier such as the word “some.” If
we changed the first premise to read
“Some dogs make good pets,” then we
can see how even if the second premise
is true it doesn’t automatically lead to
the stated conclusion. The basic
problem here is that a sometimes true
statement is assumed to be universally
informal fallacies true.
An informal fallacy occurs because Let’s consider a more serious
of an error in reasoning. Unlike formal example that we see in many political
fallacies which are identified through I do personal attacks only on campaigns. We can map out the fallacy
examining the structure of the people who specialize in personal as follows:
argument, informal fallacies are attacks.
identified through analysis of the My opponent has trait X.
content of the premises. In this group
~ Al Franken Therefore, she is not qualified to
of fallacies, the premises fail to provide do the job.
adequate reasons for believing the truth genetic fallacy
of the conclusion. There are numerous (ad hominem) The focus here is on the individual’s
different types of informal fallacies. In The ad hominem fallacy occurs when trait, even when the trait in question has
the following, we consider some of the we shift our focus from the premises nothing to do with the job. We saw this
more common types. and conclusions of the argument and fallacy in play in the early days of the
focus instead on the individual making 2012 U.S. presidential campaign:
accident the argument. An easy way to
(sweeping generalization) remember this fallacy is to think of it as We will never get out of debt if
A fallacy by accident occurs when a the personal attack fallacy. It is the we allow a Democrat to remain
generally true statement is applied to a weak form of arguing that many of us
specific case that is somehow unusual as president.
employed on our elementary school
or exceptional. The fallacy looks like playgrounds such as this exchange:
this: The focus here has nothing to do with
Bill: I think we should go back any individual candidate’s skills,
Xs are normally Ys. Z is an (ab- to class now. experience, or abilities. The focus is
normal) X. Therefore, Z is an Y. solely on their political affiliation.
Jane: I don’t think we need to
worry about it.
Let’s look at a specific example to Bill: Well, the bell rang a few
see how this fallacy can easily occur: There is no greater impediment to
minutes ago. We’re going to be the advancement of knowledge
Dogs are good pets. late. than the ambiguity of words.
Coyotes are dogs. ~ Thomas Reid
Therefore, coyotes are good pets.

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ambiguity fallacies of appeal proposition with the person stating it.

(equivocation) This type of fallacy is actually a Instead of considering the strength of
Fallacies caused by ambiguity occur, group of fallacies. At its most basic, the argument and any evidence
not surprisingly, when some ambiguous the truth of the argument rests on associated with it, we focus solely on
term is used in the argument. An reference to some outside source or the individual.
ambiguous term is one that has more force. We will consider four of the It can be easy to fall into the trap of
than one meaning. The structure of the most popular appeal fallacies – appeals this fallacy. For many of your
argument may be clear, and there may to authority, emotion, ignorance, and speeches, you will be asked to research
be solid evidence supporting the pity. the issue at hand and present supporting
propositions. The problem arises from evidence. This is a prime place for the
having nothing solid on which to base fallacy to occur. While it is important
our conclusion. We saw this fallacy in appeal to authority to support your arguments with outside
play during the Clinton/Lewinsky (ad vericundiam) research, it is also important to
investigations. If you recall, when When we appeal to authority we critically evaluate all aspects of the
questioned about his relationship with claim the truth of a proposition is information. Remember the example
Monica Lewinsky, President Clinton guaranteed because of the opinion of a of Shonda’s speech that opened this
responded that he never had “sexual famous person. Appeals to authority chapter? Her blind reliance on the
relations” with that woman. The look like this: research of Dr. Gray is an example of
phrase “sexual relations” can include a the appeal to authority fallacy.
whole range of sexual behaviors. Authority figure X says Y.
Therefore, Y is true.
Let’s look at a more recent example:
Anyone who conducts an
We won’t be safe until we win We see this fallacy in play regularly
argument by appealing to
the war on terrorism. in commercials or other advertisements
featuring a doctor, lawyer, or other authority is not using his
professional. Think about, for example, intelligence; he is just using his
ads for the latest weight loss memory.
supplement. A doctor will discuss the ~ Leonardo da Vinci
science of the supplement. At times
she will mention that she used the
supplement and successfully lost appeal to emotion
weight. Even though we do learn This fallacy occurs with the use of
something about the specifics of the highly emotive or charged language.
supplement, the focus is on the doctor The force of the fallacy lies in its
and her implied authoritative ability to motivate the audience to
knowledge. We are to infer that the accept the truth of the proposition
supplement will work because the based solely on their visceral response
doctor says it will work. to the words used. In a sense, the
audience is manipulated or forced into
accepting the truth of the stated
Can you spot the ambiguity? conclusions. Consider the following
Actually there are two: safe and example:
terrorism. What is safe to one person is
much less so to another. Likewise, Any campus member who thinks
behaviors that appear terrorist-like to clearly should agree that Dr.
one person are simply impassioned acts Lenick is a flaming, radical,
to another. feminist, liberal. Dr. Lenick has
made it clear she believes that
equal rights should be granted to
An appeal to the reason of the
everyone without regard to the
people has never been known to
traditions and history of this
fail in the long run.
campus or this country.
~ James Russell Lowell
Therefore, Dr. Lenick is a bad
teacher and should be fired
The fallacy in this type of reasoning
occurs when we confuse the truth of the immediately.

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definitively that ghosts don’t semester. If I don’t play, the

exist. Therefore, ghosts are real. team will lose. Will you please
make sure that you give me at
Though rather simplistic, this least a C for my final grade?
example makes clear the thrust of this
fallacy. The focus is not on supporting
evidence, but on a blatant lack of
evidence. While ghosts may exist, we
don’t know for sure they do – or don’t
for that matter. As such, we could also
argue that because we can’t prove that
ghosts are real they must not exist.

The student here acknowledges he

does not deserve a grade of C or higher.
He has missed assignments, failed the
The thrust of this argument revolves midterm, and accrued a number of
around two interrelated components – absences. His argument asks the
Dr. Lenick’s advocacy of equal rights professor to ignore these facts, though,
for all and her alleged disregard for and focus on the fact that without him
tradition and history. The emotional the team would lose. In other words,
appeal rests in the phrase “flaming, he hopes the professor will feel sorry
radical, feminist, liberal” – words that for him and ignore the evidence.
indicate ideological beliefs, usually
beliefs that are strongly held by both
sides. Additionally, hot button words begging the question
like these tend to evoke a visceral (petitio principii)
response rather than a logical, reasoned A begging the question fallacy is a
response. appeal to pity
form of circular reasoning that occurs
(argumentium ad when the conclusion of the argument is
misericordium) used as one of the premises of the
The highest form of ignorance is Appeals to pity are another form of argument. Arguments composed in this
pulling on the emotions of the way will only be considered sound or
when you reject something you
audience. In the appeal to pity, the strong by those who already accept
don't know anything about. argument attempts to win acceptance
~ Wayne Dyer their conclusion.
by pointing out the unfortunate
consequences that will fall upon the
appeal to Ignorance speaker. In effect, the goal is to make
us feel sorry for the speaker and ignore
Dilbert: And we know mass
(argumentum ad
contradictory evidence. This form of creates gravity because more
ignorantiam)
When we appeal to ignorance, we fallacy is used often by students. dense planets have more gravity.
argue that the proposition must be Consider this message a professor Dogbert: How do we know which
accepted unless someone can prove recently received at the end of the planets are more dense?
otherwise. The argument rests not on semester: Dilbert: They have more gravity.
any evidence but on a lack of evidence.
We are to believe the truth of the I know I have not done all the
work for the semester and have To see how begging the question
argument because no one has disproven develops as a fallacy, let’s turn to
it. Let’s look at an example to see how been absent a lot. However, I
standard arguments in the abortion
appeals to ignorance can develop: am the key point guard for the debate. One of the common arguments
basketball team. If I get any made by those who oppose legalized
People have been seeing ghosts grade lower than a C, I will not abortion is the following:
for hundreds of years. No one be able to play basketball next
has been able to prove

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Murder is morally wrong. two possible alternatives, when in fact

more than two exist.
Abortion is murder.
Therefore, abortion is morally Returning to the abortion debates, we
wrong. can see a form of this fallacy in play by
simply looking at the way each side
refers to itself. Those who oppose
Most people would agree with the legalized abortion are Pro-Life. The
first premise that murder is morally implication here is that if you are for
wrong. The problem, then rests in the abortion then you are against life. The
second premise. Not all individuals fallacy in this case is easy to figure out
would agree that abortion is murder. – there are many facets of life, not just
However, as presented, the premise abortion. Those who favor legalized
creates a presumption it is valid in all abortion are Pro-Choice. The
cases. implication here is that if you are
Those who advocate for legalized against abortion, then you are against
abortion are not immune from this choices. Again, the reasoning is faulty.
fallacy. One of their standard
arguments is:
To make this fallacy more clear, let’s
There is no black-and-white look at a humorous, though not so
The Constitution guarantees
situation. It's all part of life. appetizing example:
Americans the right to control
Highs, lows, middles.
their bodies. I like smoothies for breakfast
~ Van Morrison
Abortion is a choice affecting because I can drink them on the
women’s bodies. run. My favorite breakfast foods
Therefore, abortion is a Let’s look at another hot button topic
to see how this fallacy develops in are scrambled eggs, fresh fruit,
constitutional right. action. In recent years many family bagels with cream cheese, soy
advocacy groups have argued that, sausage links, cottage cheese,
Like the previous example, the what they call, the “liberal media” has oatmeal, cold pizza, and triple
second premise generates a potential caused the rapid moral decline of
stopping point. While the choice to
espressos. Therefore, I would
America. They usually ask questions
have or not have an abortion does like a breakfast smoothie made
like: Do you support families or moral
clearly impact a woman’s body, many depravity? This question ignores the of scrambled eggs, fresh fruit,
individuals would argue this impact is whole range of choices between the bagels with cream cheese, soy
not a deciding issue. two extremes. sausage links, cottage cheese,
oatmeal, cold pizza, and triple
espressos.
composition
This fallacy occurs when we assume If you’re not feeling too nauseated to
that if all the parts have a given quality, keep reading, you should be able to see
then the whole of the parts will have it the composition fallacy here. While
as well. We jump to a conclusion each of these breakfast items may be
without concrete evidence. We see this appetizing individually, they become
fallacy at work in the following much less so when dropped into a
example: blender and pureed together.
All of the basketball team’s
players are fast runners, high division
jumpers, and winners. The opposite of the composition
Therefore, the team is a winner. fallacy, a division fallacy occurs when
black-or-white Fallacy we think the parts of the whole contain
(bifurcation) The problem here is the individuals the same quality as the whole. Let’s
This fallacy is also known as an turn to another food-based example to
must work together to make the team a
Either/or fallacy or False Dichotomy. see how this fallacy occurs:
winner. This might very well happen,
The thrust of the fallacy occurs when
but it might not.
we are only given the choice between

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Chapter 6 critical thinking & reasoning www.publicspeakingproject.org

Blueberry muffins taste good. Accidental or coincidental practice of dragging a dried smoke
connection occurs when we assume a herring across the trail so as to throw
Therefore, the individual connection where one might or might off the hound from the scent. In logical
ingredients comprising blueberry not exist. We say event C caused event reasoning, the red herring fallacy works
muffins also taste good. E when we have no clear proof. Here’s in much the same way. No, this
an example: doesn’t mean you make the argument
while smelling like an old fish. What it
Yesterday Jen went out in the does mean is that we attempt to distract
rain and got soaked. The next the audience by introducing some
day she was in bed with the flu. irrelevant point, such as this:
Therefore, the rain caused her to
get sick.
Each year thousands of people
Most of us probably grew up hearing
die in car accident across the
statements like this without ever country. Why should we worry
realizing we were being exposed to a about endangered animals?
logical fallacy in action. Flu is caused
On the surface, this argument may by exposure to a virus, not to bad This argument is trying to get us to
not appear to be problematic. weather. focus on dead people instead of
However, think about the individual The other type of causal fallacy animals. While car accidents and the
ingredients: blueberries, raw eggs, occurs with a general causation deaths resulting from them are a serious
flour, sugar, salt, baking soda, oil, and between types of events. For example, issue, this fact does not lessen the
vanilla. Of these, blueberries are the we know that drinking excessive
only items that generally taste good on amounts of alcohol leads to alcoholism
their own. I don’t know about you, but and cirrhosis of the liver. However, not
sitting down to a bowl of baking soda every individual who drinks
doesn’t sound too appetizing. excessively develops either of these
Here’s one more example to make diseases. In other words, there is a
the fallacy clearer: possibility the disease will occur as a
result of excessive drinking, but it is
Women in general make less not an absolute.
money than men. Therefore,
Brenda Barnes, CEO of the Sara
Lee company, makes less money importance of worrying about
than the male delivery drivers endangered animals. The two issues
who work for the company. are not equated with each other.
Political campaigns are a fertile
Common sense will tell you the CEO ground for growing red herring
of a company makes more money than fallacies. If you think back to the 2004
the hourly delivery drivers. Presidential campaign you will find a
Additionally, a few quick minutes of number of red herrings. For example,
research will confirm this inference. at one point we were inundated with
ads reminding us that John Kerry’s
wife was heir to the Heinz ketchup
false cause fortune. The implication was that by
(non causa, pro causa) extension John Kerry was a rich elitist
Sometimes called a Questionable incapable of understanding the plight of
Cause fallacy, this occurs when there working class and middle class
exists a flawed causal connection individuals.
between events. The fallacy is not just red herring
a bad inference about connection (Irrelevant thesis) slippery slope
between cause and effect, but one that This fallacy occurs when we This fallacy occurs when we assume
violates the cannons of reasoning about introduce an irrelevant issue into the one action will initiate a chain of events
causation. We see two primary types argument. The phrase “red herring” culminating in an undesirable event
of this fallacy: comes from the supposed fox hunting later. It makes it seem like the final

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Chapter 6 critical thinking & reasoning www.publicspeakingproject.org

event, the bottom of the slope, is an follows Islam and identifies as Muslim house I was looking at was an older
inevitability. Arguments falling prey to they clearly can’t be American or house needing some TLC. I asked how
the slippery slope fallacy ignore the interested in America. While there are old the roof was and the real estate
fact there are probably a number of many potential flaws in this argument agent responded:
other things that can happen between as presented, for our purpose the most
the initial event and the bottom of the obvious is that there are many I don’t know for sure, but it’s
slope. Americans who are Muslim and who either 10 or 20 years old. You
We hear examples of the slippery are quite interested and concerned know, though, I put a roof on a
slope fallacy all around us: about America. house similar to this when I was
younger and we haven’t had to
If we teach sex education in worry about it. It’s been over 20
school, then students will have years now.
more sex. If students have more
sex, we will have a rash of Ignoring for the moment that there’s
unplanned pregnancies and a big difference between a 10-year-old
sexually transmitted diseases. roof and a 20-year-old roof, the real
Students will be forced to drop estate agent mistakenly assumes that
out of school and will never have his roof and the roof of the TLC house
are the same. They both provide a
the chance to succeed in life. covering for the home, but that’s about
where their similarities end.
Clearly, just learning about sex false analogy
doesn’t automatically mean that you When we use analogies in our
will engage in sex. Even more unlikely reasoning, we are comparing things. A conclusion
is the fact that merely learning about fallacy of weak analogy occurs when In this chapter we have examined
sex will force you to drop out of there exists a poor connection between what critical thinking is and how it
school. examples. Structurally, the fallacy involves more than simply being
looks like this: critical. Understanding critical
thinking helps in formulating and
strawman A and B are similar. studying arguments. We see arguments
This fallacy occurs when the actual A has characteristic X. every day in advertising, use arguments
argument appears to be refuted, but in Therefore, B has characteristic to persuade others, and we use them to
reality a related point is addressed. The X. benefit us. The overview of fallacies
individual using a strawman argument showed not all arguments are valid or
will appear to be refuting the original even logical. Always critically think
This fallacy often occurs when we try
point made but will actually be arguing and examine any argument you
to compare two things that on the
a point not made in the original. The confront, and remember that if it
surface appear similar. For example:
best strawman arguments will argue the sounds too good to be true, it probably
new point to a conclusion that appears Humans and animals are both is a fallacious argument.
solid; however, because their point is living, breathing beings. We practice critical thinking on a
not the original point, it is still a
fallacy. Humans have civil rights. daily basis, often without any extra
Therefore, animals have civil effort. Now that you know a bit more
Examples of the strawman fallacy are rights. about how to do these things better, you
everywhere and can appear to be quite should find that you can put together
persuasive: more persuasive arguments that avoid
The problem in this argument is that
the pitfalls of fallacious thinking. More
President Obama cannot truly while humans and animals are alike in
importantly, when you hear a statement
have American interests in mind their living and breathing status, there
such as, “You should drink at least four
are numerous other ways they differ.
because he’s not truly American glasses of wine per day,” you’ll know
We commit a fallacy when we infer
but Muslim. that based on this initial similarity, they
that something isn’t right. And if you
do hear a statement like this, you will
are similar in all other ways as well.
Statements similar to this were quite be prepared to think critically about the
prevalent during the 2008 Presidential The other day while looking at statement, and will be in a position to
election and still appear on occasion. houses, I heard another version of this make a more educated decision about
The assumption here is that if a person argument from a real estate agent. The the information.

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chapter review questions and activities

review questions

1. Explain the difference between critical thinking and being critical. Why should we care?

2. Explain how listening differs from hearing and why listening is the first component of practicing critical
thinking.

3. List and discuss at least three ways that we use logic and argumentation in our daily lives.

4. If I say, “There is plenty of pasta, so you should have some more,” am I implying or inferring that you have
not eaten enough?

5. What are a fallacies and why is it important that we study them?

6. Television commercials that use pictures of starving children and sad music as a way to get you to donate
money are an example of what type of fallacy?

7. Name, define, and give examples of three different fallacies you have heard recently.

activities

1. Throughout this chapter, we have turned to the abortion debates for examples. In order to practice critical
thinking in action, spend some time researching the major arguments each side uses. Because the debates in this
area are so complex, you might want to narrow your focus just a bit. For example, you could focus on the issue
of minors consenting to abortion or abortion in the case of rape or other sexual assault. Compile a list of the
most common arguments used by each side. Your list should include: any evidence used to support claims, a
list of the major claims, any conclusions. Return to the core critical thinking skills and critically evaluate how
each side forms arguments and uses evidence. How do your own biases and thoughts on the issue of abortion
influence your evaluation? If you were an advisor, what advisee would you give to each side to make their
arguments stronger and more logically sound?

2. Your local newspaper’s Letters to the Editor section is a prime spot to find logical fallacies in action. For
several days, read the Letters to the Editor and identify all of the fallacies you find. Keep a log of the specific
fallacies you find, dividing them by type. Once you have compiled a variety of example, take a step back and
evaluate them. Questions that you might want to ask include: what fallacy or fallacies seem to be most
popular? Why do you think this is? Pick a few of the most egregious fallacies and rewrite them correcting for
the flaw in reasoning.

3. Throughout this chapter, we have studied arguments by looking at their various parts. In practice, arguments
occur as part of larger statements or speeches making their analysis a bit more complicated. To understand the
ways arguments occur in daily life, visit the American Rhetoric page (www.americanrhetoric.com). On this
page you will find a number of political, activist, movie, and other speeches. Pick one and try to identify the
major arguments that are set forth. What are the main claims? What are the sub-claims? What sorts of
evidence or support are provided? Are there any fallacies present in the argument? If you were a speech writer,
what advice would you give to improve the argument?

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glossary

Accident Fallacy
A fallacy that occurs when a Begging the Question: Fallacy of Quantitative Logic:
generally true statement is A fallacy that occurs when the A fallacy that occurs when we
applied to a specific case that conclusion of the argument is misuse quantifying words such
is unusual. also used as one of the as “all” or “some.”
premises.
Ambiguity Fallacy Black and White Fallacy False Analogy
A fallacy that occurs when a A fallacy that occurs when the A fallacy that occurs when
word having more than one audience is only given two there exists a poor connection
meaning appears in the choices. between two examples used in
argument. an argument.
Composition Fallacy
Analysis A fallacy that occurs when we False Cause:
The process of asking what is assume that traits inherent in A fallacy that occurs when
happening in a message the parts are also present when there exists a flawed
through breaking it into its the parts are combined into a connection between two
individual components and whole. events.
asking questions of each
section. Critical Thinking Genetic Fallacy:
Active thinking in which we A fallacy that occurs when the
Appeal to Authority evaluate and analyze individual is attacked.
A fallacy that occurs when the information in order to
truth of a proposition is determine the best course of Hearing:
thought to rest in the opinion action. The physiological process of
of a famous other or authority. receiving noise and sounds.
Deduction
Appeal to Ignorance An argument in which the Imply:
A fallacy that occurs when we truth of the premises of the To suggest or convey an idea.
argue something must be argument guarantee the truth
accepted because it cannot be of its conclusion. Induction:
proven otherwise. An argument in which the
Division truth of its propositions lend
Appeal to Pity A fallacy that occurs when we support to the conclusion.
A fallacy that occurs when an assume that the trait of a whole
argument attempts to win occurs when the whole is Infer:
acceptance by focusing on the divided into its parts. To draw a conclusion that rests
unfortunate consequences that outside the message.
will occur if it is not accepted. Evaluation
The process of assessing the Interpretation:
Argument various claims and premises of Explaining and extrapolating
Statements that combine an argument to determine their the conclusions that we draw
reasoning with evidence to validity. from a statement.
support an assertion.
Evidence Listening:
Bad Reasons Fallacy: Research, claims, or anything The psychological process of
A fallacy that occurs when else that is used to support the attaching meaning to the
then we assume the conclusion validity of an assertion. sounds and noises we hear.
of an argument to be bad
because a part of the argument Fallacy:
is bad. A flaw or error in reasoning.

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Chapter 6 critical thinking & reasoning www.publicspeakingproject.org

Masked Man Fallacy: Red Herring Fallacy Strawman Fallacy

A fallacy that occurs when we A fallacy that occurs when an A fallacy that occurs when the
substitute parties that are not irrelevant issue is introduced actual argument appears to be
identical within an argument. into the argument. refuted, but in reality a related
point is addressed.
Non sequitor Self-regulation
An argument where the The process of reflecting on Syllogism
conclusion may be true or our pre-existing thoughts and A form of deductive argument
false, but in which there exists biases and how they may in which the conclusion is
a disconnect within the influence what we think about inferred from the premises.
argument itself. an assertion. Most syllogisms contain a
major premise, a minor
Premise Slippery Slope Fallacy premise, and a conclusion.
A proposition (statement) A fallacy that occurs when we
supporting or helping to assume one action will initiate
support a conclusion; an a chain of events that
assumption that something is culminate in an undesirable
true event.

references

Aristotle. (1989). Prior Analytics (Trans. Robin Critical Thinking. Retrieved from:
Smith). Cambridge, MA: Hackett Publishing. http://www.criticalthinking.org/page.cfm?Pag
Beyer, B. K. (1995) Critical thinking. Bloomington, eID=527&CategoryID=68
IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. Facione, P. A. (1990). Critical Thinking: A
Dewey, J. (1933). Experience and education. New Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes
York: Macmillan, 1933. of Educational Assessment and Instruction,
Elder, L. & Richard, P. (1996). Universal Intellectual The Delphi Report (Executive Summary).
Standards. Dillon Beach, CA: Foundation for Millbrae, CA: California Academic Press.

photo credits

p. 1 Gears in head p. 7 Toilet p. 13 Julianne Moore

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Filos_segundo_logo.JPG By Filosofias Decorative_toilet_seat.jpg By Bartux Julianne_Moore_March_for_Women%27
Filosoficas s_Lives_2004.jpg By Pattymooney
p. 9 World Trade Center
p. 2 John Dewey Bombing 1993 p. 14 Ghost
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
mmons/9/91/John_Dewey_in_1902.jpg WTC_1993_ATF_Commons.jpg By
Radiovector_-_ghost.jpg By Musilupa
By Postdlf Smurfy
p. 14 Star Trek “Let that be your last
p. 3 Martha Stewart p. 12 U.S. Soldiers battlefield.” Posted on YouTube by
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
gregorija1
Martha_Stewart_nrkbeta.jpg By US_Navy_060920-N-4097B-
Alĥemiisto 026_Soldiers_from_the_U.S._Army%5E http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vi7Q
rsquo,s_Apache_Troop,_2nd_Squadron,_ Q5pO7_A
p. 5 Seat belt
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: 9th_Cavalry_Regiment_exit_a_home_in_ p. 15 Blueberry muffin
Seat_belt_BX.jpg By Michiel 1972 Muqdadiyah,_Iraq,_after_searching_it.jp http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
g By The United States Navy Muffin_NIH.jpg By 17 Drew
p. 6 Sharia Law Billboard
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Sharia-law-Billboard.jpg By Matt57

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 www.publicspeakingproject.org

supporting your ideas Public Speaking: The Virtual Text

chapter 7

By Sarah Stone Watt, Ph.D.

Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA

introduction
In 2010 celebrity chef Jamie Oliver
chapter objectives chapter outline
won the Technology Entertainment After studying this chapter you should be able to:
Design (TED) Prize for his “One Wish
 Introduction
to Change the World.” In addition to a 1. Combine multiple forms of  Personal and Professional
monetary award, he was given 18 evidence to support your Knowledge
minutes at the prestigious TED ideas. o Personal Testimony
Conference in Long Beach, CA to 2. Differentiate between the o Interviews
discuss his wish: “Teach every child  Library Resources
three types of testimony,
about food” (Oliver, 2010). This chef o Books
and know when to use
from Essex, England, had only a short o Periodicals
each one.
window of time to convince an o Full Text Databases
3. Navigate the library  Internet Resources
American audience to change their
holdings and distinguish o Search Engines
most basic eating habits. To get them
between the types of o Defining Search Terms
to listen he had to catch their attention
information found in each o Websites
and demonstrate his credibility. He
section. o Government Documents
managed to do both using compelling  Evaluating Information
4. Evaluate source credibility
research. He began by saying, “Sadly,  Citing Sources and Avoiding
and appropriateness for
in the next 18 minutes . . . four Plagiarism
Americans that are alive will be dead your speech.
o Style Sheets
from the food that they eat” (Oliver, 5. Explain plagiarism and o Plagiarism
2010). He magnified the problem with implement strategies to  Conclusion
a chart showing that many more avoid it.  Module Activities
Americans die from diet related 6. Apply chapter concepts  Glossary
diseases each year than die from other in review questions and  References
diseases, or even from accidents and activities.
murder. Along with the statistics, he
offered testimony from people living in conduct scholarly research as part of
the “most unhealthy state in America” their occupation, tend to envision a
I take what I see work. I'm a (Oliver, 2010). By weaving together
 Introduction
process filledand
withProfessional
late nights in the
strict believer in the multiple forms of research over the
 Personal
stacks of a library (Leckie, 1996).
Knowledge
scientific principle of course of his brief talk, Oliver crafted a Students, who regularly
o Personal Testimony conduct
compelling case for a massive shift in research on where to eat or what to do
believing nothing, only the way that Americans teach their
o Interviews
as part of their
Library weekend activities, tend
Resources
taking the best evidence children about food. to envision
o Booksa less formal process that
available at the present Like Oliver, in order to give an
o Periodicals
involves consulting the most popular
Full Text
webo search Databases
results. The reality is that
time, interpreting it as best effective speech, you will need to offer  Internet Resources
support for the ideas you present. in order to properly support your ideas
you can, and leaving your Search Engines
andocraft a compelling speech, you will
Finding support necessitates research. o Websites
mind open to the fact that Librarians have found that professors need a little of each approach, possibly
o Government Documents
new evidence will appear and students tend to have very different combined with additional investigative
 Evaluating Information
ideas regarding what it means to tools
 Citing Sourcesyou
with which may be less-
tomorrow. familiar. The
Plaigiarism wide
and Avoiding
variety of resources
conduct research (Sjoberg & Ahlfeldt,
~ Adam Osborne 2010). Professors, who regularly available
o Style forSheets
conducting research can
be overwhelming.
o Plagiarism However, if you
 Conclusion
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this Module
 license, Activities
visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-
nd/3.0/us/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA.
PDF documents prepared by Donna Painter Graphics.  Glossary
 References
Chapter 7 Supporting Your Ideas www.publicspeakingproject.org

on which they are considered an expert. with detail and emotion, which is part
You may not feel like an expert in the of what makes it memorable, but this
area of your speech at this time, but practice may also make the story too
you should consider whether you have long and distract from your point. If
any preexisting knowledge of the topic you plan to use personal testimony in
that might assist in crafting your your speech, practice the story to make
speech. Do not be afraid to draw on sure that it makes the appropriate point
your own experience to enhance the in the time you have.
message. If you do not have personal
experience with the topic, you may
Do you know the difference seek out other forms of lay testimony to
between education and support your point. Lay testimony is
have a clear topic, recognize the
purpose of your speech, and understand experience? Education is any testimony based on witnesses’
opinions or perceptions in a given case
the audience you will be speaking to, when you read the fine print; (“Federal Rules,” 2012). For example,
you can limit the number of sources experience is what you get if you are giving a speech about
you will need to consult by focusing on
the most relevant information. when you don't. Occupy Wall Street, but you have not
experienced one of their protests, you
Once you know the topic of the
~ Pete Seeger may choose to include statements from
speech, you can create the specific a protestor or someone who identifies
purpose statement. This is a one personal testimony with the goals of the movement.
sentence summary of the goal of your Walter Fisher argues that humans are
speech, that may begin with the phrase, natural storytellers. Through stories
“At the end of my speech, the audience people make sense of their experiences,
will be able to..”. This statement and they invite others to understand
guides your research as you piece their lived reality as part of a
together the supporting evidence to fill community (Fisher, 1984). One
out the remainder of your speech. As compelling story that you can offer is
you work through the types of support your personal testimony. Although you
in this chapter, continually ask are not a recognized authority on the
yourself, “Does this evidence support topic, you can invite the audience to
the goal of my speech?” If the source understand your firsthand experience.
offers information that contradicts your Offering your testimony within a
specific purpose statement, hold on to it speech provides an example of your
so that you can address the point, and it enhances your credibility
contradiction with evidence for your by demonstrating that you have
own idea. If it does appear to support experience regarding the topic.
your specific purpose statement, the Additionally, personal testimony can
next question you will ask is “Is this enhance your speech by conveying
evidence appropriate for my audience?” your insight and emotion regarding the
Different types of appeals and evidence topic, making your speech more
are better for different audiences. The memorable (Beebe & Beebe, 2003;
best speeches will combine multiple Parse, 2008). For example, if you are
forms of evidence to make the most giving a speech on the importance of
convincing case possible. This chapter hunting to the local culture, you might
will help you research your speech by explain how the last buck you shot fed
interviews
combining personal and professional Lay testimony can offer insight into
your family for an entire season.
knowledge, library resources, and the past and into areas where individual
Internet searches. It will help you to Since personal testimony refers to sentiments are relevant, but if you are
evaluate the sources you find and cite your experience, it is easy to assume called upon to make predictions
them to avoid plagiarism. that you can offer it with little regarding the future or speak to an
preparation. However, psychologists issue where you have little relevant
personal and professional have found that as people tell their experience, expert testimony may
knowledge stories they relive the experience provide more convincing support
Professional public speakers are (Gladding & Drake Wallace, 2010). As (Beebe & Beebe, 2003). Expert
generally called upon to address a topic you relive the experience, your testimony comes from a recognized
tendency will be to enrich the story

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Chapter 7 Supporting Your Ideas www.publicspeakingproject.org

authority who has conducted extensive

research on an issue. Experts regularly
publish their research findings in books
and journals, which we will discuss
later in this chapter, but you may need
more information from the expert in
order to substantiate your point. For
example, if you were giving a speech
about how to prepare for a natural
disaster, you might interview someone
from the Red Cross. They could tell
you what supplies might be necessary
for the specific types of disasters that
are likely in your region. Interviews
give people the chance to expand on
their published research and offer their
informed perspective on the specific
point you are trying to make.

My basic approach to
interviewing is to ask the
will likely require much more time specific purpose statement. Look for
basic questions that might from the expert as they have to type quotes that bring together the person’s
even sound naive, or not every answer, and they may not be as expertise with their reflections on the
intellectual. Sometimes when forthcoming with information in that topic you are addressing. It is likely
format. that you will gain more knowledge
you ask the simple questions from the interview than you can
Before the interview, write down
like “Who are you?” or your questions. When you talk to possibly include in a short speech.
“What do you do?” you learn someone, it is easy to get caught up in Work to synthesize the main points
from the interview into a coherent
the most. what they are saying and forget to
statement supporting your topic.
focus on the information you need.
~ Brian Lamb Once you begin the interview work to Remember to be careful about properly
establish rapport with the person you quoting exact phrases that the person
are interviewing. You can foster used. Even if you paraphrase, properly
If you are seeking an interview with
rapport by demonstrating that you cite the interview and credit the expert
an expert, it is best to arrange a time
respect their viewpoint, by taking turns for all of the ideas they shared with
and place that works for them. Begin
in your interactions, by allowing them you.
the process with a respectful phone call
or email explaining who you are and to finish their thought without library resources
why you are contacting them. Be interrupting, and by giving them the The most well established way of
forthcoming regarding the information freedom to use their preferred forms of finding research to support your ideas
you are seeking and the timeline in expression (Lindolf & Taylor, 2002). is to use the library. However, many
which you are working. Also be As you ask each question, take note of students see the “library and its
flexible about the format for your their response and ask for clarification resources as imposing and intimidating,
interview. If you can meet in person, or to follow up on information you did and are anxious about how they will
that is often ideal because it gives you not anticipate. If you plan to record the manage in such an environment”
the chance to get to know the person interview, ask for permission in (Leckie, 1996, p. 204). Don’t let any
and to ask follow up questions if advance. Even if you are given twinge of anxiety keep you from
necessary. A good alternative to an in permission to record, take paper and a exploring all that the library has to
person interview is a video call using a writing utensil along to make back-up offer!
service such as Skype. These services notes in case your recording device
are often free to both callers and allow fails. When the interview is complete, When conducting research, one of
you to see and hear the person that you thank the person and check to see your best resources is the librarian. It
are interviewing. If neither of these whether they would welcome further is their job to know all about the
options will work, a phone call or email contact to follow up if necessary. resources available to you, and to help
will do. Keep in mind that while an you succeed in locating the material
After the interview, review your that is most relevant to your
email may seem convenient to you, it notes for insight that substantiates your assignment. Additionally, many

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libraries have librarians who specialize single topic. For example, if you were not need to read, or even skim, the
in particular areas of research and they giving a speech about stereotypes of entirety of every book. It is appropriate
will be able to help you find the best black women in America, you might to skim for key words and phrases that
resources for your specific speech check out Melissa Harris-Perry’s pertain to your topic. Just be sure that
topic. Ideally, you should seek some (2011) book Sister Citizen, because she once you find what you are looking for,
information on your topic alone before brings together literature, theory, and you read enough of the section around
asking for their assistance. Doing some political science, to offer a detailed it to understand the context of the
initial research independently discussion of the development of four statement and ensure that the book is
demonstrates to the librarian that you prominent stereotypes. In the book she making the point you think it is. Take
have taken ownership of the has enough space to offer compelling note of the point that the book is
assignment and recognize that the images, narratives, and social scientific making. Careful notes will help you
research is ultimately your evidence for the impact those remember the information that you
responsibility, not theirs. They will be stereotypes have on contemporary gained from each source when you get
better equipped to help you find new society. home.
information if they know where you In addition to the traditional stacks
have already looked and what you have A library is not a luxury, but of books present in your library, you
found. Most libraries contain at least one of the necessities of life. will also find a reference section. This
three primary resources for
information: books, periodicals, and ~ Henry Ward Beecher section contains books that do not delve
deep into any subject, but provide basic
full text databases. summary knowledge on a variety of
Most libraries make finding books topics. The reference section contains
easy by indexing them in an online books like dictionaries, which help
catalog. You should be able to go to define unfamiliar terms; encyclopedias,
the library’s website and simply search which provide overviews of various
for your topic. The index will provide subjects; abstracts, which summarize
the titles, authors, and other publication books and articles; and biographical
information for each book. It will also references, which describe people and
provide a call number. The call their accomplishments. Since these
number is like an address for the book resources do not require extensive time
that indicates where it can be found on to process, and they are likely to be
the stacks in the library. Before going used briefly but regularly by many
to the stacks, take note of the title, visitors, the library generally will not
author, and call number. The call allow you to check out reference
number is the most important element, material. Take great care in drafting
and the title and author will serve as notes on the information that you find,
backup for your search if you find that and writing down the page numbers
the books are out of order. If you find and authors according to the style
a book that is helpful, be sure to check preferred in your field of study. For
the shelf nearby to see if there are other more information on what you will
promising titles on that topic. If you need to record see the “style guides”
cannot find the book that you are section of this chapter.
looking for, consider asking the
librarian to help you borrow it from
another library using a process called
interlibrary loan.
books
The length of a book can make it
Books are an excellent place to gain
seem overwhelming to someone
general knowledge. They contain
researching a brief speech. In order to
comprehensive investigations of a
streamline your research, determine
subject in which authors can convey
what you are looking for in advance.
substantial amounts of information
Are you seeking general background
because they are not constrained by a
knowledge or support for a specific
strict page count. Some books are
idea? Use the table of contents,
written by a single author while other
headings, and index to guide you to the
books bring several scholars together in
portion of the book that is likely to
an edited collection. In both cases, you
have what you are looking for. You do
are likely to get a rich investigation of a

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internet resources
Figure 7.1 Sponsored Websites
search engines
A search engine can be your most
important resource when attempting to
locate information on the Internet.
Search engines allow you to type in the
topic you are interested in and narrow
the possible results. Some of the most
popular search engines include Google,
bing, Yahoo!, and Ask (eBizMBA,
2012). These sites provide a box for
you to type a topic, phrase, or question,
and they use software to scan their
index of existing Internet content to
find the sites most relevant to your
search.

Pay close attention to the first few For example, if you are interested in
Each search engine uses different sites listed in search results. Some giving a speech about revolutions in the
algorithms and techniques to locate and databases allow “sponsored links” to Middle East, you might type that topic
rank information, which may mean that appear before the rest of the results. If into the database and scan the sites that
the same search will yield different you are giving a speech about the come up. As you are scanning, watch
results depending on the search engine. dangers of rental cars, and you search for other useful terms that arise in
Based on the algorithms it is using, the rental car in Google, links to companies relation to the topic and jot them down
search engine will sort the results with like Hotwire.com, Orbitz.com, or for possible use in later searches. Since
those it determines to be most relevant National Rental Car are likely to appear people may write about the topic in
appearing first. Since each site is first in your results. These sites may or different terms than you tend to think
different, you should use the one that may not be relevant to your search, but about it, paying close attention to their
seems most intuitive to you. However, they have also paid for the top spot on language will help you refine your
since their ranking systems will also be the list and therefore may not be the search. Another way to approach this
different, you cannot assume that the most relevant. When search engines is to consider synonyms for your search
first few sites listed in your chosen display sponsored sites first, they terms before you even begin.
search engine are the most relevant. typically distinguish these from the Once you have a concrete topic and
Always scan the first few pages of others by outlining or highlighting have begun to outline the arguments
search results to find the best resource them in a different color. For example, you want to make, you are likely to
for your topic. Skimming the content while Google lists advertisements need more specific terms to find what
of the pages returned in your search related to your search on the right-hand you are looking for. In order to help
will also give you an idea of whether side of the screen, they sometimes also with the search, you may use Boolean
you have chosen the most appropriate put a limited number of sponsored links operators, words and symbols that
search terms. If your search has at the top of your search results list. illustrate the relationship between your
returned results that are not relevant to The only distinction between these search terms and help the search engine
your speech, you may need to adjust sponsored links and the rest of the list expand or limit your results (see Table
your search terms and try a new search. is a subtly shaded box with a small 7.2 on the next page for examples).
label in the upper right indicating they Although search engines regularly
We want Google to be the are “Ads” (see Figure 7.1). adjust their Boolean rules to avoid
third half of your brain. people rigging the site to show their
~ Sergey Brin defining search terms
own pages first, a few basic terms tend
In the early stages of research it may
be helpful to simply search by topic.

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Table 7.2 Boolean Operators information, but you may be less

familiar with some of its specialized
The word “OR” is one way to expand your search by looking for search engines. Three of these search
a variety of terms that may help you support your topic. For engines can be particularly helpful to
example, in a speech about higher education, you might be someone seeking to support their ideas
OR interested in sources discussing either colleges or universities. In in a speech: Google Scholar, Google
this case using the term “OR” helps expand your search to Books, and Google Images.
include both terms, even when they appear separately.
Research is formalized
Using the word “AND” or the “+” symbol between terms limits curiosity. It is poking and
your search by indicating to the search engine that you are prying with a purpose.
interested in the relationship between the terms and want to
see pages which offer both terms together. If you are giving a ~ Zora Neale Hurston
AND/ + speech about Hillary Rodham Clinton’s work in the Senate, you
might search Hillary Rodham Clinton AND Senate. This search Google Scholar
would help you find information pertaining to her senate career
The search engines listed earlier in
rather than sites that focus on her as First Lady or Secretary of
State.
this chapter will help you explore a
diversity of sites to find the information
you are looking for. However, certain
Using the word “NOT” or the “-” symbol can also limit your topics and certain types of speeches call
search by indicating that you are not interested in a term that for more rigorous research. This
may often appear with your desired term. For example, if you research is typically best found in the
NOT/- are interested in hyenas, but want to limit out sites focused on library, but Google has an added
their interactions with lions, you might search hyena –lion to feature that makes finding scholarly
eliminate all of the lion pages from your search. sources easier. On Google Scholar you
can find research that has been
published in scholarly journal articles,
Quotation marks around a group of words limit the search by
indicating you are looking for a specific phrase. For example, if books, theses, conference proceedings,
you are looking for evidence that human behavior contributes and court opinions.
“” to global warming, you might search “humans contribute to Google Scholar is not only helpful
global warming,” which would limit the search far beyond the for focusing on academic research; it
simple human + global warming by specifying the point you
has a host of features that will help to
seek to make.
refine your search to the most helpful
articles. You can search generally in
Google Scholar and find citations of
to be used by most search engines help section will offer additional tips to useful articles that will help support
(BBC, 2012). assist you in navigating the nuances of your ideas, but you may not always
When you have a well-defined area that site and executing the best possible find the full text of the article. You can
of research, it is best to start as specific search. ask Google Scholar to help you find the
as possible and then broaden your full text articles available in your
search as needed. If there is something library’s databases by telling it which
on exactly what you want to say, you
Google library you want to search. To do this,
You may be at least somewhat click the “scholar preferences” link
don’t want to miss it wading through a familiar with Google, the name that has
sea of articles on your general topic next to the search button on
become synonymous with “internet scholar.google.com. Then scroll down
area. To make the best use of your search,” and called “the most used and
search engine take some time to read to the section titled “library links,” and
most popular search engine” (Tajane, type the name of your school or library,
the help section on the site and learn 2011). You may already be adept at
how their Boolean operators work. The then click “find library.” When the
searching Google for a wide variety of search is complete, check the box next

Figure 7.2 A Search Result with a Library Link

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to the name of your library so that find Paul Rozin and April Fallon’s book where your terms appear and,
Google knows to include it in the 1988 article in the Journal of Abnormal with many books, give you a sample of
search. Once you have included your Psychology comparing opposite sex that page to allow you to see whether
library, the search results you get will perceptions of weight helpful. the terms appear in the context you are
have links that lead you to the articles However, it would be good to have searching for. Keep in mind that
available in your library’s databases more recent research. Clicking the Google Books is a search engine; it is
(see Figure 7.2). Clicking the links will “related articles” and “cited by” links not a replacement for checking out the
lead you to your library databases and would lead you to similar research book in the library or buying your own
prompt you to log into the system as published within the past few years. copy. Google Books does not print
you would if you were searching on the books in their entirety, and often will
library site itself. omit pages surrounding a search result,
Figure 7.3 so relying on the site to allow you to
I find I use the Internet more Search Inside the Book read enough of the book to make your
and more. It's just an argument is risky at best. Instead, use
this site to help you determine which
invaluable tool. I do most of books to obtain, and which parts of
my research on the Net now... those books will be most relevant to
~ Nora Roberts your research.
Google Images
Even when you are linked to your Google Images may be useful as you
library’s databases, there may be seek visual aids to illustrate your point.
articles in your search results that you You can search Google Images for
do not have electronic access to. In photographs, charts, illustrations, clip
that case, search your library catalog art and more. For example, if you are
for the title of the journal in which your giving a speech on the Nineteenth
desired article appears to see if they Amendment, you could add interest by
carry the journal in hard copy form. If offering a picture of the Silent
you still cannot find it, copy the citation Sentinel’s picketing the White House.
information and use your interlibrary Alternatively, if you wanted to
loan system to request a copy of the Google Books demonstrate the statistical probability
article from another library. Just as Google Scholar can be used of electing a woman to Congress, you
to enhance your research in scholarly could use Google Images to locate a
In addition to enhancing your chart displaying that information.
database searches, Google Scholar can periodicals, Google Books can be used
also help you broaden your search in to make your search for, and within,
two strategic ways. First, underneath books more efficient. Some library
the citation for each search result, you catalogs offer you the ability to search
will see a link to “related articles.” If for all books on a topic, whether that
you found a particular article helpful, library has the book or not. Other
clicking “related articles” is one way to libraries confine you to searching their
help you find resources that are similar. holdings. One way to enhance your
Second, as you know, researchers often research is to search for books on
look through the bibliography of a Google Books and then use your library
helpful source to find the articles that site to see if they currently have the
author used. However, when you are book, or if you will need to order it
dealing with an older article, searching through interlibrary loan. The other
backwards in the bibliography may way that you can use Google Books is
lead you to more outdated research. To to make your skimming more effective.
search for more recent research, look Earlier in this chapter you learned that Since search engines match the terms
again under the search result for the you should strategically skim books for you put in, it is possible that your topic
link called “cited by.” Clicking the the information that you need. You can could yield images containing adult
“cited by” link will give you all of the do that with Google Books by looking content. To prevent receiving adult
articles that have been published since, up the book, and then using the search content, you can use the “safe search”
and have referred to, the article that you bar on the left side of the screen (see settings (located in the option wheel in
found. For example, if you are giving a Figure 7.4) to search for key words the far upper right hand corner of the
speech on male body image you might within the book. This search engine menu bar) to limit your exposure to
can help you identify the pages in a

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explicit images. The setting has three asking yourself if the sources you have bookmark them in your Web browser
options: found support your specific purpose so that you can refer to them again
1. Strict filtering: filters sexually statement. later. Your browser may call these
explicit video and images from Google bookmarks “favorites” instead. To
Search result pages, as well as results bookmark a site, you can click on the
that might link to explicit content. bookmarking link in your browser or, if
your browser uses tabs, you can drag
2. Moderate filtering: excludes the tab into a toolbar near the top of the
sexually explicit video and images window. If you are struggling with the
from Google Search result pages, but bookmarking process, try the command
does not filter results that might link to CTRL+D on your keyboard or consult
explicit content. This is the default the help link for your Web browser.
SafeSearch setting.
3. No filtering: as you've Don't leave inferences to be
probably figured out, turns off drawn when evidence can be
SafeSearch filtering completely presented.
(Google, 2012).
~ Richard Wright
Remember that, as with other outside
sources, you will need to offer proper
source citations for every image that government documents
you use. Additionally, if you plan to Governments regularly publish large
post your speech to the internet or quantities of information regarding
publish it more widely than your class, their citizens, such as census data,
consider using only images that appear health reports, and crime statistics.
in the public domain so that you do not They also compile transcripts of
risk infringing on an artist’s copyright legislative proceedings, hearings, and
privileges. speeches. Most college and university
Most websites are created to promote libraries maintain substantial
It is not ignorance but the interests of their owner, so it is very collections of government documents.
Additionally, these documents are
knowledge which is the important that you check to see whose
increasingly available online.
website you are looking at. Generally
mother of wonder. the author or owner of the site is named Government documents can be helpful
~ Joseph Wood Krutch near the top of the homepage, or in the for finding up-to-date statistics on an
copyright notice at the bottom. issue that affects the larger population.
Knowing who the site belongs to will They can also be helpful in identifying
websites strong viewpoints concerning
When you use a more general search help you determine the quality of the
information it offers. If you find the government policies. For example,
engine, such as Google or bing, you are looking at the Congressional testimony
looking for websites. Websites may be site through a search engine and are not
directed to its homepage, look for a link regarding nuclear safety after an
maintained by individuals, earthquake destroyed the Fukushima
organizations, companies, or called “home” or “about” to navigate to
the page containing more information nuclear power plant in Japan in 2011
governments. These sites generally could help you make a compelling case
consist of a homepage, that gives an about the site itself. In addition to
knowing the owner, it is important to for safety upgrades at U.S. nuclear
overview of the site and its purpose. power facilities.
From the homepage there are links to look for the author of the material you
various types of information on the are using. For example, an article on a
reputable news site like CNN.com may Now, whenever you read any
original site and elsewhere on the
Internet. These sets of links arrange come from a respected journalist, or it historical document, you
information “in an unconstrained web- may be the opinion of a blogger whose always evaluate it in light of
like way” (Berners-Lee, 2000, p.3), post is not necessarily vetted by the
company itself. Use the section of the the historical context.
which opens up the possibility of
making new connections between ideas chapter on evaluating information to ~ Josh McDowell
and research. It also opens up the determine whether the site you have
possibility of getting lost among all of found is a credible source. One of the most helpful resources for
the available sources. To keep your When you find websites that are both searching government documents is
research on track, be sure to continue useful and credible, be sure to www.fedworld.gov. This site allows

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you to search Supreme Court decisions, Narrow your support by evaluating the citations for its arguments. If the
government scientific reports, research quality and credibility of each source. source lacks relevant data to support its
and development reports, and other To determine the quality of a source, claims, does not include other citations,
databases filled with cutting edge look to see whether the information
research. It also lists all major provided seems comprehensive. To
government agencies and their determine whether or not the
websites. Another excellent way to information is comprehensive, check to
locate government documents is to use see that it thoroughly covers the issue,
the Monthly Catalog of U.S. considers competing perspectives, and
Government Publications. This index cites the sources where supporting
is issued every month and lists all of material came from.
the documents published by the federal
government, except those that are The popular online
restricted or confidential. You can use encyclopedia, Wikipedia, is
the index to locate documents from
Congress, the courts, or even the a great resource for general
president. The index arranges reports information. It is a good or if it includes non-credible citations,
alphabetically by the name of the place to start in order to it is not the best quality source. It is
issuing agency. The easiest way to fine to use a source that is weak in one
search will be on the Government determine search terms and of these areas if you still find it
Printing Office website at potentially relevant strains compelling, but know that you may
catalog.gpo.gov. If you would prefer to of thought on a given topic. need to back it up with additional
work with hard copies of the reports, credible information. If the source is
head to your library and search the However, it is not the most weak in multiple areas, do your best to
subject index to find subjects related to credible source to cite in avoid using it so that it does not
your speech topic. Each subject will your speech. Since anyone weaken your speech.
have a list of documents and their entry
number. Use the entry numbers to find can update the site at any In addition to the quality, you should
examine source credibility. When
the title, agency, and call number of time, information may be evaluating credibility, focus on the
each document listed in the front of the entirely inaccurate. When sources’ qualifications, the parity of
index (Zarefsky, 2005).
using Wikipedia, look for their message with similar sources, and
their biases. One of the most important
source citations and follow elements of credibility is qualification.
the links to original source Sometimes qualifications will be linked
material. to a person’s profession. For example,
if you are talking about earthquakes,
you might want the expertise of a
First, check to see that your source seismologist who studies earthquake
not only discusses issues that pertain to waves and their effects. However,
your topic, but thoroughly explains the professional expertise is not the only
reasoning behind the claims it offers. type of credibility. If you want to
Often you will already be familiar with discuss the feeling of experiencing a
the topic, but you will require the major earthquake, testimony from a
addition of strong reasoning to properly survivor may be more credible than
support your ideas. If your source testimony from a scientist who studied
cannot provide strong reasoning, it is the event but did not experience it.
not the best quality source. Second, When examining credibility, check to
determine whether the source considers see that the person has the training or
competing perspectives. Debate experience appropriate to the type of
strategists know that evidence can be information they offer. Next, check to
found for multiple perspectives on any see whether the information in your
issue. If your source does not also chosen source aligns with information
evaluating information recognize and consider opposing in other sources on the issue. If your
The large amount of information arguments, it is not the best quality
available in your library and on the source. Third, check to see that your
Internet can seem overwhelming. source offers supporting data and I used to sleep nude –
until the earthquake.
~ Alyssa Milano
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themselves, yet they took credit for

Table 7.3 Verbal Source Citations
it. Most instances of blatant
Proper Written Source Citation Proper Oral Attribution
cheating, such as these, are quickly
In his 2005 commencement address at
caught by instructors who maintain
“Your time is limited, so don’t waste it Stanford University Steve Jobs said,
files of work turned in previously, or living someone else’s life” (Jobs, 2005). “Your time is limited, so don’t waste it
who are adept at searching the living someone else’s life.”
Internet for content that does not Michael Pollan offers three basics
appear original to the student. “Eat food. Not too much. Mostly plants” guidelines for healthy eating in his
Consequences for this type of (Pollan, 2009, p.1). book, In Defense of Food. He advises
plagiarism are severe, and may readers to, “Eat food. Not too much.
range from failure of the course to Mostly plants.”
expulsion from the school. In her February 24 speech to the
“The Assad regime’s escalating Friends of Syria People meeting, U.S.
More often, plagiarism occurs by violence in Syria is an affront to the Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton,
mistake when people are not aware international community, a threat to warned that Assad was increasing
of how to properly summarize and regional security, and a grave violation violence against the Syrian people and
cite the sources from which they of human rights. . . . this group should violating human rights. She called for
took information. This happens take concrete action along three lines: international action to help the Syrian
when someone incorporates words provide emergency humanitarian relief, people through humanitarian
or ideas from a source and fails to ratchet up pressure on the regime, and assistance, political pressure, and
prepare for a democratic transition” support for a future democratic
properly cite the source. Even if
(Clinton, 2012). government.
you have handed your professor a
written outline of the speech with In his 2009 “Back to School” speech
source citations, you must also offer “Maybe you could be a mayor or a President Obama encouraged
oral attribution for ideas that are not Senator or a Supreme Court Justice, but students to participate in school
your own (see Table 7.3 for you might not know that until you join activities like student government and
examples of ways to cite sources student government or the debate debate in order to try out the skills
while you are speaking). team” (Obama, 2009). necessary for a leadership position in
the government.
Omitting the oral attribution from
the speech leads the audience, who
is not holding a written version, to where, and when” (Osborn & Osborn, offer the highest quality and most
believe that the words are your own. 2007, p.23). Whether plagiarism is credible support. Do this by gathering
Be sure to offer citations and oral intentional or not, it is unethical and a variety of sources and comparing the
attributions for all material that you someone committing plagiarism will information to make sure the support is
have taken from someone else, often be sanctioned based on their consistent across sources, and that you
including paraphrases or summaries of institution’s code of conduct. have accounted for any possible
their ideas. When in doubt, remember contradictory information. As you
to “always provide oral citations for integrate the sources into your speech,
direct quotations, paraphrased material, conclusion remember to ask: “Does this evidence
or especially striking language, letting Remember that in order to convince support my specific purpose
listeners know who said the words, an audience and appear credible, you statement?” and “Is this evidence
will need to offer support for each of appropriate for my audience?” Also,
your ideas. Gathering testimony from don’t forget to offer written and oral
experienced and expert individuals will attribution for each idea. Using the
lend excitement and credibility to your various resources available you will
speech. Combining testimony with likely find more evidence than you can
resources from the library, such as possibly incorporate into one speech.
books, periodicals, and reference These questions will assist you as you
material, will help you back up your refine your support and craft the most
ideas. Examining credible Internet compelling speech possible.
resources can also enhance your speech
by yielding the most up-to-date Accuracy is the twin brother
evidence for the points you hope to of honesty; inaccuracy, of
make. With so much information
available it is possible to support dishonesty.
almost any idea. However, you will ~ Nathaniel Hawthorne
need to take care to ensure that you

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module review questions and activities

review questions
1. For each of the claims below, identify the most compelling form of evidence that the speaker might
offer. List as many as you can think of.
a. Photo-retouching alters our perspective on beauty.
b. The Internet is an effective protest tool.
c. Body scanners in airports are detrimental to our health.

2. You are giving a speech about the importance of legislation banning text messaging while driving. You
want to offer diverse support for your argument that the legislation is necessary. What research tools
would you use to find the following forms of evidence?
a. A personal narrative concerning the effects of texting while driving.
b. An academic study concerning the effects of texting while driving.
c. Existing legislation regarding cell phone use in automobiles.
d. A visual aid for your speech.

3. Checking the quality of your evidence is an important step in refining support for your argument. What
are three elements that you should look for when determining source quality? Why is each element
necessary?

4. You are giving a speech about bed bugs. You point out that bed bugs are a common pest that can be
found almost anywhere. You have found a variety of sources for your speech including a bed bug
registry website where people can report seeing bed bugs in hotels, an encyclopedia entry on bed bugs, a
blog containing pictures and personal testimony about an experience with bed bugs, a scientific study on
the conditions under which bed bugs thrive, and a psychological study concerning the way that people
are conditioned to respond to the sight of bugs in their bed. Which of these is the most credible source
to support your point? Why?

5. The following is an excerpt from John F. Kennedy’s 1963 Civil Rights Address. Read the excerpt, and
offer your own paraphrase of his ideas without incorporating any direct quotations from the text:

I hope that every American, regardless of where he lives, will stop and examine his
conscience about this and other related incidents. This Nation was founded by men of
many nations and backgrounds. It was founded on the principle that all men are
created equal, and that the rights of every man are diminished when the rights of one
man are threatened (Kennedy, 1963).
6. Imagine you are giving a speech on ______________ [fill in the blank]. Write a potential specific
purpose statement. Then identify three types of research that you would integrate in order to offer
balanced and compelling support for your statement.

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Chapter 7 Supporting Your Ideas www.publicspeakingproject.org

activities

1. Get to know your library. Use your library website to determine the name of the librarian who works
with your major, or in the area of your speech topic. This activity is not designed for you to get the
librarian to do your work for you, but rather for you to get to know the librarian better and make them a
partner in your research process. Make an appointment with that person and interview them concerning
the best way to conduct research for your speech. Take a summary of the assignment, your specific
purpose statement, and at least one source that you have already found for your speech. Be sure to ask
the following questions:
a. What types of sources would you advise me to focus on in my search for supporting materials?
b. What search terms are likely to yield results that are relevant to my specific purpose statement?
c. Can you offer any tips that will make searching this particular library easier?

2. Using the topics below, or your own speech topic, practice developing productive search terms. Begin
by brainstorming synonyms for the topic. Then, consider other concepts that are closely related to the
topic. Using those terms, conduct a preliminary search in the search engine of your choice. Skim the
content on the 3-5 most promising results and highlight common terms and phrases that appear on each
page. Those common terms and phrases should help you narrow your searches as you move forward
with your research.
a. National Security
b. Alternative Energy
c. Economic Stability
d. Media Piracy
e. Privacy
f. Local Events

3. Using one of the topics listed in the previous activity, conduct a search on the topic using identical
search terms in Google Images, Google Scholar, and Google Books. For each search, identify the
source that you think would best support a speech on the topic. Cite each source using a consistent style
guide (MLA, APA, or Chicago), and offer your evaluation of the sources’ relevance, quality, and
credibility.

4. Watch Stephen Colbert’s report concerning Wikipedia or search “wikiality” if the link does not work
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=20PlHx_JjEo). Using research that you have found on your speech
topic, update the Wikipedia page for your topic. Be careful not to replicate the errors that Colbert
discusses. Offer only accurate information, and cite the source where support for your entry can be
found.

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Chapter 7 Supporting Your Ideas www.publicspeakingproject.org

glossary

Bias
The predisposition toward a particular viewpoint.

Boolean Operators
Words and symbols that illustrate the relationship between search terms and help the search engine expand
or limit results.

Expert Testimony
Testimony that comes from a recognized authority who has conducted extensive research on an issue.

Interlibrary Loan
The process of borrowing materials through one library that belong to another library.

Lay Testimony
Any testimony based on witnesses’ opinions or perceptions in a given case

Parity
Similarity of information across sources.

Personal Testimony
An individual’s story concerning his or her lived experience, which can be used to illustrate the existence of
a particular event or phenomenon.

Rapport
A cordial relationship between two or more people in which both parties convey respect and understanding
for one another.

Search Engine
Software which uses algorithms to scan an index of existing Internet content for particular terms, and then
ranks the results based on their relevance.

Source Credibility
Signs that a person is offering trustworthy information.

Specific Purpose Statement

A sentence summarizing the main idea, or claim, which the speech will support. It should be stated clearly
toward the beginning of the speech.

Style Guide
An established set of standards for formatting written documents and citing sources for information within
the document.

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Chapter 7 Supporting Your Ideas www.publicspeakingproject.org

references
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(2011). 2011 National Magazine ch/bin/answer.py?hl=en&answer=5 Public speaking (custom edition
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gazine_awards/nma_winners/ Black Women in America. New moment: Personal testimony as
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Beebe, S.A. & Beebe, S.J. (2003). Kennedy, J.F. (1963, 11 June). Civil image, attitudes to weight, and
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Berners-Lee, T. & Fischeti, M. (2000). Leckie, G.J. (1996). Desperately two generations. Journal of
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Inside Search. Retrieved from:

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 www.publicspeakingproject.org

organizing and outlining

chapter 8

By Joshua Trey Barnett

University of Indiana, Bloomington, IN

introduction
Meg jaunted to the front of the chapter objectives: chapter outline:
classroom—her trusty index cards in After reading this chapter, you should  Introduction
one hand and her water bottle in the be able to:  The Topic, Purpose and Thesis
other. It was the mid-term o Selecting a Topic
presentation in her entomology class, 1. Select a topic appropriate
o Formulating a Purpose
a course she enjoyed more than her Statement
to the audience and
other classes. The night before, Meg o Writing a Thesis Statement
occasion.
had spent hours scouring the web for  Writing the body of your speech
2. Formulate a specific
o Selecting Main Points
information on the Woody Adelgid, purpose statement that
o Selecting Sub-points
an insect that has ravaged hemlock identifies precisely what
 Organizational Styles
tree populations in the United States you will do in your speech.
o Chronological
in recent years. But when she made it 3. Craft a thesis statement
o Topical
to the podium and finished her well- that clearly and succinctly
o Spatial
written and captivating introduction, summarizes the argument
o Comparative
you will make in your
her speech began to fall apart. Her o Problem - Solution
speech.
index cards were a jumble of o Causal
4. Identify and arrange the
unorganized information, not linked  Connecting Your Main Points
main points of your speech
together by any unifying theme or o Transitional Statements
according to one of many
o Internal Previews
purpose. As she stumbled through organizational styles
o Summaries
lists of facts, Meg—along with her discussed in this chapter.
 Outlining Your Speech
peers and instructor—quickly 5. Connect the points of your
o Outline Types
realized that her presentation had all speech to one another.
o Outline Structure
the necessary parts to be compelling, 6. Create a preparation and
o Preparation Outline
but that those parts were not speaking outline for your
o Speaking Outline
speech.
organized into a coherent and o Using the Outline
convincing speech.  Conclusion
 Module Activities
Giving a speech or presentation can things are established, speakers must  Glossary
be a daunting task for anyone, select the main points of their speech,  References
especially inexperienced public which should be organized in a way  Appendix A
speakers or students in introductory that illuminates the speaker’s  Appendix B
speech courses. Speaking to an perspective, research agenda, or
audience can also be a rewarding solution to a problem. In a nutshell, the initial stages of speechwriting—
experience for speakers who are willing effective public speeches are focused selecting an important and relevant
to put in the extra effort needed to craft on particular topics and contain one or topic for your audience. The more
rhetorical masterpieces. Indeed, more main points that are relevant to difficult task of formulating a purpose
speeches and presentations must be both the topic and the audience. For all statement is discussed next. A purpose
crafted. Such a design requires that of these components to come together
speakers do a great deal of preparatory convincingly, organizing and outlining
work, like selecting a specific topic and must be done prior to giving a speech.
Chaos is inherent in all
deciding on a particular purpose for
This chapter addresses a variety of
compounded things. Strive on
their speech. Once the topic and
purpose have been decided on, a thesis strategies needed to craft the body of with diligence.
statement can be prepared. After these public speeches. The chapter begins at ~ Buddha
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-
nd/3.0/us/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA.
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Chapter 8 Outlining and Organizing www.publicspeakingproject.org

statement drives the organization of the

speech since different purposes (e.g., Questions for Selecting a Topic
informational or persuasive) necessitate
different types of evidence and
presentation styles. Next, the chapter  What important events are occurring locally, nationally and
internationally?
offers a variety of organizational
strategies for the body of your speech.  What do I care about most?
Not every strategy will be appropriate  Is there someone or something I can advocate for?
for every speech, so the strengths and
weaknesses of the organizational styles  What makes me angry/happy?
are also addressed. The chapter then  What beliefs/attitudes do I want to share?
discusses ways to connect your main  Is there some information the audience needs to know?
points and to draw links between your
main points and the purpose you have The most common way that speakers the way students think or behave in
chosen. In the final section of this discover topics is by simply observing relation to a particular event on
chapter, one of the most important what is happening around them—at campus.
steps in speechwriting, outlining your their school, in their local government, But you need not run for president or
speech, is discussed. The chapter or around the world. This is because student government in order to give a
provides the correct format for outlines all speeches are brought into existence meaningful speech. On the contrary,
as well as information on how to write as a result of circumstances, the opportunities abound for those
a preparation outline and a speaking multiplicity of activities going on at interested in engaging speech as a tool
outline. any one given moment in a particular for change. Perhaps the simplest way
place. For instance, presidential to find a topic is to ask yourself a few
candidates craft short policy speeches questions. See the textbox entitled
the topic, purpose statement that can be employed during debates, “Questions for Selecting a Topic” for a
and thesis interviews, or town hall meetings few questions that will help you choose
Before any work can be done on during campaign seasons. When one of a topic.
crafting the body of your speech or the candidates realizes he or she will
presentation, you must first do some not be successful, the particular There are other questions you might
prep work—selecting a topic, circumstances change and the person ask yourself, too, but these should lead
formulating a purpose statement, and must craft different kinds of you to at least a few topical choices.
crafting a thesis statement. In doing so, speeches—a concession speech, for The most important work that these
you lay the foundation for your speech example. In other words, their questions do is to locate topics within
by making important decisions about campaign for presidency, and its many your pre-existing sphere of knowledge
what you will speak about and for what related events, necessitates the creation and interest. David Zarefsky (2010)
purpose you will speak. These of various speeches. Rhetorical theorist also identifies brainstorming as a way
decisions will influence and guide the Lloyd Bitzer (1968) describes this as to develop speech topics, a strategy that
entire speechwriting process, so it is the rhetorical situation. Put simply, the can be helpful if the questions listed in
wise to think carefully and critically rhetorical situation is the combination the textbox did not yield an appropriate
during these beginning stages. of factors that make speeches and other or interesting topic.
discourse meaningful and a useful way Starting with a topic you are already
I think reading is important to change the way something is. interested in will likely make writing
in any form. I think a person Student government leaders, for and presenting your speech a more
example, speak or write to other enjoyable and meaningful experience.
who's trying to learn to like students when their campus is facing It means that your entire speechwriting
reading should start off tuition or fee increases, or when process will focus on something you
reading about a topic they students have achieved something find important and that you can present
spectacular, like lobbying campus
are interested in, or a person administrators for lower student fees
they are interested in. and succeeding. In either case, it is the
~ Ice Cube situation that makes their speeches
appropriate and useful for their
selecting a topic
audience of students and university
Generally, speakers focus on one or
employees. More importantly, they
more interrelated topics—relatively
speak when there is an opportunity to
broad concepts, ideas, or problems that
change a university policy or to alter
are relevant for particular audiences.

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Chapter 8 Outlining and Organizing www.publicspeakingproject.org

this information to people who stand to one of these goals. According to should protect bog turtle habitats by
benefit from your speech. O’Hair, Stewart, and Rubenstein choosing to prohibit business from
Once you have answered these (2004), a specific purpose statement locating in these habitats. In this
questions and narrowed your responses, “expresses both the topic and the example, the thesis statement outlines
you are still not done selecting your general speech purpose in action form the main points and implies that the
topic. For instance, you might have and in terms of the specific objectives speaker will be arguing for certain
decided that you really care about you hope to achieve” (p. 111). For zoning practices.
conserving habitat for bog turtles. This instance, the bog turtle habitat activist
is a very broad topic and could easily might write the following specific
lead to a dozen different speeches. To purpose statement: At the end of my
resolve this problem, speakers must speech, the Clarke County Zoning
also consider the audience to whom Commission will understand that
they will speak, the scope of their locating businesses in bog turtle
presentation, and the outcome they habitat is a poor choice with a range of
wish to achieve. If the bog turtle negative consequences. In short, the
enthusiast knows that she will be general purpose statement lays out the
talking to a local zoning board and that broader goal of the speech while the
she hopes to stop them from allowing specific purpose statement describes
businesses to locate on important bog precisely what the speech is intended to
turtle habitat, her topic can easily do.
morph into something more specific.
Now, her speech topic is two-pronged:
Success demands singleness
bog turtle habitat and zoning rules. of purpose. writing the body of your speech
~ Vince Lombardi Once you have finished the
important work of deciding what your
writing the thesis statement speech will be about, as well as
The specific purpose statement is a formulating the purpose statement and
tool that you will use as you write your crafting the thesis, you should turn your
talk, but it is unlikely that it will appear attention to writing the body of your
verbatim in your speech. Instead, you speech. All of your main points are
will want to convert the specific contained in the body, and normally
purpose statement into a thesis this section is prepared well before you
statement that you will share with your ever write the introduction or
audience. A thesis statement conclusion. The body of your speech
encapsulates the main points of a will consume the largest amount of
formulating the purpose time to present; and it is the
speech in just a sentence or two, and it
statements opportunity for you to elaborate on
is designed to give audiences a quick
By honing in on a very specific facts, evidence, examples, and opinions
preview of what the entire speech will
topic, you begin the work of that support your thesis statement and
be about. The thesis statement for a
formulating your purpose statement. do the work you have outlined in the
speech, like the thesis of a research-
In short, a purpose statement clearly specific purpose statement. Combining
based essay, should be easily
states what it is you would like to these various elements into a cohesive
identifiable and ought to very
achieve. Purpose statements are and compelling speech, however, is not
succinctly sum up the main points you
especially helpful for guiding you as without its difficulties, the first of
will present. Moreover, the thesis
you prepare your speech. When which is deciding which elements to
statement should reflect the general
deciding which main points, facts, and include and how they ought to be
purpose of your speech; if your purpose
examples to include, you should simply organized to best suit your purpose.
is to persuade or educate, for instance,
ask yourself whether they are relevant
the thesis should alert audience
not only to the topic you have selected, Good design is making
members to this goal. The bog turtle
but also whether they support the goal
you outlined in your purpose statement.
enthusiast might prepare the following something intelligible and
thesis statement based on her specific
The general purpose statement of a
purpose statement: Bog turtle habitats
memorable. Great design is
speech may be to inform, to persuade, making something
are sensitive to a variety of activities,
to inspire, to celebrate, to mourn, or to
entertain. Thus, it is common to frame
but land development is particularly memorable and meaningful.
harmful to unstable habitats. The
a specific purpose statement around
Clarke County Zoning Commission ~ Dieter Rams

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Chapter 8 Outlining and Organizing www.publicspeakingproject.org

The main points of any speech are for organizing the main points of a
the key pieces of information or speech. Oprah Winfrey
arguments contained within the talk or (Chronological Arrangement)
presentation. In other words, the main
points are what your audience should Thesis: Oprah’s career can be
remember from your talk. Unlike facts understood by four key,
or examples, main points are broad and interconnected life stages.
can be encapsulated in just a sentence I. Oprah’s childhood was
or two and represent the big ideas you spent in rural Mississippi,
want to convey to your audience. In where she endured sexual
general, speeches contain two to seven abuse from family
main points (Bower, 1990) that members.
collectively lead to some understanding II. Oprah’s early career was
by the end of the speech. For characterized by stints on
informative speeches, main points local radio and television
might include historical details that networks in Nashville and
advance a particular understanding of chronological Chicago.
an event. For a persuasive speech, When you speak about events that III. Oprah’s tenure as host of
however, your main points may be your are linked together by time, it is the Oprah Winfrey Show
separate arguments that, when sensible to engage the chronological began in 1986 and lasted
combined, help to make your case. organization style. In a chronological until 2011, a period of time
When writing your main points, you speech, main points are delivered marked by much success.
may want to do so in parallel structure. according to when they happened and IV. Oprah’s most recent
Parallel structure refers to main could be traced on a calendar or clock. media venture is OWN:
points that are worded using the same Arranging main points in chronological The Oprah Winfrey
structure, perhaps by starting with a order can be helpful when describing Network, which plays host
common introductory clause historical events to an audience as well to a variety of television
(Verderber, Verderber, & Sellnow, as when the order of events is shows including Oprah’s
2008). Main points do not stand alone; necessary to understand what you wish Next Chapter.
instead, speakers must substantiate to convey. Informative speeches about
their main points by offering up a series of events most commonly
examples, statistics, facts, anecdotes, or engage the chronological style, as do topical
other information that contribute to the many demonstrative speeches (e.g., When the main points of your speech
audience’s understanding of the main how to bake a cake or build an center on ideas that are more distinct
points. All of these things make up the airplane). Another time when the from one another, a topical
sub-points, which are used to help chronological style makes sense is organization style may be engaged. In
prove the main points. This is where when you tell the story of someone’s a topical speech, main points are
all of your research and supporting life or career. For instance, a speech developed separately and are generally
information comes into play. about Oprah Winfrey might be connected together within the
arranged chronologically (see textbox). introduction and conclusion. In other
In this case, the main points are words, the topical style is crafted
organizational styles arranged by following Winfrey’s life around main points and sub-points that
After deciding which main points from birth to the present time. Life are mutually exclusive but related to
and sub-points you must include, you events (e.g., birth, her early career, her one another by virtue of the thesis. It
can get to work writing up the speech. life after ending the Oprah Winfrey makes sense to use the topical style
Before you do so, however, it is helpful Show) are connected together according when elements are connected to one
to consider how you will organize the to when they happened and highlight another because of their relationship to
ideas. From presenting historical the progression of Winfrey’s career. the whole. A topical speech about the
information in chronological order as Organizing the speech in this way composition of a newspaper company
part of an informative speech to illustrates the interconnectedness of life can be seen in the following textbox.
drawing a comparison between two events. The main points are linked together by
ideas in a persuasive speech to offering the fact that they are all a part of the
up problems and solutions, there are Doing the best at this moment same business. Although they are
many ways in which speakers can craft puts you in the best place for related in that way, the topical style
effective speeches. These are referred illustrates the ways in which the four
to as organizational styles, or templates the next moment. different departments function apart
~ Oprah Winfrey from one another. In this example, the
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Chapter 8 Outlining and Organizing www.publicspeakingproject.org

appropriate way to deliver key ideas. campus layout. The spatial style is
Composition of a Things can be described from top to fitting since the differences in
Newspaper Company bottom, inside to outside, left to right, architecture and uses of space are
(Topical Arrangement) north to south, and so on. Importantly, related to particular geographic areas,
speakers using a spatial style should making location a central organizing
Thesis: The newspaper has four offer commentary about the placement factor. As such, the spatial style
primary departments. of the main points as they move highlights these location differences.
I. The advertising through the speech, alerting audience
department sells display members to the location changes. For
advertisements to local instance, a speech about The University
and national businesses. of Georgia might be arranged spatially;
II. The editorial department in this example, the spatial organization
produces the written frames the discussion in terms of the
content of the
newspaper, including University of Georgia
feature stories. (Spatial Arrangement)
III. The production
department lays out the Thesis: The University of Georgia comparative
pages and manages pre- is arranged into four distinct When you need to discuss the
press work such as sections, which are similarities and differences between
distilling the pages and characterized by architectural two or more things, a comparative
processing colors. and disciplinary differences. organizational pattern can be
IV. The business department I. In North Campus, one will employed. In comparative speeches,
processes payments from find the University’s oldest speakers may choose to compare things
advertisers, employee building, a sprawling tree- a couple different ways. First, you
paperwork, and the bi- lined quad, and the could compare two or more things as
weekly payroll. famous Arches, all of whole (e.g., discuss all traits of an
which are nestled against apple and then all traits of an orange).
Athens’ downtown Second, you could compare these
topical style is a good fit because district. things element by element (e.g., color
the four departments are equally II. In West Campus, dozens of each, smell of each, AND taste of
important to the function of the of dormitories provide each). Some topics that are routinely
newspaper company. housing for the spoken about comparatively include
University’s large different cultures, different types of
undergraduate transportation, and even different types
population and students of coffee. A comparative speech
can regularly be found outline about eastern and western
lounging outside or at cultures could look like this.
one of the dining halls.
III. In East Campus, students
delight in newly Eastern vs. Western Culture
constructed, modern (Comparison Arrangement)
buildings and enjoy the
benefits of the University’s Thesis: There are a variety of
spatial health center, differences between Eastern
Another way to organize the points recreational facilities, and Western cultures.
of a speech is through a spatial speech, I. Eastern cultures tend to
and science research
which arranges main points according be more collectivistic.
buildings.
to their physical and geographic II. Western cultures tend to
IV. In South Campus,
relationships. The spatial style is an be more individualistic.
pharmacy, veterinary,
especially useful organization style III. Eastern cultures tend to
and biomedical science
when the main point’s importance is treat health issues
students traverse newly
derived from its location or directional holistically.
constructed parts of
focus. In other words, when the scene IV. Western cultures tend to
campus featuring well-
or the composition is a central aspect of treat health issues more
kept landscaping and
the main points, the spatial style is an acutely.
modern architecture.
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Chapter 8 Outlining and Organizing www.publicspeakingproject.org

In this type of speech, the list of

comparisons, which should be
substantiated with further evidence, Presidential Candidate’s
could go on for any number of main Speech
points. The speech could also compare (Problem-Solution Arrangement)
how two or more things are more alike
than one might think. For instance, a Thesis: The US energy crisis can
speaker could discuss how singers be solved by electing me as
Madonna and Lady Gaga share many president since I will devote
similarities both in aesthetic style and resources to the production of
in their music. renewable forms of energy.
I. The United States is facing
an energy crisis because the two. In other words, the speech
we cannot produce should make specific connections
enough energy ourselves between the problem and how the
to sustain the levels of solution can be engaged to solve it.
activity needed to run the causal
country. (problem) Similar to a problem-solution
II. The current administration speech, a causal speech informs
has failed to invest audience members about causes and
enough resources in effects that have already happened. In
renewable energy other words, a causal organization style
practices. (problem) first addresses some cause and then
shares what effects resulted. A causal
problem-solution III. We can help create a
Sometimes it is necessary to share a speech can be particularly effective
more stable situation if we when the speaker wants to share the
problem and a solution with an work to produce
audience. In cases like these, the relationship between two things, like
renewable forms of the creation of a vaccine to help deter
problem-solution speech is an energy within the United
appropriate way to arrange the main disease. An example of how a causal
States. (solution) speech about a shingles vaccine might
points of a speech. One familiar
example of speeches organized in this IV. If you vote for me, I will be designed follows:
way is the political speeches that ensure that renewable
presidential hopefuls give in the United energy creation is a
States. Often, candidates will begin priority. (solution)
their speech by describing a problem Shingles Speech
created by or, at the very least, left (Cause-Effect Arrangement)
unresolved by the incumbent. Once
they have established their view of the Thesis: The prevalence of the
This example illustrates the way in
problem, they then go on to flesh out disease shingles led to the invention
which a problem-solution oriented
their proposed solution. The problem- of a vaccine.
speech can be used to identify both a
solution style is especially useful when general problem (energy crisis) and a I. Shingles is a disease that
the speaker wants to convince the specific problem (incumbent’s lack of causes painful, blistering
audience that they should take action in action). Moreover, this example rashes in up to one million
solving some problem. A political highlights two kinds of solutions: a Americans every year.
candidate seeking office might frame a general solution and a solution that is (cause)
speech using the problem-solution style dependent on the speaker’s II. In 2006, a vaccine for
(sse texbox). involvement. The problem-solution shingles was licensed in the
speech is especially appropriate when United States and has been
The difference between what the speaker desires to promote a shown to reduce the
we do and what we are particular solution as this offers likelihood that people over
audience members a way to become
capable of doing would involved. Whether you are able to
60 years old will get
shingles. (effect)
suffice to solve most of the offer a specific solution or not, key to
world's problems. the problem-solution speech is a clear
description of both the problem and the
~ Mahatma Gandhi solution with clear links drawn between
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As the example illustrates, the basic Transitional Statements to Show Similarity and Difference
components of the causal speech are
the cause and the effect. Such an
To Show Similarity  “Similarly”
organizational style is useful when a
Between Points:  “In the same way”
speaker needs to share the results of a
 “Also”
new program, discuss how one act led
 “Likewise”
to another, or discuss the
 “In other words”
positive/negative outcomes of taking
some action.

Every choice you make has To Show Difference  “However”

Between Points:  “Unlike the last point”
an end result.  “On the other hand”
~ Zig Ziglar  “Conversely”
 “In opposition”
 “Another view is that”
Choosing an organizational style is
an important step in the speechwriting
process. As you formulate the purpose
of your speech and generate the main signposts, “words and gestures that short list of transitional statements that
points that you will need to include, allow you to move smoothly from one are helpful when you need to show
selecting an appropriate organizational idea to the next throughout your similarity or difference between the
style will likely become easier. The speech, showing relationships between points. You might also incorporate
topical, spatial, causal, comparative and ideas and emphasizing important non-verbal transitions, such as brief
chronological methods of arrangement points” (Beebe & Beebe, 2005, p. 204). pauses or a movement across the stage.
may be better suited to informative There are several ways to incorporate Pausing to look at your audience,
speeches, whereas the refutation pattern signposts into your speech, and it is stepping out from behind a podium, or
may work well for a persuasive speech. important to do so since these small even raising or lowering the rate of
Additionally, Chapter 16 offers signals keep listeners engaged and your voice can signal to audience
additional organization styles suited for informed about where you are in the members that you are transitioning.
persuasive speeches, such as the speech. Transitional statements,
refutation speech and Monroe’s internal previews, and summaries are
Motivated Sequence (Monroe, 1949). all signposts that can help keep your
Next, we will look at statements that speech moving along.
help tie all of your points together and
the formal mode of organizing a speech If you cry 'forward', you must
by using outlines. without fail make plain in
what direction to go.
~ Anton Chekhov

One way to connect points is to Another way to incorporate

include transitional statements. signposts into your speech is by
Transitional statements are phrases or offering internal previews within your
sentences that lead from one distinct- speech. Internal previews, like the
but-connected idea to another. They name implies, lay out what will occur
are used to alert audiences to the fact during your speech. They tell the
that you are getting ready to discuss audience what to expect. Because
something else. When moving from
connecting your main points audience members cannot flip back and
one point to another, your transition forth between pages, internal previews
Since main points are discrete and
may just be a word or short phrase. For help keep them on track and aware of
interconnected ideas, and since every
instance, you might say “next,” “also,” what to be listening for and what to
speech contains more than one main
or “moreover.” You can also remember. Internal previews are
point, it is necessary to strategically
enumerate your speech points and similar to the preview statements you
make connections between one point
signal transitions by starting each point will learn about in the chapter on
and another. To link the ideas of your
with “First,” “Second,” “Third,” et introductions and conclusions (Chapter
speech, you will need to develop
cetera. The textbox above offers a 9), except that they appear within the
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body of your speech and are more federal government to protect preparation outline is used to work
small-scale than the broad preview you these habitats through the various components of
should provide at the beginning of your your speech in an inventive format.
speech. In general, internal previews Stephen E. Lucas (2004) put it simply:
are longer than transitional statements. In this example, the speaker first “The preparation outline is just what its
If you were giving a problem-solution reminds audience members of what he name implies—an outline that helps
speech, you might include a variation has already addressed and then tells you prepare the speech” (p. 248).
of this internal preview: “Now that I them what he will talk about next. By When writing the preparation outline,
have described the problems, let’s now repeating the main points in summary you should focus on finalizing the
discuss some ways that we can solve fashion, the speaker gives audience purpose and thesis statements, logically
these issues.” The internal preview members another opportunity to ordering your main points, deciding
offers a natural segue from problems to consider his main ideas. where supporting material should be
solutions and makes audience members included, and refining the overall
aware that another point is about to be Good communication does organizational pattern of your speech.
made. not mean that you have to As you write the preparation outline,
When speeches are longer than a few speak in perfectly formed you may find it necessary to rearrange
your points or to add or subtract
minutes and include complex ideas and sentences and paragraphs. It supporting material. You may also
information, speakers often include
summaries within the body of their isn’t about slickness. Simple realize that some of your main points
speech. Summaries provide a recap of and clear go a long way. are sufficiently supported while others
are lacking. The final draft of your
what has already been said, making it ~ John Kotter preparation outline should include full
more likely that audiences will
remember the points that they hear sentences, making up a complete script
again. Additionally, summaries can be outlining your speech of your entire speech. In most cases,
combined with internal previews to Most speakers and audience however, the preparation outline is
alert audience members that the next members would agree that an organized reserved for planning purposes only
point builds on those that they have speech is both easier to present as well and is translated into a speaking outline
already heard. as more persuasive. Public speaking before you deliver the speech.
teachers especially believe in the power A speaking outline is the outline
of organizing your speech, which is you will prepare for use when
why they encourage (and often require) delivering the speech. The speaking
that you create an outline for your outline is much more succinct than the
speech. Outlines, or textual preparation outline and includes brief
arrangements of all the various phrases or words that remind the
elements of a speech, are a very speakers of the points they need to
common way of organizing a speech make, plus supporting material and
before it is delivered. Most signposts (Beebe & Beebe, 2005). The
extemporaneous speakers keep their words or phrases used on the speaking
The speaker below has just finished outlines with them during the speech as outline should briefly encapsulate all of
discussing several reasons trout habitats a way to ensure that they do not leave the information needed to prompt the
need federal protection, and next he out any important elements and to keep speaker to accurately deliver the
will discuss some ways that audience them on track. Writing an outline is speech. Although some cases call for
members can agitate for government also important to the speechwriting reading a speech verbatim from the
action on these issues. His combined process since doing so forces the full-sentence outline, in most cases
internal preview and summary would speakers to think about the main points speakers will simply refer to their
look something like this: and sub-points, the examples they wish
So, in review, trout habitats need to include, and the ways in which these
elements correspond to one another. In
federal protection because they short, the outline functions both as an
bear a large pollution burden, organization tool and as a reference for
they mostly exist on private delivering a speech.
property, and they are indicators
outline types
of other environmental health There are two types of outlines. The
issues. Next, I will discuss some first outline you will write is called the
ways that you can encourage the preparation outline. Also called a
working, practice, or rough outline, the

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speaking outline for quick reminders Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.), and topic, specific purpose statement, and
and to ensure that they do not omit any finally lowercase letters (a, b, c, etc.). thesis statement. These elements are
important information. Because it uses Each level of subordination is also helpful to you, the speechwriter, since
just words or short phrases, and not full differentiated from its predecessor by they remind you what, specifically, you
sentences, the speaking outline can indenting a few spaces. Indenting are trying to accomplish in your
easily be transferred to index cards that makes it easy to find your main points, speech. They are also helpful to
can be referenced during a speech. sub-points, and the supporting points anyone reading and assessing your
and examples below them. Since there outline since knowing what you want to
outline structure
Because an outline is used to arrange are three sections to your speech— accomplish will determine how they
all of the elements of your speech, it introduction, body, and conclusion— perceive the elements included in your
makes sense that the outline itself has your outline needs to include all of outline. Additionally, you should write
an organizational hierarchy and a them. Each of these sections is titled out the transitional statements that you
common format. Although there are a and the main points start with Roman will use to alert audiences that you are
numeral I. moving from one point to another.
variety of outline styles, generally they
follow the same pattern. Main ideas In addition to these formatting These are included in parentheses
are preceded by Roman numerals (I, II, suggestions, there are some additional between main points. At the end of the
elements that should be included at the outlines, you should include
III, etc.). Sub-points are preceded by
capital letters (A, B, C, etc.), then beginning of your outline: the title, bibliographic information for any
outside resources you mention during
the speech. These should be cited
Outline Formatting Guide using whatever citations style your
professor requires. The textbox entitled
“Outline Formatting Guide” provides
Title: Organizing Your Public Speech an example of the appropriate outline
Topic: Organizing public speeches format.
Specific Purpose Statement: To inform listeners about the various ways in
which they can organize their public speeches. If you do not change
Thesis Statement: A variety of organizational styles can used to organize direction, you may end up
public speeches.
where you are heading.
Introduction ~ Lao Tzu
Paragraph that gets the attention of the audience, establishes goodwill
with the audience, states the purpose of the speech, and previews the
preparation outline
speech and its structure. This chapter contains the preparation
(Transition) and speaking outlines for a short speech
Body the author of this chapter gave about
I. Main point how small organizations can work on
A. Sub-point issues related to climate change (see
B. Sub-point appendices). In this example, the title,
C. Sub-point specific purpose, thesis, and list of
1. Supporting point visual aids precedes the speech.
2. Supporting point Depending on your instructor’s
(Transition) requirements, you may need to include
II. Main point these details plus additional
A. Sub-point information. It is also a good idea to
1. Supporting point keep these details at the top of your
a. Example document as you write the speech since
b. Example they will help keep you on track to
2. Supporting point developing an organized speech that is
B. Sub-point in line with your specific purpose and
(Transition) helps prove your thesis. At the end of
Conclusion the chapter, in Appendix A, you can
Paragraph that prepares the audience for the end of the speech, find a full length example of a
presents any final appeals, and summarizes and wraps up the speech. Preparation (Full Sentence) Outline
Bibliography

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cards or pages close to your eyes to rewarding. Like cleaning up a messy

read them. Second, make sure you have kitchen or organizing your closet, doing
the cards/pages in the correct order and the more tedious work of organizing
bound together in some way so that your speech is an activity you will
they do not get out of order. Third, just appreciate most once it is done. From
in case the cards/pages do get out of the very beginning stages of
order (this happens too often!), be sure organization, like choosing a topic and
that you number each in the top right writing a thesis statement, to deciding
corner so you can quickly and easily how best to arrange the main points of
get things organized. Fourth, try not to your speech and outlining, getting
fiddle with the cards/pages when you organized is one step toward an
are speaking. It is best to lay them effective and engaging speech or
down if you have a podium or table in presentation.
front of you. If not, practice reading Had Meg, the student mentioned in
from them in front of a mirror. You the opening anecdote, taken some time
should be able to look down quickly, to work through the organizational
read the text, and then return to your process, it is likely her speech would
gaze to the audience. have gone much more smoothly when
she finished her introduction. It is very
Any intelligent fool can make common for beginning speakers to
things bigger and more spend a great deal of their time
complex... It takes a touch of preparing catchy introductions, fancy
speaking outline PowerPoint presentations, and nice
In Appendix B, the Preparation genius - and a lot of courage conclusions, which are all very
Outline is condensed into just a few to move in the opposite important. However, the body of any
short key words or phrases that will direction. speech is where the speaker must make
remind speakers to include all of their effective arguments, provide helpful
main points and supporting ~ Albert Einstein information, entertain, and the like, so
information. The introduction and it makes sense that speakers should
conclusion are not included since they conclusion devote a proportionate amount of time
will simply be inserted from the If you have been using this chapter to these areas as well. By following this
Preparation Outline. It is easy to forget to guide you through the organizational chapter, as well as studying the other
your catchy attention-getter or final stages of writing your speech, you have chapters in this text, you should be
thoughts you have prepared for your likely discovered that getting organized prepared to craft interesting,
audience, so it is best to include the full is very challenging but also very compelling, and organized speeches.
sentence versions even in your
speaking outline.
using the speaking outline
Once you have prepared the outline
and are almost ready to give your
speech, you should decide how you
want to format your outline for
presentation. Many speakers like to
carry a stack of papers with them when
they speak, but others are more
comfortable with a smaller stack of
index cards with the outline copied
onto them. Moreover, speaking
instructors often have requirements for
how you should format the speaking
outline. Whether you decide to use
index cards or the printed outline, here
are a few tips. First, write large enough
so that you do not have to bring the

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chapter review questions and activities

review questions

1. Name three questions you should ask yourself when selecting a topic.

2. What is the difference between a general and specific purpose statement? Write examples of each for each of these
topics: dog training, baking a cake, climate change.

3. How does the thesis statement differ from the specific purpose statement?

4. Which speech organization style arranges points by time? Which one arranges points by direction? Which one
arranges points according to a five-step sequence?

5. Which speech organization styles are best suited for persuasive speeches?

6. Define signpost. What are three types of signposts?

7. What is the correct format for a speech outline?

activities

1. Reverse outlining.
During a classmate's speech, pay special attention to the organization style that he or she employs. As they give their
speech, try to construct an outline based on what you hear. If your classmate has followed many of the suggestions
provided in this and other chapters, you should be able to identify and replicate the structure of the speech. Compare your
"reverse" outline with the speaking outline. Discuss any areas of discrepancy.

2. Topic Proposal Workshop.

Often, selecting a topic can be one of the most challenging steps in developing a speech for your class. Prior to class,
review the textbox "Questions for selecting a topic" on page 8-2. Answer these questions and choose a tentative topic.
Write up a short paragraph about your topic that describes its importance, why it interests you, and what you would like to
convey to an audience about your proposed topic. In class, meet with two or three additional students to discuss and
workshop each of your topics. As you discuss your topic with others, jot down what questions they had, what aspects they
seemed to find most interesting, and any suggestions your peers might have. Once the workshop is complete, proceed with
narrowing your topic to something manageable.

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glossary
Chronological Speech
A speech in which the main points are delivered Refutation Speech
according to when they happened and could be traced A speech that anticipates the audience’s opposition, then
on a calendar or clock. brings attention to the tensions between the two sides,
and finally refutes them using evidential support.
Comparative Speech
A speech in which two or more objects, ideas, beliefs, Rhetorical Situation
events, places, or things are compared or contrasted According to Lloyd Bitzer, "a complex of persons, events,
with one another. objects, and relations presenting an actual or potential
exigence which can be completely or partially removed if
Causal Speech discourse, introduced into the situation, can so constrain
A speech that informs audience members about causes human decision or action as to bring about the
and effects that have already happened. significant modification of the exigence" (1968, p. 6).

General Purpose Statement Signposts

The overarching goal of a speech; for instance, to inform, According to Beebe and Beebe, “words and gestures that
to persuade, to inspire, to celebrate, to mourn, or to allow you to move smoothly from one idea to the next
entertain. throughout your speech, showing relationships between
ideas and emphasizing important points” (2005, p. 204).
Internal Previews
Short descriptions of what a speaker will do and say Spatial Speech
during a speech; may be at the beginning and within the A speech in which the main points are arranged
body of a speech. according to their physical and geographic relationships.

Main Points Speaking Outline

The key pieces of information or arguments contained A succinct outline that uses words or short phrases to
within a talk or presentation. represent the components of a speech and that is used
during speech delivery.
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence
An organization style that is designed to motivate the Specific Purpose Statement
audience to take a particular action and is characterized A sentence of two that describe precisely what the
by a five-step sequence: (1) attention, (2) need, (3) speech is intended to do.
satisfaction, (4), visualization, and (5) action appeal.
Sub-Points
Organizational Styles Information that is used to support the main points of a
Templates for organizing the main points of a speech speech.
that are rooted in traditions of public discourse and can
jumpstart the speechwriting process. Summaries
Short recaps of what has already been said; used to
Outline remind the audience of the points already addressed.
Hierarchal textual arrangement of all the various
elements of a speech. Thesis Statement
A one- or two-sentence encapsulation of the main points
Parallel Structure of a speech, also called the central idea.
Main points that are worded using the same structure.
Topical Speech
Preparation Outline A speech in which main points are developed separately
A full-sentence outline that is used during the planning and are generally connected together within the
stages to flesh out ideas, arrange main points, and to introduction and conclusion.
rehearse the speech; could be used as a script if
presenting a manuscript style speech. Transitional Statements
Phrases or sentences that lead from one distinct-but-
Problem-Solution Speech connected idea to another.
A speech in which problems and solutions are presented
alongside one another with a clear link between a
problem and its solution.

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references

Beebe, S. A. & Beebe, S. J. (2003). The public speaking O’Hair, D., Stewart, R., Rubenstein, H. (2004). A
handbook (5th edition). Boston: Pearson. speaker’s guidebook: Text and reference (2nd edition).

Bower, G. H. (1990). Organizational factors in memory. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Cognitive Psychology, 1, 18-46. Verderber, R. F., Verderber, K. S., & Sellnow, D. D.

Bitzer, L. (1968). The rhetorical situation. Philosophy & (2008). The challenge of effective speaking (14th

Rhetoric, 1(1), 1-14. edition). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning.

Lucas, Stephen E. (2004). The art of public speaking (8th Zarefsky, D. (2010). Public speaking: Strategies for

edition). New York: McGraw-Hill. success (6th edition). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Monroe, A. H. (1949). Principles and types of speech.

Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company.

photo credits

p. 3 Bog Turtle by R.G. Tucker

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bog_turtle_sun p. 8 Rainbow Trout by Jonathunder
ning.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trout.jpg

p. 4 Oscar Mayer Wienermobile byJalopnik p. 8 Mayor Carol Shafto by Michigan Municipal

http://jalopnik.com/5310348/ten+pack-of-dogs-history- League
of-the-wienermobile/gallery/1 http://www.flickr.com/photos/michigancommunities/62
28314099/
p. 4 Mac vs PC
http://i2.cdn.turner.com/cnn/2011/TECH/web/04/22/ma p. 10 Maj. Gen John Nichols by Texas Military Forces
c.pc.users/t1larg.mac.pc.2.jpg http://www.flickr.com/photos/texasmilitaryforces/55604
49970/
p. 5 Rio Nido Mudslide by Dave Gately
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FEMA_-
_1337_-_Photograph_by_Dave_Gatley_taken_on_03-01-
1998_in_California.jpg

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Appendix A
Example Preparation (Full Sentence) Outline

Title: For the Fish: Climate Work By and For Fishers

Specific Purpose: To persuade trout fishers that climate change is a threat to coldwater fisheries and that they should
organize to create collective change to the environmental issues surrounding climate change.
Thesis: Trout fisheries are endangered by climate change, but fishers can (and should) work to mitigate these issues.
Visual Aids: PowerPoint presentation

Introduction
Most of you have heard about climate change and have wondered whether or how it might be affecting trout fisheries.
Unfortunately, climate scientists’ predictions about climate change seem to indicate that trout fisheries may bear a number
of consequences if climate change continues to go unbridled. However, we also know that many of the worst effects of
climate change can be mitigated if we engage in collective action now. In this speech, I will begin by offering a brief
history of climate science, then describe how these issues affect trout fisheries, and finally offer some examples of how
we can personally and collectively work to mitigate these issues.

Body
I. Climate change is not a recent invention of a few liberal scientists. On the contrary, scientists have been talking about
climate change since the mid-1800s (Weart, 2009).
A. In 1859, Tyndall discovers some gases block infrared radiation. He believes this may cause a change in
climate.
B. In 1896, Arrhenius publishes the first calculation of global warming from human CO2 emissions.
C. From 1870-1920, the Second Industrial Revolution takes place.
D. In 1938, Callendar argues that CO2 greenhouse global warming is under way.
[… history lesson proceeds …]
(Summary: In short, this history lesson teaches us that Earth has been getting warmer.)

(Preview: Next, let’s look at how climate change may be affecting trout fisheries.)
II. Climate change appears to have some serious consequences for trout fisheries. I will discuss four ways in which
climate change may be said to negatively influence trout fisheries.
A. First, changing weather patterns brings more or less water to some parts of Earth.
1. Trout fisheries rely on a steady flow of clean, cold water. Too much or too little can quickly destroy
trout habitats.
2. Some areas may experience severe droughts, another threat to trout fisheries.
B. Second, warming land and aquatic temperatures lead to a reduction in available trout habitat.
1. Changing temperatures influence predator/prey patterns.
2. Habitat reduction due to warmer temperatures may increase competition between cold- and warm-
water fishes.
C. Third, stream flow patterns may change, affecting availability of aquatic insects.
And fourth, brook trout may be especially vulnerable.
1. Previous brook trout decimation has been related to habitat loss.
2. Climate change could exacerbate this by causing further habitat destruction.
(Summary: Although these challenges are large scale, there is some hope that we can mitigate these issues.)

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(Preview: Next, I will discuss some ways that individuals and collectives can help reverse some of the issues caused by
climate change.)
III. There are two key areas in which we can mitigate climate change: personal actions and collective actions.
A. Personally, individuals can make changes in their everyday lives (Sorenen, 2008).
1. Individuals can reduce CO2 emissions by driving less or not at all. Instead they could ride a bike or
take public transit.
2. Individuals can also reduce energy consumption by changing usage patterns, like drying their
clothes outside instead of using an electric dryer.
3. Individuals could help alleviate one of the largest contributors to climate change, overpopulation,
by preventing unwanted births.
B. Collectively, there are several actions we can take to mitigate climate change (Cuomo, 2010).
1. Collectives should lobby policy makers to make serious changes:
a. Reduce fossil fuel consumption.
b. Create caps on industrial emissions.
c. Encourage and support renewable and sustainable energy.
2. U.S. should support Kyoto Treaty, which was passed in 2005.
Conclusion
It should be clear at this point that climate change is an issue that trout fishers will have to deal with in the future.
Although the issues are large and daunting, I have provided some clear examples of how we can both personally and
collectively mitigate these issues. I hope you will consider taking at least some of my advice today. I will leave you with
something that Henrik Tikkanen once said: “Because we don’t think about future generations, they will never forget us.”

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Appendix B
Example Speaking Outline (Excluding Introduction and Conclusion)

I. Climate science is not new (Weart, 2009).

A. 1859 – Tyndall
B. 1896 – Arrhenius
C. 1870-1920 – Second Industrial Revolution
D. 1938 – Callendar
[… history lesson proceeds …]
(Summary: In short, this history lesson teaches us that Earth has been getting warmer.)

(Preview: Next, let’s look at how climate change may be affecting trout fisheries.)
II. Climate change is bad for trout in four ways.
A. Weather patterns
1. Too much/little rain is bad
2. Droughts
B. Warming leads to habitat reduction
1. Predator/prey patterns.
2. Competition between cold- and warm-water fishes.
C. Stream flow patterns may change
D. Brook trout vulnerable
1. Population decimated by habitat loss
2. Exacerbated by climate change
(Summary: Although these challenges are large scale, there is some hope that we can mitigate these issues.)

(Preview: Next, I will discuss some ways that individuals and collectives can help reverse some of the issues caused by
climate change.)
III. Personal and collective mitigation
A. Personal (Sorenen, 2008)
1. Reduce CO2 emissions
2. Reduce energy consumption
3. Birth control
B. Collective (Cuomo, 2010)
1. Lobby for:
a. Reduce fossil fuel consumption
b. Create caps on industrial emissions
c. Encourage and support renewable and sustainable energy
2. Support Kyoto

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introductions & conclusions Public Speaking: The Virtual Text

chapter 9

By Warren Sandmann, Ph.D.

Minnesota State University, Mankato, MN

introduction
First impressions count. Carlin Flora
(2004), writing in Psychology Today, chapter objectives: chapter outline:
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:  Introduction
recounts an experiment in which people  Functions of Introductions
with no special training were shown o Gain Attention and Interest
1. List and describe the four
20-to 32- second video clips of job o Gain Goodwill
functions of an introduction
applicants in the initial stages of a job 2. List and describe the o Clearly State the Purpose
interview. After watching the short common types of attention o Preview and Structure the
clips, the viewers were asked to rate the getters Speech
applicants on characteristics including 3. Describe and implement  Attention-Getting Strategies
self-assurance and likeability— strategies for preparing o Tell a Story
important considerations in a job introductions o Refer to the Occasion
o Refer to Recent or Historical
interview. These ratings were then 4. List and describe the four
functions of a conclusion Events
compared with the findings from the
5. List and describe common o Refer to Previous Speeches
trained interviewers who spent 20 o Refer to Personal Interest
minutes or more with the job types of conclusions
6. Describe and implement o Use Startling Statistics
applicants. The result: The 20-to 32- o Use an Analogy
strategies for preparing
second ratings were basically the same conclusions o Use a Quotation
as the ratings from the trained 7. Apply chapter concepts in o Ask a Question
interviewers. review questions and o Use Humor
activities  Preparing the Introduction
When we stand in front of an o Construct the Introduction Last
audience, we have very little time to set o Make it Relevant
the stage for a successful speech. As o Be Succinct
seen from the example above, audience purpose of the speech and they must o Write it Out Word for Word
members begin evaluating us preview the main points.  Functions of Conclusions
immediately. What we sometimes These first two functions of the o Prepare the Audience for the
forget since we are so focused on the introduction, gaining the attention of end of the speech
words we have to say is that we are o Present Any Final Appeals
the audience and the good will of the
being evaluated even before we open o Summarize and Close
audience, have most to do with getting
o End with a Clincher
our mouths. the audience to want to listen to you. o Appeals and Challenges
The other two functions of the  Composing the Conclusion
He has the deed half done introduction, stating the purpose of the o Prepare the Conclusion
who has made a beginning. speech and previewing the structure of o Do Not Include any New
the speech, have to do with helping the Information
~ Horace audience understand you. o Follow the Structure
 Conclusion
 Review Questions and Activities
functions of introductions gain attention and Interest  Glossary
Speech introductions are an essential The first function of the introduction  References
element of an effective public speech. is to the get the attention AND the
Introductions have four specific
functions that need to be met in a very The secret of successful speakers? Passion and compassion
short period of time. Introductions
must gain the audience’s attention and with a purpose.
their goodwill, they must state the ~ Lily Walters
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Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org

their attention and interest—you still You can also demonstrate internal
need them to think favorably of you. credibility by demonstrating personal
The most effective way of doing this is experience with or knowledge of the
by establishing your credibility to topic of your speech. Audiences are
speak. Credibility is your believability. more positively disposed toward a
You are credible when the audience speaker who has had experience with
thinks you know what you are talking the topic of his or her speech. You can
about. There are a number of methods also demonstrate credibility and
for developing credibility, and you will goodwill by showing a connection to
use them throughout the speech. In the your audience, demonstrating shared
introduction, however, since you have experiences or shared values.
interest of the audience. The “and” here comparatively little time to develop this A student giving a speech to a class
is important. Anyone can walk into a credibility, your options are a bit more about a month before spring break,
room full of people sitting quietly, and limited. right in the middle of an extended cold
YELL AT THE TOP OF THEIR spell of a long Midwestern winter,
LUNGS. That will get attention. To be persuasive, we must be offered this introduction as a way to
However, it will probably not garner believable. To be believable, show shared values and experiences:
much interest—at least not much
positive interest. we must be credible. To be I need everyone to close his or her
Gaining attention and interest is
credible, we must be truthful. eyes. All right, now I need
everyone to picture how he or she
essential if you want the audience to ~ Hellmut Walters got to school today. Did you
listen to what you have to say, and bundle up with a hat, some mittens,
audiences will decide fairly quickly if Essentially, credibility has two boots, and two jackets because it’s
they want to pay attention. Standing in elements: external credibility and so cold outside before you left for
front of an audience, slouched, hands in internal credibility. External class? While walking to class, was
pockets, cap pulled low over your head, credibility is the type of credibility you it cold? Did your ears burn from
and mumbling, “my name is… and I as a speaker gain by association: use of the icy wind blowing through the
am going to tell you about…” is an sources that the audience finds credible, air? Were your hands cold and
effective method of NOT getting for example. In an introduction, you chapped? Now I want you all to
attention and interest. Before you even may be able to develop external think about the sun beating down
open your mouth, your attire, stance credibility by this means, as we will see on your body. Picture yourself
and physical presence are all sending later in this section. lying on the beach with sand
out loud signals that you have no between your toes and the sound of
interest in the speech, so why should More importantly, given the
immediate nature of an introduction, is the ocean in the background. Or
the audience. picture yourself poolside, with a
internal credibility. You develop
internal credibility as the speaker Pina Coloda perhaps, with tropical
through specific actions. First, be music playing in the background.
gain the goodwill of the audience
Over 2000 years ago, probably the appropriately attired for a public Picture yourself in Mazatlan,
presentation. Second, make eye Mexico (Townsend, 2007).
pre-eminent speech teacher of all time,
Aristotle (1982), noted the importance contact with the audience before you
of gaining the goodwill of the audience: speak. Third, speak clearly, fluently
and confidently.
…it is not only necessary to
consider how to make the speech
itself demonstrative and
convincing, but also that the
speaker should show himself to be
of a certain character…and that
When speakers can identify with the
his hearers should think that he is
audience and can show how the
disposed in a certain way toward
them; and further, that they audience and the speaker share
themselves should be disposed in a experiences, then the audience is more
certain way towards him (p. 169). receptive to what the speaker has to
say. The speaker is both more credible
When an audience has decided to and more attractive to the audience.
listen to you—when you have gained

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The secret of success is

constancy of purpose.
~ Benjamin Disraeli

clearly state the purpose

This seems like such a basic step, yet
it is one too often missed; and without
this step, it is difficult for the audience
to follow, much less evaluate and
comprehend, a speech. In both basic
composition classes and basic public
speaking classes, this function is much
the same: State the thesis of your
speech. In all speeches, there should be
that one sentence, that one statement
that succinctly and accurately lets the
audience know what the speech will be next, and so on, to the end of the needs of the speaker, the occasion and
about and what the speaker plans to speech. the audience. Regardless of the
accomplish in the speech. Speakers, specific strategy used for the
especially novice speakers but also The preview is essentially an
outline—an oral outline—of the basic introduction, all introductions still need
experienced ones, are so concerned to meet the four basic functions of an
with the content of the speech that they organizational pattern of the speech.
Previews help the audience follow the introduction.
forget to let us know about the purpose.
content because they already know the
A good thesis statement clearly
structure. Remember, though, that the
You will get good attention
announces the topic and purpose of the
speech. basic structure of a speech is not linear, and people will be more
For example, a standard problem-
it is circular. Organizational patterns inclined to listen to you if you
for speeches have a conclusion which,
solution speech should have a thesis as we will see later, brings the audience can make a statement
statement that clearly states the back to the beginning. whereby their response is…
problem and the need for a solution.
Taking as an example the thesis “No kidding!”
So right now let’s see how statement from above, a sample ~ Gael Boardman
dependence on fossil fuels costs preview for that speech could appear as
you money and how use of ethanol the following: tell a story
as a supplement will save you
To see how we can end our Human beings love stories. In all
money and save the world from
dependence on fossil fuels, we will cultures, stories are used to
energy dependence.
first take a look at why we as a communicate and share values,
We know the topic and we know society are so dependent upon traditions and knowledge. Rhetorician
what the speaker will be attempting to fossil fuels; secondly, find out what Walter Fisher (1987) argues that human
prove. Once a thesis statement is continues to cause this beings are best understood as homo
clearly announced, the final function of dependence; and finally, see how narrans, as people who tell stories. As
the introduction is ready. ethanol as a fuel supplement will an introductory device, stories (and
help end this dependence and make anecdotes and illustrations) are very
the world a better place for all of effective attention getters.
preview and structure the speech us.
The thesis statement lets the First, stories have a built-in structure
audience know what the speech is that everyone recognizes and expects.
about and what you as speaker want to Stories have a beginning, middle and
attention-getting strategies end, and this built-in structure allows
accomplish. The preview statement lets Now that we have discussed the four
the audience know HOW you will the audience and the speaker to
basic functions of the introduction, let’s immediately share this experience.
develop the speech. A preview can be look at ten potential attention-getting
understood as a roadmap—a direction strategies. This is not an exhaustive Secondly, because this built-in
for the speech that leads to a successful list, and many of these attention getters structure, stories as attention getters
conclusion. A preview lets the audience can be combined or adapted to fit the lend themselves readily to a well-
know what will come first, what comes structured speech. You as speaker can
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start the story, get right to the climax, Well, thank you. Thank you Mr.
and then stop. You have the attention President, First Lady, King
of the audience; you have shared Abdullah of Jordan, Norm
experiences with them; and now you [Coleman], distinguished guests.
also have the conclusion of the speech Please join me in praying that I
all set to go—the end of the story. don't say something we'll all
regret.

Speakers who talk about what refer to recent or historical events

life has taught them never fail In addition to referring to the
to keep the attention of their occasion, another effective attention-
getting device is to refer to current
listeners. events or to historical events. This
~ Dale Carnegie style of reference again helps to create
a shared experience for the speaker and
refer to the occasion the audience, as the speaker reminds all
You are presenting this speech for a present that they have these events in
reason. The audience is present at this common. Additionally, referring to
speech for a reason. These reasons can current or historical events can also
provide you with an effective attention help establish goodwill and personal proposition that all men are
getter. Referring to the occasion is credibility by demonstrating that the created equal. Now we are
often used as an introduction to tribute speaker is aware of the relationship engaged in a great civil war,
speeches, toasts, dedication ceremonies between this particular speech and what testing whether that nation or any
and historical events. Speech scholar is going on in the world at that time, or nation so conceived and so
Lloyd Bitzer (1968) argues that all what has occurred in the past. dedicated can long endure.
speeches are made at least in part in Abraham Lincoln (1863), in one of
response to specific occasions, so the most well-known speeches in
referring to the occasion seems a good American history, refers both to History, despite its wrenching
idea. historical events and current events in
the beginning of the Gettysburg
pain, cannot be unlived, but if
Bono (2006), lead singer of the rock faced with courage, need not
group U2 and an activist for a number Address:
of humanitarian issues, addressed the be lived again.
54th annual National Prayer Breakfast, Fourscore and seven years ago our ~ Maya Angelou
and started his speech with these fathers brought forth on this
words: continent a new nation, conceived refer to previous speeches
in liberty and dedicated to the Most of you reading this material are
doing so because you are in a public
speaking or introductory
communication class of some kind.
And that means that most of you will
be presenting your speeches right after
someone else has presented his or her
speech. Even if you are not in a
classroom situation, many other
speaking situations (such as presenting
at a city council or other government
meeting, or taking part in a forum or
lecture series) result in speakers
presenting right after another person
has spoken.
In these situations, speakers before
you may have already addressed some
of the information you were planning to
discuss, or perhaps have given a speech

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in a lively and clear manner—again, rest of the story.” You need to place
enhancing your credibility. Referring this startling statistic in the context of
to your personal interest in this topic in your speech so that everything fits
the introduction also helps you set the together.
stage for additional anecdotes or One speaker used an effective
examples from your personal startling statistic to help introduce a
experience later in the speech. speech on the dangers of heart disease:
In speaking at the 1992 Democratic According to the Center for
National Convention, Elizabeth Glaser Disease Control, in the United
began her speech by acknowledging States 26.6 million adults have
her very personal interest in the topic: heart disease. This would be about
I'm Elizabeth Glaser. Eleven years 12% of adults, or three people in
ago, while giving birth to my first this room.
child, I hemorrhaged and was
transfused with seven pints of
blood. Four years later, I found out use an analogy
that I had been infected with the Analogies compare something that
AIDS virus and had unknowingly your audience knows and understands
on the same topic you are now planning passed it to my daughter, Ariel, with something new and different. For
to address. By referring to the previous through my breast milk, and my your speech, then, you can use an
speeches, you enhance your credibility son, Jake, in utero (Glaser, 1992). analogy to show a connection between
by showing your knowledge of the your speech topic (something new and
previous speech, and you have the different for the audience) and
opportunity to either compare or something that is known by your
contrast your speech to the previous audience.
speeches. Analogies can be effective because
Edward Kennedy, at the 1980 they use ideas, information and values
Democratic National Convention, of the audience to draw a connection to
began his speech with a short tribute your speech topic—and to you as a
and acknowledgement to the previous speaker. Analogies create connections
speaker, member of Congress Barbara between you and the audience.
Mikulski: One very common (and often
Thanks very much, Barbara misquoted) analogy comes from the
Mikulski, for your very eloquent, 1919 Supreme Court case of Schenck v
your eloquent introduction. use startling statistics United States. Justice Oliver Wendell
Distinguished legislator, great Startling statistics startle an audience
spokeswoman for economic and catch its attention, and encourage
democracy and social justice in that audience to listen further as you
this country, I thank you for your present the context of the surprising
eloquent introduction. statistic. Long-time radio announcer
Paul Harvey is well known for the
catch phrase “And now, the rest of the
refer to personal interest story.” The same function should be at
One of the key considerations in work here. When you startle the
choosing an appropriate topic for your audience, you set them up to want to
speech is that you have a personal hear the “rest of the story.”
interest in that topic. An effective Be careful, though. Use of startling
attention getter then, can be your statistics requires that you do a number
description of that personal interest. of things. First, make sure the statistic
By noting your personal interest, you is accurate. Second, make sure the
will demonstrate your credibility by statistic is relevant to the topic of the
showing your knowledge and speech. Startling an audience with an
experience with this topic, and because irrelevant statistic diminishes the
you have a personal interest, you are speech and decreases your credibility.
more likely to present this information Third, make sure you then present “the
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Holmes used this analogy to support his benefits, if a speaker feels comfortable
reasoning that some forms of with his or her audience, and is able to
expression can be suppressed because handle some impromptu situations.
they present a “clear and present Getting the audience to physically and
danger.” Holmes noted that “[t]he verbally involve themselves in your
most stringent protection of free speech topic guarantees that they’re paying
would not protect a man falsely attention. Using questions that lead to
shouting fire in a theater and causing a positive answers can also enhance your
panic” (Schenck vs. United States). connection to and credibility with the
audience.
Starting a speech with a question
One good analogy is worth utilized a very short quotation to whether rhetorical or actual does
emphasize his feelings upon leaving
three hours discussion. office.
require thought and practice on your
part. You need to carefully consider
~ Dudley Field Malone People ask how I feel about the question and possible answers.
leaving. And the fact is, "parting is Remember—even if you think the
use a quotation such sweet sorrow." The sweet part question is rhetorical, your audience
Using a quotation from a well- is California and the ranch and may not know this and may answer the
known figure, or using a quotation freedom. The sorrow -- the question. You also need to carefully
from a lesser-known figure if the goodbyes, of course, and leaving deliver the question. Too often,
quotation is particularly suitable for this beautiful place. speakers will use a question as an
your speech topic, is a common introduction—but then give the
attention-getting technique. When you audience no time to either think about
quote that well-known figure, you are Using rhetorical questions in the answer or answer the question. You
in a sense, borrowing some of that need to use timing and pause when
person’s credibility for your speech, speeches is a great way to starting with a question. You also need
enhancing your credibility with the keep the audience involved. to be careful to use eye contact in
audience. Even when you use a less Don't you think those kinds of asking questions, since you are above
than well-known figure, the quotation all asking for audience involvement,
can be effective if it nicely sets up your questions would keep your and your eye contact requests that
speech topic and is something to which attention? involvement.
your audience can relate. ~ Bo Bennett
Be careful with quotations, however.
First, just using the quotation is not ask a question
It is not enough for me to ask
sufficient. You need to place the The use of questions can be a very questions; I want to know
quotation in the context of your speech
(as well as meet the other required
effective way to get attention, whether how to answer the one
those questions are rhetorical in nature,
functions of an introduction, of course). and are only meant to be considered
question that seems to
Second, it is easy to fall into a bad (and and pondered by the audience, or are encompass everything I face:
somewhat lazy) habit of simply finding
a quotation and using it to start every
meant to be answered by the audience What am I here for?
(generally a good technique to get
speech. Third, simply using a quotation audience involvement and interest).
~ Abraham Joshua Heschel
is no guarantee that your audience will
find that quotation interesting or apt for Rhetorical questions are designed
In 1992, Ross Perot selected a little-
the speech, and may also find the to allow you as speaker to get the
known retired military figure, Admiral
author of the quotation to be lacking in audience to think about your topic
James Stockdale, as his Vice
credibility—or your audience may without actually speaking the answer to
Presidential running mate. In the fall
simply not like the author of the the question. Rhetorical questions
debates, Stockdale began his opening
quotation. Finally, beware of overly- allow you as speaker to maintain the
statement with two questions: “Who
long quotations (three or more most control over a speech situation,
am I? Why am I here?” (Stockdale,
sentences): Remember, this is just part and allow you to guard against an
1992). The questions received
of the introduction, not a main point of inappropriate or even offensive
applause and also laughter, though the
the speech. response.
later reaction to these questions was
In his farewell address, former Using questions that ask for real mixed at best. Some saw this as
President Ronald Reagan (1989) responses, however, has additional confusion on the part of Stockdale

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In general, there is basically only one

safe and suitable style of humor: light
and subtle self-deprecation. In other
words, you as speaker are the only
really safe subject for humor.
Using humor to tell stories about
other people, other groups, and even
other situations, may work—but it is
just as likely to offend those people,
members of those groups, and people in
that situation. Using self-deprecating
humor will not offend others, but
unless you can do this with a light and
subtle touch, you may be harming your
credibility rather than creating a
connection between yourself and the
audience.
Now, with all these warnings, you
may want to stay far away from humor
as an introduction. Humor can work,
(Lehrer, 1999). Stockdale considered large extent situation-bound. Most however.
these two questions to illustrate his likely, there will be a number of Ann Richards, at the 1988
difference from the other two members of your audience who do not Democratic National Convention, used
“mainstream” candidates, Al Gore and use English as a first language (there humor in the introduction to her
then Vice President Dan Quayle. are plenty of people reading this who Keynote Address. Knowing the
Traditional politicians, Gore and are English as a Second Language audience, Richards was able to use
Quayle were readily recognized as learners). Much humor requires a partisan humor to establish a
compared to Stockdale. native understanding of English. Most connection to the audience and score
likely, there will be a number of people points against the political opposition.
in your audience who do not share your
cultural upbringing—and humor is I'm delighted to be here with you
Humor is the affectionate this evening, because after
often culture-bound. Be careful with
communication of insight. humor. listening to George Bush all these
~ Leo Rosten years, I figured you needed to
know what a real Texas accent
sounds like.
use humor
The use of humor in an introduction
can be one of the most effective types preparing the Introduction
of introductions—if done well. Humor
can create a connection between the
speaker and audience, can get an construct the introduction last
audience relaxed and in a receptive While this may seem both counter-
frame of mind, and can allow an intuitive and somewhat strange, you
audience to perceive the speaker (and really do want to leave the development
the topic) in a positive light. of the introduction for the last part of
your speech preparation. Think of it
Humor done badly can destroy the this way: You can’t introduce the ideas
speech and ruin a speaker’s credibility. in your speech until you have
So first, a word of warning: None of determined these ideas.
us (those reading this, those teaching The introduction is prepared last
this class, and those writing this) are as because you want to make sure that the
funny as we think we are. If we were body of the speech drives the
that funny, we would be making our introduction, not the other way around.
living that way. Humor is hard. The body of the speech contains most
Humor can backfire. Humor is to a of your content, your arguments, your

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evidence, and your source material: lend themselves to disconnection from

The introduction sets up the body, but it the speech. A startling statistic may
should not overwhelm the body of the shock and get an audience’s attention—
speech, nor should it dictate the content but if it is not relevant to the speech
or structure of the speech. itself, the introduction is at best wasted
Once you have the body of the and more likely distracting to the
speech complete, then you consider the audience. A quotation may be both
introduction. With the body of the profound and catchy—but if the
speech complete, it is relatively simple quotation has little to do with the
to complete two of the four functions of speech itself, the introduction is once
the introduction. You already know the again wasted or distracting.
purpose of the speech, so now you need Now, because your introduction will
to put it in a one-sentence statement. contain the thesis statement and
And you already know the structure preview, at least part of the Most audiences expect you to
and main points of the speech, so you introduction will be relevant to the rest introduce your speech and then move
can put that structure into the preview. of the speech. However, the entire quickly into the body of the speech.
introduction needs to be relevant. If While the expectations vary from
With the structural functions of the culture to culture, most of the speaking
introduction complete, you can your audience hears an introduction
that they perceive to lack connection to situations in which you will find
carefully choose and craft the type of yourself will involve audiences that
introduction you wish to use, and the rest of the speech, they will have
difficulty following your main ideas, have been taught to listen for an
concentrate on making sure that the introduction with a main thesis
introduction also fulfills the other two any attention and interest you may have
gained will be more than off-set by the statement of some type. This is the
necessary functions: gaining the standard speech format with which the
attention and interest of the audience, loss of goodwill and personal
credibility, and your speech will not majority of your audience will be
and gaining the goodwill of the familiar and comfortable. Failing to
audience. make the positive impression you
desire. meet that expectation of your audience
is in a sense a violation, and
The wise ones fashioned communication scholars Burgoon and
make it relevant Hale (1988) have shown that
Another reason why your speech with their thought, expectancy violations create
introduction should be the last part of sifting it as grain is sifted difficulties in communication
your speech you prepare is so that the situations.
introduction can relate to the speech. If through a sieve.
you prepare the introduction before you ~ Buddha
prepare the body of the speech, your write it out word for word
introduction may be wonderful—but In another chapter, you may have
completely disconnected from the rest be succinct
In most classroom speeches, and in read and studied speech delivery
of the speech. techniques, and in your class, you may
most speech situations outside the
When you consider the type of classroom, the speaker will be on a be encouraged to use an
introduction you wish to use, you might time limit. Even if you are giving a extemporaneous style of delivery for
note that many of the types could easily speech in a setting where there is no your speeches. That is good advice.
stated time limit, most people will However, introductions are best written
simply not pay attention to a speech out word for word and then delivered
that goes on and on and on. as memorized.

Since you are on a time limit, and Introductions are succinct (as we
since, as noted above, the body of the learned above), and introductions have
speech is the heart of your speech, the to do a lot of work in a short period of
introduction of your speech needs to be time. Because of this, you as a speaker
concise and succinct. There is no magic need to carefully consider every word
formula for the length of an of your introduction. The best method
introduction, and you do need to meet for doing so is to write your
all four functions in your introduction. introduction out word for word. Then
Many authors suggest that the you can more easily see if you have
introduction be no more than 10-15% met all four functions, and can also
of the total speaking time. have a very good idea just how long the

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introduction will be. Just as present any final appeals

importantly, memorizing and then Depending on the type of speech you
delivering the introduction word for are presenting, you will be asking the
word gives you the most control over audience for something. You may be
this important (yet short) part of your asking them to act in a certain way, or
speech. to change their attitude toward a certain
person or topic. You may be asking
Finally, in conclusion, let me them to simply understand what you
say just this. have had to say in your presentation.
Regardless, one of the tasks of the
~ Peter Sellers conclusion is to leave the audience
their way all around the circle, and end motivated positively toward you and
functions of conclusions up back at the top with the conclusion. the topic you have been presenting.
So: You are at the end of your All the parts fit together and flow
Psychologists and sociologists (as
speech, and you can’t wait to sit down together in this circle, and the well as communication scholars) know
and be done! You start speeding up conclusion takes you right back to the that there is both a primacy and
your rate of delivery, but your volume introduction—with an enhanced
recency effect in presenting
goes down a bit because you are understanding of the topic. information (Garlick, 1993).
rushing and running out of breath. You Essentially, people tend to better
finish the last main point of your remember information presented first
prepare the audience for the end
speech and race off to your seat: That is or last—they remember what they hear
of the speech
not the best way to conclude a speech. at the beginning of the speech or at the
A speech does not just stop—or, to
Just as with introductions, be more precise, a speech should not end. In presenting your appeals to the
conclusions have specific functions to just stop. A speech, effectively audience, you can take advantage of the
fulfill within a speech. And just as with recency effect to increase the likelihood
structured and delivered, should move
introductions, there are a number of smoothly from point to point and then of your audience acting on your
types of conclusions. In this section of to the conclusion. One of the most appeals.
this chapter, we will look at these important functions of the conclusion is Former President Lyndon Johnson
functions, discuss the relationship to prepare the audience for the end of (1964), in a speech announcing a major
between introductions and conclusions, the speech. policy initiative known as the Great
and offer some strategies for preparing Society, concluded his speech with a
Throughout the speech, you have
and delivering an effective conclusion. series of challenges and appeals to his
been providing the audience with
The basic structure of a speech is not verbal and nonverbal cues to where you audience.
linear but circular. Speeches should not are going in the speech. As you move
take you on a straight line from A to Z. to the conclusion, you need to continue
Speeches should take you in a circle to provide these cues. You can use
from A to Z. Speeches start at the top language cues (“now that we have seen
of the circle with the introduction, work that we can solve this problem
effectively, we can review the entire
situation”), movement cues (physically
moving back to the center of the room
where you began the speech), and
paralinguistic cues (slow the rate of the
speech, use more pauses) to help
prepare your audience for the end of
the speech.
When you prepare the audience for
the end of the speech, you let them
know that they need to be ready for any For better or for worse, your
final comments or appeals from you, generation has been appointed by
and that they should be prepared to history to deal with those problems
acknowledge you as a speaker. and to lead America toward a new
age. You have the chance never
before afforded to any people in
any age. You can help build a

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Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org

commencement address at the first place, and then secondly we

University of Michigan, at a time in found out what causes this
American society when college and dependence, and third, we saw how
university students were protesting ethanol as a fuel supplement will
many government actions. help end this dependence, and
finally we discovered how simple it
When Demosthenes was is to implement this solution and
asked what were the three make the world a better place for
all of us.
most important aspects of
oratory, he answered, Action,
By restating the thesis and reviewing
Action, Action. the main ideas, you once again take
~ Plutarch advantage of both the primacy and
recency effect, and you create a
summarize and close complete and coherent structure to your
society where the demands of A conclusion is structural in speech.
moralit, and the needs of the spirit, function. Just as the introduction must
can be realized in the life of the include a statement of the purpose of
Nation. the speech, as well as a preview of the
main ideas of the speech, the
conclusion must include a restatement
So, will you join in the battle to of the thesis and a review of the main
give every citizen the full equality ideas of the speech. The review and
which God enjoins and the law restatement are mirror images of the
requires, whatever his belief, or preview statement in the introduction.
race, or the color of his skin? Structurally, the restatement and review
bring the speech back to the top of the
circle and remind the audience where
Will you join in the battle to give we started. Functionally, they help cue
every citizen an escape from the the audience that the end of the speech
crushing weight of poverty? is coming up.
end with a clincher
Let’s go back to the thesis and With conclusions, however, there are
Will you join in the battle to make preview example on page 9-3. The some additional forms you may wish to
it possible for all nations to live in example was from a speech on ethanol, use, and there are some variations and
enduring peace -- as neighbors and and the sample thesis was “So right adaptations of the introductions that
not as mortal enemies? now let’s see how dependence on fossil you will want to use as you prepare
fuels costs you money and how use of your conclusions.
ethanol as a supplement will save you
money and save the world from energy Earlier in this section when we
Will you join in the battle to build
obsolescence.” discussed introductions, it was argued
the Great Society, to prove that our
that stories are quite possibly the most
material progress is only the In the conclusion of this speech, one effective form of introduction: Stories
foundation on which we will build effective method to summarize and appear to be almost “hard-wired” into
a richer life of mind and spirit? wrap-up is to simply restate the thesis our individual and cultural make-up;
and preview—but in the past tense, and stories have a built-in structure.
since we have now heard the speech. Stories, then, also make excellent
There are those timid souls that say
this battle cannot be won; that we conclusions, and can be used as
are condemned to a soulless conclusions in at least two ways. First,
Today we have seen how you can complete the story that you
wealth. I do not agree. We have the dependence on fossil fuels costs
power to shape the civilization that started in the introduction. Remember:
you money and how use of ethanol You stopped right before the climax or
we want. But we need your will and as a supplement will save you
your labor and your hearts, if we denouement, and now, you can finish
money and save the world from the story. Alternatively, you can retell
are to build that kind of society. energy obsolescence. We learned the story, and this time the story will
The appeals were significant in that first why we as a society are so reflect what the audience has learned
the speech was delivered as a dependent upon fossil fuels in the from your speech. Either method
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Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org

provides coherence and closure to the and completeness to the speech

story and the speech. structure. Because of this, very often,
Humor also remains an effective the conclusion will be of the same form
type of conclusion, but the same as the introduction. At the very least,
dangers with the use of humor the conclusion must refer to the
discussed in the section on introduction so there is a sense of
introductions applies to the conclusion. completeness. Naturally enough, the
Still, effective use of humor leaves the forms of conclusions you can use and
audience in a receptive frame of mind, develop are similar to the forms of
and, so long as the humor is relevant to introductions you can use and develop.
the speech, provides a positive
reminder to the audience of the main
Eloquent speech is not from
purpose of the speech. lip to ear, but rather from
Because of the functions of heart to heart.
conclusions, there are two additional ~ William Jennings Bryan
types of conclusions you may wish to
consider: Appeals and Challenges. heightening Alleghenies of
prepare the conclusion
Pennsylvania. Let freedom ring
I appeal to you, my friends, The conclusion is the last part of the
from the snow-capped Rockies of
speech to prepare.
as mothers: are you willing Colorado. Let freedom ring from
the curvaceous slopes of What is common writing practice for
to enslave your children? You California. But not only that: Let the introduction is also true of the
stare back with horror and freedom ring from Stone Mountain conclusion. As previously discussed,
indignation at such questions. of Georgia. Let freedom ring from introductions and conclusions are
Lookout Mountain of Tennessee. similar in nature, they provide mirror
But why, if slavery is not Let freedom ring from every hill images of one another other, and they
wrong to those upon whom it and molehill of Mississippi. From are often of the same type. So you
is imposed? every mountainside, let freedom complete the introduction and
ring. And when this happens, when conclusion at the same time. You do so
~ Angelina Grimke we allow freedom to ring, when we to make sure that both elements work
let it ring from every village and together.
appeals and challenges every hamlet, from every state and As you prepare the conclusion, make
Since the conclusion comes at the every city, we will be able to speed sure as well that there are no false
end of the speech, it is appropriate to up that day when all of God's conclusions. You need to prepare the
leave the audience with an appeal or a children, black men and white men, audience for the end of the speech—but
challenge (or a combination of the Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and you can only prepare them one time,
two). Similar in nature, appeals and Catholics, will be able to join and there can be only one end to the
challenges primarily divide by tone. hands and sing in the words of the speech. By the same token, you need to
Appeals are generally phrased more as old Negro spiritual: Free at last! make sure that the conclusion is not so
requests, while challenges can take on a Free at last! Thank God Almighty, abrupt or sudden that no one in the
more forceful tone, almost ordering or we are free at last!
daring audiences to engage in thought
or action.
One of the most historically composing the conclusion
memorable and effective conclusions Just as with introductions, there are
that utilized appeal and challenge was two important points to remember from
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s I Have a the start. First, regardless of the form of
Dream speech (1963). conclusion, all summary remarks must
meet certain required functions.
Second, most conclusions will be a
And so let freedom ring from the combination of two or more forms.
prodigious hilltops of New There is a third point to remember
Hampshire. Let freedom ring from about conclusions as well: Conclusions
the mighty mountains of New York. need to provide a match to the
Let freedom ring from the introduction, so that there is symmetry

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Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org

audience is aware you have completed ability to integrate this information question (and allow the audience to
your speech. Keep in mind as well that with the rest of the speech. Remember consider the answer), the answer will
conclusions should comprise no more that all elements of the speech need to be different because of your speech.
than 10% of the total speaking time. flow together. New ideas at the very The audience will be able to see what
Just as with the introduction, write end of the speech will not enhance the you have accomplished in the speech.
out the conclusion word for word. This flow of the speech. Additionally, You can also pose a new question, one
is your last chance to impress your because you are just now bringing in that again points out what the audience
audience and to make sure that they this information at the end of the has learned from your speech.
understand what you have said. Do not speech, you will have no or very little Startling statistics, as quotations and
leave the conclusion to chance: write it time to develop these ideas, or to questions, now take on new meaning
out. provide supporting information and because of all that you have told the
documentation for these ideas. audience in your speech. Reminding
Success depends upon the audience of startling statistics
previous preparation, and follow the structure
should provide them with a key
reminder of the main point of your
without such preparation The approach of using the built-in
speech.
structure of the specific
there is sure to be failure. introduction/conclusion technique is as
~ Confucius equally effective with quotations,
questions and startling statistics as it is summary
do not Include any new with stories. This chapter first shows how to
information
structure and develop introductions and
You can use the same quotation at conclusions. Second, it argues that
While it is important to present your the end as at the beginning, but because
appeal and any call to action in the introductions function to gain audience
of what we have learned in the speech, attention and goodwill, and that
conclusion, it is also important to NOT the quotation has a new and more
present new information in your introductions help structure the speech
developed meaning. You can also use a with a thesis statement and preview.
conclusion. Remember: one of the new quotation that draws a comparison
functions of the conclusion is to Third, the chapter explains that
and contrast to the beginning quotation, conclusions help audiences remember
prepare the audience for the end of the and also highlights what we have
speech. If all of the sudden you present the key ideas of a speech. Finally, the
learned in the speech. chapter reveals that there are a variety
a new argument, new information, or a
new point, you will confuse your You can use the same question at the of different techniques for introductions
audience. conclusion as you did at the beginning, and conclusions, and that many of the
and regardless of whether you ask for a techniques for introductions apply to
If you present new information in the response or pose it as a rhetorical conclusions as well.
conclusion, you will also lose the
Introductions set the stage for the
speech that is to come; conclusions
make sure that the audience goes away
changed in a positive manner. Short in
time, they require careful thought and
precise language to be effective. Done
well, introductions prepare an audience
to learn, and conclusions help to insure
that an audience has understood the
purpose of the speech.

When you can do the

common things of life in an
uncommon way, you will
command the attention of the
world.
~ George Washington Carver

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Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org

chapter review questions and activities

review questions
1. What are the four basic functions of introductions, and why are these functions important?
2. List and give one original example of each of the ten attention-getting devices.
3. What are three reasons why stories are effective as introductions?
4. Why is humor both useful and dangerous at the same time?
5. What is a preview statement, and why is it important as part of an introduction?
6. What are the four basic functions of conclusions, and why are these functions important?
7. Compare and contrast an appeal and a challenge. When would you use each technique?
8. What does it mean to “follow the structure” in a conclusion?
9. Why are introductions and conclusions prepared last?

activities

1. Review the following speech and then write a brief (150-200 words) analysis on how the speaker used (or did not
use) effective introduction and conclusion techniques.
http://msustr0.campus.mnsu.edu:8080/cah/gorgias/333/CollieSampPersSpeech.wmv

2. Read Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address (http://americanrhetoric.com/speeches/gettysburgaddress.htm) and then

rewrite the introduction to use:
a. Humor
b. Rhetorical Question
c. A story
Each introduction should be relevant to the topic and no more than 100 words in length.

3. Working with a partner, create at least five analogies that could be used as part of an effective introduction for any
of the topics listed below
 Commonalities of the world’s major religions  Making the perfect lasagna
 Dealing with gaming addiction  The three most important factors in choosing an
 Selecting a college automobile
 Why the penny should be eliminated  The dangers of radon
 My worst first date  Traveling through Europe on a budget
 Protecting your identity online and offline

4. Locate an informative or a persuasive speech on Youtube. Watch the speech once in its entirety, and then
watching it a second time, answer these questions.
a. What attention-getting technique was used? Was it effective?
b. Did the speaker establish his / her credibility effectively?
c. Was the thesis or purpose of the speech clear?
d. Did the speaker preview the main points of the speech.
e. Did the main points of the speech correspond with the preview?
f. Did the speaker prepare the audience for the end of the speech?
g. Did the speaker present any final appeals? Was this effective?
h. What type of clincher (closing technique) was used? Was it effective?

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Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org

glossary

Analogy
A figure of speech that essentially compares something that your audience knows and understands with
something new and different.

Preview
Sometimes called a road map, a preview is a brief oral outline in which the speaker clearly and concisely
states the main points of the speech.

Internal Credibility
This is a form of credibility based on attributes that are largely controlled by a speaker, such as appearance,
confidence, charisma, trustworthiness, and speaking ability.

Expectancy Violation
Expectancy violations occur when people engage in behavior that is unexpected or inappropriate for the
situation.

External Credibility
This is a form of credibility based on attributes that a speaker can “borrow,” such as using credible sources
and referring to credible and popular people and events.

Primacy Effect
According to this principle, audiences are likely to remember what they hear or read first.

Recency Effect
According to this principle, audiences are likely to remember what they hear or read last.

Rhetorical Question
When a speaker asks a question that is not meant to be answered outloud, or a question for which the
audience already knows the answer. This is often used as a way to get an audience to think about the topic.

Thesis
One sentence or statement that succinctly and accurately lets the audience know what the speech will be
about and what the speaker plans to accomplish in the speech.

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Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org

references
Aristotle (1982). The art of rhetoric. (J.H. impressions. Communication Lincoln. A. (1863, November 19). The
Freese, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: Quarterly, 41, 394-404. Gettysburg address. Speech posted at
Harvard University Press. Glaser, E. (1992, July 14). 1992 http://www.americanrhetoric.com/sp
Bitzer, L. (1968). The rhetorical Democratic national convention eeches/gettysburgaddress.htm
situation. Philosophy and Rhetoric, address. Speech posted at Reagan, R. (1989, January 11). Farewell
1, 1-14. http://www.americanrhetoric.com/sp address to the nation. Speech posted
Bono. (2006, February 2). Keynote eeches/elizabethglaser1992dnc.htm at
address at the 54th national prayer Johnson, L. (1964, May 22). The great http://www.americanrhetoric.com/sp
eeches/ronaldreaganfarewelladdress.
breakfast. Speech posted at society. Speech posted at
html
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/sp http://www.americanrhetoric.com/sp
eeches/bononationalprayerbreakfast. eeches/lbjthegreatsociety.htm Richards, A. (1998, July 19). Democratic
htm national convention keynote address.
Kennedy, T. (1980, August 12). 1980
Speech posted at
Burgoon, J. K. & and Hale, J. L. (1988). democratic national convention
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/sp
Nonverbal expectancy violations: address. Speech posted at
eeches/annrichards1988dnc.htm
Model elaboration and application to http://www.americanrhetoric.com/sp
immediacy behaviors. eeches/tedkennedy1980dnc.htm Schenck v. United States, 249 US 47
Communication Monographs, 55, (1919).
King, Jr., M. L. (1963, August 28). I have
(1), 58-79.
a dream.” Speech posted at Stockdale, J. (1992, October 19). The
Flora, C. (May-June 2004). The once- http://www.americanrhetoric.com/sp 1992 vice presidential debate.
over you can trust: First impressions. eeches/mlkihaveadream.htm Speech posted at
Psychology Today, 37 (3), 60-64. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/debati
Lehrer, J. (Interviewer) & Stockdale, J.
ngourdestiny/92debates/vp1.html
Fisher, W. (1987). Human (Interviewee). (1999). Debating our
communication as narration: Destiny: Admiral James Stockdale. Townsend, C. (2007, February 5). Spring
Toward a philosophy of reason, Retrieved from break in Mexico. Speech posted at
value, and action. Columbia: http://www.pbs.org/newshour/debati http://msustr0.campus.mnsu.edu:808
University of South Carolina Press. ngourdestiny/interviews/stockdale.ht 0/cah/gorgias/333/MMS/Cassie.wmv
ml
Garlick, R. (1993). Verbal descriptions,
communicative encounters and
photo credits
p. 1 Muhammad Yunnus by Justice_Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_standin http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
schipulites g.jpg LBJ_at_the_University_of_Michigan.jpg
http://s3.amazonaws.com/estock/fspid9/1 p. 6 President Ronald Reagan by p. 10 President Johnson’s Poverty
9/21/48/0/hwac-grameenbank-author- White House Photographic Office Tour 1964 by Cecil Saughton
1921480-o.jpg http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
p. 2 Pueblo Bonito Emerald Bay, mmons/7/73/Reagan_farewell_salute.jpg 225-9-wh64_small.jpg
Mazatlan by bryce_edwards p. 7 Laughing Audience by p. 10 Woman speaks at BP Oil
http://www.everystockphoto.com/photo.p Damian Buonamico Flood Protest New Orleans by Derek
hp?imageId=3834933&searchId=d2b527 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Bridges
e266d9adaf3b9eb5ba28008afc&npos=11 Audience_enjoy_Stallman%27s_jokes.jp http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
p. 4 Abraham Lincoln by U.S. g BP_Oil_Flood_Protest_in_New_Orleans
Library of Congress p. 7 Governor Ann Richards by _30.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Kenneth Zirkel p. 11 Martin Luther King March on
Abraham_Lincoln_head_on_shoulders_p http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Washington by National Archives and
hoto_portrait.jpg Ann_Richards.jpg Records Administration
p. 4 Bono at the National Prayer p. 8 Ed Miliband by net_efekt http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Breakfast by Paul Morse http://www.everystockphoto.com/photo.p Martin_Luther_King_-
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: hp?imageId=2282400&searchId=d1715ef _March_on_Washington.jpg
National_prayer_breakfast_2006.jpg c5a67ac1c988152b8136e3dfa&npos=37 p. 11 Kyung-wha Khang Deputy
p. 5 Kelly McCann by schipulites p. 8 Woman with Laptop by High Commissioner for Human Rights
http://www.everystockphoto.com/photo.p Matthew Bowden by U.S. Mission Geneva
hp?imageId=2101671&searchId=117192 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: http://www.everystockphoto.com/photo.p
ced800c1f4d61c5a6c55f6ee64&npos=4 Woman-typing-on-laptop.jpg hp?imageId=7527423&searchId=488e81
p. 5 Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes p. 9 LBJ at the University of 758eb12a809a21e316d0f1ab1b&npos=20
by National Photo Company Michigan Commencement by LBJ 5
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Library and Museum * All other photos from Microsoft Clipart

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 www.publicspeakingproject.org

delivering your speech Public Speaking: The Virtual Text

chapter 12

By Victor Capecce, M.F.A.

Millersville University, Millersville, PA

introduction
Imagine this. A speech topic is chapter objectives chapter outline
perfectly chosen; the content is nicely After studying this chapter you should be able to:
organized and flawlessly researched; a  Introduction
great deal of work was invested in 1. Identify, define and give  Methods of Delivery
an example of each of
preparing the “text” or “script” of the o Manuscript Style
the four main types of o Memorized Style
speech, but the speech is poorly
delivery o Impromptu Style
delivered. Will the speech be 2. Determine the best
effective? Will the audience stay alert o Extemporaneous Style
speaking style for  Vocal Aspects of Delivery
and follow it? Will the audience different types of o Articulation
properly interpret the speaker’s speaking occasions o Pronunciation
intended message? These last 3. Identify and utilize voice o Accent, Dialect and
questions contribute to the universal aspects of speaking Regionalisms
fear of public speaking. It is not the 4. Recognize and utilize the o Vocal Quality
preparation of a speech that strikes key “ingredients” of a o Pitch and Inflection
terror in the hearts of so many, but the well-performed speech o Rate of Speaking
5. Adapt to the physical
performance of a speech! o Pauses Versus Vocalized
aspects of a speaking Pauses
venue
Don't lower your 6. Plan the speech in
o Vocal Projection
 Nonverbal Aspects of Delivery
expectations to meet your preparation for o Personal Appearance
delivery/performance of
performance. Raise your a speech.
o Movement and Gestures
o Facial Expressions
level of performance to meet o Eye Contact
your expectations. Expect the  Mastering the Location
o The Room
best of yourself, and then do One man on a New York o The Podium
what is necessary to make it a street comes up to another o The Equipment
reality. and asks, o Using a Microphone
o Water Rules
~ Ralph Marston “How can I get to Carnegie  Preparation, Practice and
Hall?” Delivery
o Preparing Notes
Since an audience does not usually The second man answers, o Rehearsing the Speech
read the text of a speech, but simply
listens to it, all the preparation of the
“PRACTICE.” o Managing Stress
o Delivering the Speech
content by the speaker must be encoded  Conclusion
into a complex combination of Practice is the key to excellent  Review Questions and Activities
communication channels (words, performance. Trite as it might sound  Glossary
sounds, visual elements, etc.) ready to (or obvious), the basic foundation for a  References
be performed. The purpose of this good speech delivery involves the two
chapter is to offer guidance to transfer “P’s”: Preparation and Practice.
the speech from the page to the stage. There is not an actor, athlete, or performance is given with spontaneity,
musician worth his/her salary who does the “P’s” are crucial.
There is an old Burlesque joke:
not prepare and practice. Even when a Stand-up comedy is everywhere; and
those who are successful comedians do

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Chapter 12 Delivering Your Speech www.publicspeakingproject.org

not make up their monologues on the memorized style

spot. The phrasing, the pauses, the The memorized style of speaking is
timing, is all rehearsed to assure the when the manuscript is committed to
laughs will happen on cue. Good stand memory and recited to the audience
up comics are skilled in making it look verbatim (word for word). In the days
as though they are making up their when elocution was taught, this was a
routine on the spot, which is part of the typical approach. A speech was a
success of a good comedy performance. recitation. The Optimists Club (a
New speakers should think of national organization) used to have a
themselves as performers facing an “Oratory” contest for high school
audience; actors ascending to stage; students. Contestants wrote essays on a
athletes stepping up to bat. given theme, to create a speech at a
This chapter will describe the basic specific time length (e.g.: three
methods of delivery, and offer guidance minutes). The essay was memorized
in the aspects of presentation (such as and the delivery was judged by 1) the
voice, inflection, eye contact, and body quality of the writing, 2) the accuracy
and facial language). Some basic with which it was recited; and 3) the
strategies for in setting up the room and precise length of time. Such contests
podium for speaking will also be Why is the manuscript important and seem archaic by today’s more casual
covered. in use? Precision. In the news- and somewhat less formal standards.
reporting industry, every fraction of a Where is a memorized delivery style
It is delivery that makes the second counts because broadcast time
still common? Due to copyright laws
is costly. Also, the facts and names
orator’s success. must be exact and accurate so there is
and licensing contract agreements
(other than scripts that are in the public
~ Johann Wolfgang no room for error. Errors in reporting domain), actors on stage are obligated
Von Goethe decrease the credibility of the news to memorize the script of the play and
organization and the newscaster. perform it verbatim exactly as written.
The most regular use of the It is typical for speakers on high school
methods of delivery teleprompter for manuscript delivery and university speech and debate teams
There are four basic methods is by the U.S. President. In fact, the to memorize their competitive
(sometimes called styles) of presenting teleprompter, used by every President speeches. Corporate conventions often
a speech: manuscript, memorized, since Reagan, is called a “Presidential use large LCD monitors on the front of
extemporaneous, and impromptu. Each Teleprompter.” It is made of two the stage as teleprompters. This allows
has a variety of uses in various forums pieces of glass, each flanking the the speaker to move more freely across
of communication. podium. They reflect the text from a the stage while sticking to his or her
manuscript style monitor on the floor like a periscope. script. Some monologists (such as the
The word manuscript is the clue to The glass on both sides has the same stand-up comics mentioned at the start
the style. The speech is written and the text, and the speaker looks alternately of the chapter) also use a memorized
speaker reads it word for word to the from one glass to the other as though delivery style. In all cases, they create
audience. Originally, it was done from looking at the audience through the the impression that the speech is
the hand-written paper manuscript. glass. The audience cannot see the
Today the manuscript style is projected text. The speeches a President
common, but the paper is gone. Who gives will often reflect national policy, Try This! Manuscript Delivery
reads the speech to the audience? define international relationships, and
Answer: Newscasters and television the press will scrutinize every syllable.
personalities. In the old days, the It has to be more than brilliantly
accurate; it has to be impeccably
Watch the local or national 6
manuscript was hand-lettered on cue
cards, which were held next to the phased. Professional writers and policy p.m., 11 p.m. and 6 a.m.
camera lens. Then paper scrolls, like experts compose the speech; and the newscasts on the same T.V.
printed piano rolls were used, President delivers it as though he not station. Make notes on which
especially in Soap Operas. Today, a only wrote it, but made it up on the news items repeat and how
special teleprompter (working like a spot. That is the skill of a good closely, or exactly, the
periscope) is attached to the camera so politician, actor, or speaker. Those phrasing is, even if different
the newscaster is looking at the lens who are not skilled using a personalities are presenting
while reading. teleprompter or manuscript will sound
the same item.
stilted and boring.

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Chapter 12 Delivering Your Speech www.publicspeakingproject.org

spontaneous. You might consider “I can’t believe this surprise! I don’t “impromptu.” The skill of the great
using the memorized delivery style if know what to say… um, Dino [his magician was in making his illusions
your speech is relatively short, or you brother] when was that Yankee game seem spontaneous with what appeared
know you will have to deliver your Dad took us to when we were kids? It to be ordinary items that “happened” to
speech repeatedly such as a tour was 4th of July, wasn’t it? 1939? And be on hand. Houdini spent endless
operator would. it was like it was yesterday; and today hours planning and rehearsing. The
reminds me of that day, when Lou true illusion was that they “appeared”
impromptu style
Theoretically, an “impromptu” Gehrig came out to the mound. He was to be impromptu.
slow, but we were all cheering the
speech is “made up on the spot.” It is
unprepared and unrehearsed. Often ‘Pride of the Yankees.’ He wasn’t Take advantage of every
ceremonial toasts, grace before meals, playing anymore, he was too sick, but opportunity to practice your
he looked around the crowd, and said
an acknowledgement, an introduction,
‘I’m the luckiest man alive.’ That’s communication skills so that
offering thanks and so on, fall into this
category. While there are some
how I feel with you all here today; to when important occasions
occasions when a speech in those celebrate our 10th anniversary. I’m arise, you will have the gift,
here with you and with Margaret; and
categories is actually prepared (prepare
I’m the luckiest man alive.” the style, the sharpness, the
your acceptance for the Academy
Award BEFORE you are called!), there
clarity, and the emotions to
are many occasions when there is little affect other people.
or no opportunity to prepare. ~ Jim Rohn
Impromptu speeches are generally
short and are often given with little or extemporaneous style
no notice. Notes are rare and the Sandwiched between the memorized
speaker generally looks directly at the and impromptu delivery styles you find
audience. It would be presumptuous the extemporaneous speech style. For
and arrogant to declare rules for this style, the speech is not completely
Impromptu Speaking. It is fair to written out. It is usually delivered with
explain that “impromptu” describes a keynotes for reference. Most public
range from absolutely no preparation, speaking courses and books describe
to a modest amount of preparation extemporaneous speeches as carefully
(mostly thought) and rarely prepared and rehearsed, but delivered
incorporates research or the formalities using notes of key words and phrases to
of outlines and citations that more support the speaker. Phrasing is pre-
formal speeches would include. rehearsed, words are pre-chosen, and
the organization is fluid and well
Be still when you have constructed. There should be no
nothing to say; when genuine fumbling for words, no rambling, and
passion moves you, say what length of time should be carefully
The speech was short, emotionally monitored. The style does offer the
you've got to say, and say it speaker flexibility to include references
charged, wonderfully articulate, and
hot. absolutely unprepared. The speech had to the immediate surroundings,
~ D. H. Lawrence one central emotionally charged previous speeches, news of the day, and
message; simple, in words and so on.
phrasing, but complex by bringing an
An indelibly memorable example
image of great sentimentality to the
occurred to me when my siblings threw
a surprise 10th anniversary party for my
occasion. He was able to react to the The trouble with talking too
moment, and speak “from the heart.” fast is you may say something
Mom (Margaret) and our stepdad
(Lidio). It was the third marriage for In contrast, legendary magician you haven't thought of yet."
both of them, and they were in their Harry Houdini was often asked to
60’s. As soon as the yells of “surprise” perform for the amusement of his ~ Ann Landers
subsided, Lidio picked up his wine fellow passengers when sailing to
glass and proposed a toast: Europe. I always associate How you develops the notes and
“impromptu” with the stories of what they look like are up to the
Houdini’s shipboard conjuring. individual, but a natural
Nothing was further from extemporaneous delivery is difficult if

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advance to prepare for a speech? The articulation

challenge is partly determined by the We are often judged by how well we
speaker’s experience, background and speak in general. A measure of
sometimes cultural influence and perceived intellect or education is how
existing habits of speaking. well we articulate. That is: how well
Articulation, Pronunciation, Dialect, and correctly we form our vowels and
Tone, Pitch, and Projection each consonants using our lips, jaw, tongue,
depends on long-term practice for and palate to form the sounds that are
success. These aspects are like identified as speech. Diction and
signatures, and should be developed enunciation are other terms that refer
and used by each speaker according to to the same idea. For instance, saying
his own persona. “going to” instead of “gonna” or “did
Voice, or vocal sound, is made not” instead of “dint” are examples of
when controlled air being exhaled from good versus poor articulation.
you are relying on a manuscript. Under the lungs, passes over the vocal cords Consonant and vowels are spoken with
no circumstances should the speaker be causing a controlled vibration. The standard accepted precision, and
spending more than 20% of the vibrating air resonates in the body, serious students and speakers will
speaking time looking at the notes. It chest cavity, mouth, and nasal strive to practice the clarity of their
would be ideal to practice so you only passages. The vibrating air causes a sounds. Proper diction is as integral to
glance at your notes approximately 5% chain reaction with the air in the room. the English language as proper spelling,
of the time of the speech. The room’s air, set in motion by the but it takes practice.
Those who have limited experience voice, is captured by the listener’s ear.
in formal speaking find it helpful to The vibration of the air against the
write out the speech as though it were eardrum is transferred to electrical Try Thisl Pronunciation
an essay, then read it, edit it, then impulses that are interpreted by the
create speaking notes from the text. listener’s brain. Thus, the sounds we
This helps with editing and with can make are predicated on the breaths 1. Flip though a book, article
thinking through the phrases. This that we take. or scholarly work until you
process of public speaking was taught come to a word that is
decades ago to my contemporaries and unfamiliar and you can only
me and has fallen out of fashion. But it guess its pronunciation.
is a useful way of thoroughly thinking
through the speech. If this procedure is
2. Go to the Merriam-
used, it is advisable to rehearse the
speech with the notes without the essay Webster Dictionary website,
prior to delivering the speech. But be and look up the word.
warned: having the fully written essay
at the podium might detract from the 3. When the definition
delivery. appears, click the icon of
The extemporaneous style is the the loudspeaker. The word
method most often recommended (and is audibly pronounced for
often required) in today’s public Try Thisl Breathing you.
speaking courses, and is generally the
best method in other settings as well. The online dictionary is
While it is not the only method of useful in both articulation as
delivering a speech, it is the most Talk without breathing.
It cannot be done. So if you well as pronunciation.
useful for presentations in other
courses, in the corporate world and in are screaming (like a baby),
pursuing future careers. you are also breathing!
pronunciation
vocal aspects of delivery Proper articulation applied to a
Though we speak frequently during The first word of advice on
speaking to an audience: given word is that word’s
the course of a day, a formal speech pronunciation. The pronunciation
requires extra attention to detail in BREATHE!
includes how the vowels and
preparation of a more formal speech consonants are produced as well as
presentation. What can one do in which syllable is emphasized. For

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entertainers) will often strive for quality of one’s voice is related to its
unaccented General or Standard range of pitch.
English. Listen to most major network
newscasters for examples of
regionalism-free speech. A given pitch and inflection
audience may be prejudiced towards or Identical to musical parlance, the
against a speaker with an identifiable pitch is the “highness” or “lowness” of
accent or dialect. Though we would the voice. Each of us has a range of
wish prejudice were not the case, the tone. Vocal sounds are actually
way we speak implies so much about vibrations sent out from the vocal cords
our education, cultural background, and resonating through chambers in the
economic status, that prejudice is body. The vibrations can literally be
inevitable. Any speaker should be measured in terms of audio frequency
aware of how accent, dialect and in the same way music is measured.
regionalisms can be perceived by a When the pitch is altered to convey a
given audience. If you speak in a way meaning (like raising the pitch at the
generations, speakers depended on that the audience might find difficult to end of a sentence that is a question), it
“markings (such as the International understand, make an extra effort to pay is the inflection. Inflections are
Phonetics Alphabet or similar attention to the accent and phrasing of variations, turns and slides in pitch to
Dictionary Symbols) to discover or your speech. Ask a sympathetic and achieve the meaning.
decide how words were officially objective listener to help you when you In his writing “Poetics,” Aristotle
pronounced. With online dictionaries practice. lists “Music” as an element of the
now readily available, one needs only Drama. Some scholars interpret that to
to “look up” a word and select “play” We often refuse to accept an include the musicalization of the
to hear an audible recording of the idea merely because the tone spoken word with dramatic inflection.
official and precise way a word should The meaning and effectiveness of a
be pronounced. Now there is no excuse of voice in which it has been
spoken line is greatly dependent on the
for mispronouncing a word in a speech. expressed is unsympathetic to “melody” of its inflection.
A mispronounced word will obliterate a us. Though archaic, the study of
speaker’s credibility, and the
audience’s attention will be focused on ~ Friedrich Nietzsche elocution formalizes the conventions of
the fault rather than the message. inflection. In some contemporary
cultures, inflection has been minimized
vocal quality
because it sounds too “melodramatic”
The quality of the voice, its timbre
accent, dialect, and regionalisms for the taste of the demographic group.
(distinctive sound) and texture, affects
Subtleties in the way we pronounce It would be sensible to be aware of and
audibility and can affect the
words and phrase our speech within a avoid both extremes. With good
articulation. Our voices are unique to
given language are evident in accents, animated inflection, a speaker is more
each of us. It is a result of our physical
regionalisms and dialects. An accent interesting, and the inflection conveys
vocal instrument, including diaphragm,
refers to the degree of prominence of energy and “aliveness” that compels
vocal cords, lungs and body mass.
the way syllables are spoken in words, the audience to listen.
Some examples of vocal quality
as when someone from Australia says include warm, clear, soft, scratchy, When public speaking was known as
“undah” whereas we say “under.” A mellow and breathy. Each speaker elocution, sentences were “scored” like
regionalism is a type of expression, as should practice at maximizing the vocal music, and spoken using formal rules.
when someone says “The dog wants effect of his instrument, which can be Sentences ending as a question went
walked,” instead of “the dog wants to developed with vocal exercises. There UP at the end. Sentences ending in a
go for a walk.” Dialect is a variety of are numerous books, recordings and period, ended with a base note. And
language where one is distinguished trainers available to develop one’s everyone had fun with exclamation
from others by grammar and vocal quality when needed. The points!
vocabulary. In Pennsylvania you might
hear people say that they are going to
“red up the room,” which means “to Try Thisl Inflection
clean the room.”
Those who depend on speaking for a
career (broadcasters, politicians, and Your voice goes UP, and then your voice goes down.

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For most of music in history, phrase and its musicalization

including Opera, Broadway, and early separately.
Try Thisl Vocal Variation
Rock and Roll, songs were written so Many speakers have developed the
that the melody (raising and lowering habit of ending each sentence as though
the pitch) was consistent with what it is a question. It may be becoming
would be spoken. Many of today’s Find a listening partner.
increasingly common. In the wake of
songs, notably Rap songs, depend Using only the sounds of “la”
the Valley Girl syndrome of the 1980’s,
solely on rhythm. There is little if any ha,” and “oh,” covey the a bad inflection habit has entered the
inflection (melody) to enhance a lyric’s meaning of the following: speech pattern: Some speakers end a
meaning. Certain languages differ in declarative sentence with the inflection
their dependence on inflection. 1. It’s the biggest thing I’ve of a question.
Japanese and German seem monotonic
ever seen! Do you know what I mean?
compared to Italian and French, which
offer great variety of inflection. 2. I’ve fallen and can’t get up!
A word of caution: Inflection and
3. I’ve got a crush on him/her.
varied pitch must be “organic,” that is
4. That soup is disgusting and to say, natural for the speaker. You
spoiled. cannot fake it, or it sounds artificial and
5. I got an “A” in my Speech disingenuous. It is a skill that needs to
Final! develop over a period of time.

If you cannot relay the

meaning with just sounds, try a rate of speaking
In order to retain clarity of the
second time (each) with speech with articulation and inflection,
gestures and facial the speaker must be aware that there is
expressions until the listener a range of appropriate tempo for
understands. Then say the speaking. If the tempo is too slow, the
lines with the expressive speech might resemble a monotonous
inflections you have peal. If it is too fast, the articulation
developed using only the could suffer if consonants or vowels are
sounds. dropped or rushed to keep up the speed.
An audience could become frustrated
with either extreme. The tempo needs
to be appropriate to the speaker’s style,
provides an audible version of but neither paced like a Gilbertian
punctuation, letting the audience know Lyric (as in “Gilbert and Sullivan”)
The human voice is the most if your sentence has ended, if it is a patter nor a funereal dirge. A
beautiful instrument of all, question, and so on. The melody lets comfortable and clear pace is the best.
the audience know that there is more to An ideal speaking rate will allow you
but it is the most difficult to come (a comma) and when the phrase to comfortably increase your pace to
play. is ended (a period). Remember that in a create a sense of excitement, or slow
~ Richard Strauss speech, the audience does not have the down to emphasize the seriousness of a
written punctuation to follow, so you topic.
have to provide the punctuation with
Even someone one who is not a your inflection. It is simple nonsense to speak
singer can be expressive with inflection
and pitch. Like the “Think System” of
Those who do not use inflection, or of the fixed tempo of any
use a range of pitch, are speaking in particular vocal phrase. Each
Professor Harold Hill in the musical
monotone. And, as the word implies, it
The Music Man. If you THINK varied
can be monotonous, boring, and dull. voice has its peculiarities.
pitch, you can SPEAK varied pitch.
Think of pitch inflections as seasoning
A balance between melodramatic and ~ Anton Seidl
monotonous would be preferred. The
spices that can make the speech more
inflection should have a meaningful
interesting. Sing “Happy Birthday.” pauses versus vocalized pauses
and interesting variety. Be careful not
You do not have to concentrate or A text that is read has punctuation
to turn a pattern of inflection into a
analyze how to create the melody in that the reader can see…miniature
repetitious sound. Think through each
your voice. Your memory and instinct landmarks to define the text. When
take over. Notice how the pitch also spoken, similar punctuation is needed

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that comfortably allows you to increase

Table 12.1 Finding the Right Pace for Your Speech the volume of your voice without
seeming to shout or decrease the
If you speak too quickly… If you speak too slowly… volume of your voice and still be heard
by all audience members.
… the audience might get … the audience might think Do not expect to walk up to the
the impression you have you are too tired to be podium and have a full voice. Actors
nothing important to say. presenting. spend about a half-hour doing vocal
warm-ups, and singers warm up much
more. You might not have an
… the audience has a … the audience can forget opportunity to warm up immediately
difficult time catching up the first part of your sentence before your speech, but when you can,
and comprehending what by the time you get to the warm up with humming, yawning
you are saying. They need last! (It happens!) And they (loudly) or singing scales: all while
time to “digest” the lose interest. breathing deeply and efficiently. It will
information. So plan on loosen your voice, prevent irritation,
periodic pauses. and fire up your vocal energy.
One final note: If public speaking is
… the audience might think … the audience might think or will be an important part of your
you really do not want to be you are wasting their time career, it would be sensible to have an
there. by taking longer than evaluation of your voice, articulation
necessary to relay your and projection done by an objective
professional so you can take any
message. remedial action that might be
recommended. There are courses of
As a speaker, you cannot race with the audience, nor drag study, private lessons, and professional
their attention down. Like Goldilocks, look for the pace that voice coaches to work with your voice
is “just right.” projection, tone, and pitch.

for comprehension, and the speaker’s deserves an effort to be overcome.

responsibility is to offer the text with Avoid using phrases such as “Uh,” Words mean more than what
pauses. Space between phrases, “OK?”, “y’know”, “like…, I mean,””
properly planted, gives the audience the right?”
is set down on paper. It takes
opportunity to understand the structure the human voice to infuse
vocal projection
of the speaker’s sentences and The volume produced by the vocal them with deeper meaning.
paragraphs. It also gives time for the
audience to “digest” crucial phrases.
instrument is projection. Supporting ~ Maya Angelou
the voice volume with good breathing
Generally, spoken sentences and and energy can be practiced, and
paragraphs need to be simpler and helping a speaker develop the correct
shorter than what can be comprehended volume is a main task of a vocal Try Thisl Projection
by reading. Pauses can help increase trainer, teacher or coach. Good vocal
comprehension. support with good posture, breathing,
However, pauses that are filled with and energy should be practiced Go to the room in which you
“uh’s, “um’s,” etc., are called regularly, long before a speech is are to speak. Have a friend sit
vocalized pauses, or fillers, and should delivered. There are numerous as far away from the podium
be avoided. They can be distracting exercises devoted to developing is possible. Rehearse your
and annoying, and give the impression projection capabilities.
speech, talking loudly enough
of a lack of preparation if used While there is no need to shout, a so your friend can hear you
excessively. Even worse is the use of speaker should project to be easily comfortably. That is the
vernacular phrases like, “y’ know” (a heard from the furthest part of the projection you will need.
contraction of “Do You Know”) which audience. Even if the speech is
When you mentally focus on
gives the impression of lack of amplified with a microphone/sound
education or lack of concern for the system, one must speak with projection the distant listener, you will
audience. The use of vocalized pauses and energy. As with your rate of tend to project better.
may be the result of a habit that speech, you should speak at a volume

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nonverbal aspects of
delivery Table 12.2
personal appearance Dressing Appropriately
Here is the golden rule: Dress
appropriately for the situation. You What to Wear:
don’t need to sport a power tie (the
 A button-down shirt or
predictable red tie politicians wore in
the 1980s), but you should be blouse
comfortable and confident knowing  Trousers (khaki or dark) or
that you look good. a skirt
 A dress appropriate for a
With the exception of wearing
formal black-tie tuxedo to a hockey business setting
game, it is good practice to dress a bit  A nice sweater
more formal than less. Err on the side  Limited, tasteful jewelry
of formal. Most class speeches would  A suit or jacket may be
be best in business casual (which can appropriate because your speech is important, then
vary from place to place and in time).  A tie or scarf (optional) your audience will recognize and
The culture or standards of the respect what you have to say.
audience should be considered. For
men, it is usually a button-down shirt movement and gestures
What NOT to Wear: Overall movement and specific
and casual dress pants. For women, it
 T-shirts, sweat shirts or gestures are integral to a speech. Body
may be skirt or slacks and blouse/shirt.
stance, gestures and facial expressions
There are exceptions depending on sweat suits can be generally categorized as body
the speech. A student once arrived in  Sleeveless tops language. Movement should be relaxed
pajamas to deliver his 9 a.m. speech.  Printed logos or sayings and natural, and not excessive. How
At first, I thought he got up too late to (unless appropriate to the you move takes practice. Actors usually
dress for class. However, his speech speech) have the advantage of directors helping
was on Sleep Deprivation, and his  Caps or hats to make decisions about movement, but
costume was deliberate. What he wore  Torn jeans a good objective listener or a rehearsal
contributed to his speech. in front of a large mirror can yield
 Visible underwear
If you have long hair, be sure it is productive observations.
 Noisy or dangling jewelry
out of the way so it won’t cover your  Flip flops Moving around the performance
face. Flipping hair out of your face is space can be a very powerful
 Provocative clothing
very distracting, so it is wise to secure component of a speech; however, it
it with clips, gel, or some other method.  Pockets full of keys or
should be rehearsed as part of the
Be sure you can be seen, especially change
presentation. Too much movement can
your eyes and your mouth, even as you be distracting. This is particularly true
glance down to the podium. if the movement appears to be a result
Think of it as an interview…just like of nervousness. Avoid fidgeting,
in an interview, you will want to make a good first impression. The corporate stroking your hair, and any other
culture of the business will determine
the dress. Always dress at the level of
the person conducting the interview. Try Thisl Gestures
For example, a construction foreman
(or project manager) will conduct an
interview to hire you as a carpenter. Using only your hands,
Do not dress like a carpenter; dress like convey the following:
the project manager.
Actors know when they audition, the 1. “It’s OK.”
role is won by the time they step into
the room. A speaker can launch success 2. “I give up.”
by stepping confidently to the podium. 3. “He’s crazy.”
Be tidy and clean. If you appear as 4. “We will be victorious.”
though you took time to prepare

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nervousness-related movement.
Among the traditional common fears Try Thisl Facial Expressions
of novice speakers is not knowing what
to do with one’s hands. Sometimes the
speaker relies on clutching to the
While looking in a mirror, try to express these thoughts without
podium or keeping hands in pockets.
Neither is a good pose. From my own
words:
observation, hand gestures are very 1. “I am thrilled that I am getting a raise.”
common in Italy. We Italians can be 2. “I am worried about tomorrow.”
seen in conversation from across the 3. “Lemons are too sour for me.”
street, and an observer can often tell 4. “I am suspicious about what he did.”
what is being said. There is no need to
imitate an Italian in delivering a After you have determined a facial expression for each, say
speech, but hand movement and the the phrase. And see how well the verbal expression goes with
energy that the movement represents,
the nonverbal expression.
can help hold attention as well as help
express the message.
An actor practices using his whole
body for expression, and regularly Emoticons were not casual a hint of artificiality in your expression,
practices physical exercises to keep the inventions, but graphic depictions of you will sacrifice your credibility.
body and hands and arms relaxed and facial expressions that convey various
in motion. An actor’s hand gestures are eye contact
meanings of emotions. They are based Next to clearly speaking an
developed in rehearsal. A speaker’s on a nearly universal language of
gestures should also be considered organized text, eye contact is another
expression that we begin learning soon very important element of speaking.
during practice. after birth. We smile, we frown, we An audience must feel interested in the
During the period when elocution roll our eyes, and we wink. We open speaker, and know the speaker cares
was taught, hand gestures were eyes wide with astonishment. We raise about them.
regimented like a sign language. This our eyebrows…occasionally one at a
is nonsense. Like inflections, gestures time, in suspicion; both, in Whether addressing an audience of
and movement should be organic and astonishment. Sometimes we pucker 1000 or speaking across a “deuce”
spontaneous, not contrived. If there is our lips, either to offer a kiss or express (table for two), eye contact solidifies
a hint of artificiality in your disapproval, disappointment, or grave the relationship between the speaker
presentation, you will sacrifice your concern. and audience. Good eye contact takes
credibility. practice. The best practice is to be able
to scan the audience making each
member believe the speaker is speaking
I pretty much try to stay in a to him or her.
constant state of confusion However, there are some eye contact
just because of the expression failures.
it leaves on my face. head bobber:
~ Johnny Depp This is a person who bobs his or her
head looking down on the notes and up
to the audience in an almost rhythmic
Since facial expression is a valid
pattern.
form of communication, it is integral to
delivering a speech. The face supports balcony gazer
the text, and the speaker’s commitment A person who looks over the heads
to the material is validated. The press of his or her audience to avoid looking
scrutinizes a politician for every twitch at any individual.
of insincerity. Detectives have created the obsessor
facial expressions a science of facial communication for
Most readers are very familiar with A person who looks at one or two
interviewing suspects. Like inflections, audience members or who only looks in
emoticons like these: gestures and movement: facial one direction.
expressions should be organic and
, , :p; :o, ;), :/ spontaneous, not contrived. If there is

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The best way to develop good eye the whole audience?

contact is to have an objective listener If you are using note cards, try
watch and comment on the eye contact. placing them on the podium to be sure
The eyes are called the windows to they will work, and you can maneuver
the soul, and the importance of eye them easily.
contact in communication cannot be Plan where you will stand. It does
overemphasized. Ideally, a speaker not have to be behind the lectern.
should include 80% to 90% of the Practice standing with good posture;
delivery time with eye contact. know where you will keep your hands
Eye contact is so important that and be sure your gestures are not
modern teleprompters are designed to hidden by the podium.
allow the speaker to look at the You might be a speaker who does
audience while actually reading the not stay behind the podium, but you
speech. The Presidential Teleprompter should still check it out. Every morsel
(two angled pieces of glass functioning of familiarity will contribute to your
like a periscope) is used so the confidence in speaking.
politician can “connect” to the audience Rehearse giving the imaginary
without missing a single syllable. audience eye contact. the equipment
Audience members will be much more If you are using any multi-media
attentive and responsive if they believe Will you be lighted brighter than the such as PowerPoint, slides, video, or
the speech is directed to them. audience? Will they be able to see your music, try it long before the speech. Of
face? Can you easily project your voice course, you would have practiced the
With good eye contact, the speaker to the back row? Will you have a speech with the media on your own, but
can also observe and gauge the microphone? if at all possible, run it in the venue in
attention and response of the audience. which you will speak.
This is actually part of the feedback the podium
process of communication. The ideal is Check the podium. Approach it with Check the controls, slide clicker, and
that the audience is not overly aware of the confidence you should exhibit when the relationship between the screen and
the speaker using notes. speaking. Touch it. Lean on it. Is it the the podium. Be sure the audience can
right height? (It should be about the see you as well as the screen. The
How do you develop good eye height of your elbow.) Is it sturdy? Are screen should be positioned so you can
contact? First, practice the speech with your feet visible? Is there enough light glance at it without turning away from
a generous amount of eye contact. to see your notes placed on top? Will the audience. You should not be
Second, know the speech well enough you be well lit? Is the podium easily reading from the screen.
to only periodically (and quickly) visible to the entire audience? How far
glance at your notes. Third, prepare left and right do you need to look to see Check your own files to be sure the
your notes so they can be easily read equipment in the room can play it
and followed without hesitation.

There are no secrets to

success. It is the result of
preparation, hard work, and
learning from failure.
~ Colin Powell

mastering the location

the room
Do not wait until the moment you
step up to speak to see what it will be
like. Check out the room (venue) and
the podium before you need to speak.
Check the width of the room and
where the audience will be seated.

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water rules
Water is the only liquid that should
be provided for a speaker. It should be
cool, but not ice cold to prevent
temperature shock to the throat and
vocal cords. If it is poured into a glass,
the glass should not be too full so the
quantity does not overwhelm the
speaker. Under no circumstances
should there be ice in the glass or in the
pitcher at the podium. Pieces of ice can
be a choking hazard to a speaker who is
focused on speaking rather than
drinking. The current trend is to
provide bottled water for a guest
speaker. It should be opened, but the
cap kept on assuring sanitation. The
water should be placed on an absorbent
tray that prevents suction from making
raising the glass difficult to pick up.
Drinking water is necessary for the
correctly. Do not assume that every file If it is a stationary microphone, be
hydration of the vocal chords. The act
can be played. Always be prepared by careful to maintain a consistent of taking a sip is sometimes used to
having multiple versions of your distance, or the volume of your achieve a pause in a speech for effect.
audio/video. If you have only one speaking will pop from louder to softer.
version, and it does not play, you will Changes in volume or position can
be very frustrated. result in distortion or feedback (an
preparation, practice and
Check all PowerPoint slides. Give a escalating humming sound). Be careful
that consonants do not “ring” with delivery
last look at the spelling, content, and preparing notes
watch for some typical issues such as amplification.
Once you have created a
changes of formatting and inserted In some venues, the time delay with comprehensive outline and have
video or audio files not playing. the reverberation can cause an overlap thought through your speech, you
Even seasoned presenters break into of vocal sounds. You may have to should be able to create your note cards
a cold sweat over equipment failures or slow down or use more pauses to or whatever you might be using (notes
unpleasant surprises, so avoid the stress prevent syllables from overlapping. or an iPad for instance). Every
by checking the equipment. speaker is a bit different, and different
I drank some boiling water speech topics and organizational
using a microphone
In some cases, rather than merely
because I wanted to whistle. patterns may require different notation
~ Mitch Hedberg techniques.
using live voice projection, there will
be a microphone for amplification. If Your note cards (or cue sheets) must
at all possible, test it before the have enough information on them to be
performance. Be sure the amplification able to deliver the speech without
is suitable for your projection. Be sure missing details and organized in the
how near or far you should be for precise order that you have planned. A
proper audio pick-up. common technique is to print the
outline in a font that is large enough to
It is important to note that
be read from a distance.
amplification cannot make up for poor
articulation or weak inflections, but it You should be able to glance at the
can compensate for a room that is large cards, get your bearings, and look back
or acoustically insufficient for speech. at the audience. If you are reading the
cards word-for-word, there are too
If you are prone to move away from
many words on them, unless it is an
the podium, or plan any movement, be
extended exact quote, or group of
aware that the microphone must be
statistics that must be delivered
considered.
precisely.

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actual delivery (and listen for the verbal and realize it’s not so bad to be up there
fillers, awkward pauses, and other non- after all! Second, it lets the audience
fluencies). Plan what to do with your know you are prepared. Third, it
hands. signals to the audience that what you
You should also know exactly how are about to say is important. Finally, it
your speech will begin and end. gives you the opportunity for direct eye
Regardless of how dependent on notes contact (because you are not reading)
the speaker may be, here is one and commands the audience’s
constant word of advice: know exactly attention. Eye contact is a signal to the
how you are going to begin your audience that you care about them!
speech. Not just an idea, but verbatim, The conclusion of your speech is
with every inflection, every gesture, equally important. In show business
every eye contact with the audience. parlance, the end of a song or a scene is
The first few sentences should be so called a “button.” It is a “TAH-DAH”
ingrained, that you could perform it moment that lets the audience know
during an earthquake without batting an you are finished, and that it is their turn
Be sure your notes or cards are eye. to applaud. The ending impression
numbered (e.g., boldly in the upper your speech leaves with the audience is
right hand corner), so you can keep A memorized introduction
accomplishes several goals. First, it greatly affected by how effective the
them organized. Color-coding is often ending is. The content and structure
done to easily distinguish the cards at a gives you the opportunity to breathe,
notwithstanding, you should also know
glance. Losing your place can be very exactly how you will end (verbatim), so
stressful to you and distracting to the there is no hesitation, no stumbling, no
audience. Figure 12. 1 tentative “I guess that’s all” feeling. A
Avoid writing or printing on two Rehearsal Checklist confident and decisive beginning will
sides; flipping a page or card is draw the audience to you; a confident
distracting to the audience. The logical ending will be very effective in
audience should not be aware of the preserving a lasting impression on the
notes. It is best to simply slide the  Rehearse a few days audience.
cards aside to advance to the next card. before you are to deliver
Rehearse your speech using the notes
your speech Stress is an important dragon
that you will bring to the podium. Be  Use the note sheets or to slay - or at least tame - in
sure you can glance at the notes, get cards you will be using for your life.
your information, and look up to have delivery
eye contact with the audience.
~ Marilu Henner
 Practice with the
presentation aids you will
All the real work is done in be using
managing stress
As William Ball noted in his book
the rehearsal period.  Time your speech and for actors and directors, A Sense of
~ Donald Pleasence cut or expand it if Direction, getting in front of a group
needed and speaking is people’s greatest fear
(greater than fear of death). Fear and
rehearsing the speech  Rehearse with a stress result in psychological and
Remember how to get to Carnegie colleague or an
Hall. Rehearse your speech – aloud physical manifestations that can affect
audience if possible a speech.
and ideally with a colleague or fellow
student as an audience. Rehearse in  If you can, rehearse in Stress physically causes muscles to
front of a mirror if needed. There are the room with the tighten, often including vocal cords.
some students who record a rehearsal podium you will use This raises, and often limits, the vocal
speech so they can get a real sense of  Plan what you will do pitch of the speaker under stress. The
what the audience will hear. If you are with your hands tempo of the speech may also be
using presentation aids, rehearse with affected. Novice speakers tend to rush
them for timing and familiarity so you
 Plan and practice your
as though to be anxious to “get it over
only have to glance at the screen or opening and closing with.” It is a factor to remember in a
easel. Time the speech to be sure it carefully, so you can corporate or business meeting: the
within the assigned time. Phrase the deliver them exactly speaker should speak slowly enough
speech as you will phrase it in the because what he has to say is

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important, and the audience should “give” is a willingness to offer

listen. Remember, as noted above, Figure 12. 2 something without obligation or the
rushing gives the impression that the expectation of something in return. To
speaker thinks the message is not worth Steps for Effective Delivery “give” also implies a pre-determined
the time. responsibility. You have a
Stress can accelerate perspiration. It responsibility as a speaker to “deliver”
is wise to have a facial tissue or small 1. Approach the podium as information that will help your
towel handy for dabbing for comfort. you rehearsed. audience or enlighten them in some
Stress can also make the mouth and 2. Stand with confident way. Speeches are delivered.
throat feel dry. Sipping water is a posture.
simple solution. 3. Deliver your brilliant conclusion
There are a myriad of solutions to opening. The true test for this chapter is in the
relieving a speaker’s stress: from 4. Realize you are a hit with actual presentation of the speech. Like
hypnosis to imagining the audience to the audience. voice and diction, understanding what
be naked. Among the simplest and 5. Breathe. makes a speech effective without
most effective is to do a moderate 6. Spontaneously interject a practice is insufficient. Merely
amount of exercise prior to the speech, knowing the best form for a golf swing
humorous observation
even as basic as walking. Exercising is useless unless put into practice; and
helps to naturally chemically relieve related to your topic.
practice reinforces the knowledge.
the tension; and helps deepen the 7. Make all your points
Comprehending the rules for driving on
breathing that supports the voice. without hesitation, the road is moot (and/or dangerous) if
Simultaneously while exercising the
“um’s,” “like’s,” or “uh’s.” the rules are not obeyed in practice.
body, it is a good idea to warm up the 8. Deliver your brilliantly The same is true for this chapter.
voice. The vocal cords are muscles, prepared conclusion. Practice speaking will make you a more
which should not be jump-started. 9. Leave the podium to effective speaker!
Physical exercises will likely help thunderous applause.
relaxing for better posture and hand and
body gestures. As part of the relaxation
process, actors “warm up” physically delivering the speech
before performances and often do You have taken all of the right steps
relaxation exercises to help before stepping up to the podium or
concentration and relieve stress. lectern. You have selected a good
topic. You have researched the topic.
The best antidote for stress is to be You have organized the best
well prepared and confident. information in a compelling way. You
have rehearsed your speech. You have
received feedback on your rehearsal
from an objective listener. You have
carefully constructed your notes and
practiced with them. You have planned
and practiced your speech introduction
and conclusion verbatim. You have
checked out the room and the
equipment. You did something to
reduce your stress before your speech.
You did vocal warm-ups. You chose A speech is poetry: cadence,
the perfect outfit to wear. You made rhythm, imagery, sweep! A
sure your gum was discarded and your
hair pulled back. You arrived at least speech reminds us that
15 minutes before your speech. You words, like children, have the
leapt to the podium with great power to make dance the
enthusiasm when introduced.
dullest beanbag of a heart.
Now you must deliver. If you look
up the word “deliver,” you will find it ~Peggy Noonan
means more than to just “give.” To

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module review questions and activities

review questions
1. Develop a list of ten potential speech topics. For each topic, think of a setting in which a speech on that topic might be
delivered. Next, determine what type(s) of delivery (manuscript, memorized, impromptu, extemporaneous) would be
most appropriate for the topic and setting.

2. What three aspects of vocal delivery do you believe are most important to a speaker’s credibility? Explain.

3. How might a speaker’s accent affect the audience’s perception of him or her? Illustrate your answer with an example.

4. What guidelines did you find most useful in the section about what to wear for your speech?

5. How do you perceive speakers who do not make eye contact with their audience? What suggestions would you give
these speakers to improve their eye contact?

6. What type of equipment is available in the space(s) where you plan to give your speeches? What kinds of
presentations can be used with this type of equipment?

7. List three methods you would personally use to reduce your anxiety before your speeches.

8. What piece of advice from the chapter did you find most useful?

activities
1. Practice Inflection
Gather some children’s books (aimed at ages 6-10) and read them aloud in class. Practice the use of inflection to indicate
the punctuation, the energy, and the characters. Do not be afraid to seem foolish. Remember that this is how most
children learn to read and speak.

2. Pronunciation
Bring in several books or publications of a variety of types and disciplines. Scan through the text and find words that are
unusual. Look them up in an online dictionary and see how they are pronounced. This could be turned into a game of
“stump the speaker” guessing how each word is pronounced. It can also be used to point out some simple yet often
mispronounced words.

3. Projection
Stand in as large a circle as possible. Each person has a partner across the room. Partners introduce each other and carry
a conversation over the noise of others doing the same thing. Do not shout. Keep it going for a few minutes (it will be
loud), then quiz the partners about the conversation they had.

4. Find a partner and work on any of the “Try This” activities in the chapter.

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Chapter 12 Delivering Your Speech www.publicspeakingproject.org

glossary

Accent Extemporaneous Delivery Pronunciation

The prominence of a syllable Learning your speech well Saying words correctly, with
in terms of loudness, pitch, enough so that you can deliver the accurate articulation, stress
and/or length. it from a key word outline. and intonation, according to
conventional or cultural
Articulation Impromptu Speeches standards.
The act of producing clear, A speech delivered without
precise and distinct speech. previous preparation. Regionalism
A speech form, expression or
Body Language Inflections custom that is characteristic to
Body stance, gestures and Variations, turns and slides in a particular geographic area.
facial expressions. pitch to achieve meaning.
Tempo
Dialect Manuscript Delivery The rate, pace, or rhythm of
A variety of language, cant or Reading the text of a speech speech.
jargon that is set apart from word for word.
other varieties of the same Timbre
language by grammar, Memorized Delivery The characteristic quality of
vocabulary or patterns of Learning a speech by heart and the sound of one’s voice.
speech sounds. then delivering it without
notes. Tone
Diction The particular sound quality
The accent, inflection, Performance (e.g. nasal or breathy) or
intonation and sound quality of The execution of a speech in emotional expression of the
a speaker’s voice. Also known front of an audience. voice.
as enunciation.
Pitch Verbatim
Elocution The highness or lowness of To say with exactly the same
The formal study and practice one’s voice or of sound. words.
of oral delivery, especially as X
it relates to the performance of X Vocalized Pauses
voice and gestures. X Verbal fillers in speech such as
X “um,” “uh,” “like,” “and,” or
X X “you know.”
X X
X X
X X

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Chapter 12 Delivering Your Speech www.publicspeakingproject.org

references

Ball, W. (1984). A sense of direction: Some Monroe, A. H., & Ehninger, D. (1974). Principles
observations on the art of directing. New York: and types of speech communication. Glenview,
Drama Book. Ill.,: Scott, Foresman.

Brydon, S. R., & Scott, M. D. (2006). Between one A Research Guide for Students. (n.d.). A Research
and many: The art and science of public Guide for Students. Retrieved February 26,
speaking. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. 2012, from http://www.aresearchguide.com/

DeVito, J. A. (2003). The essential elements of Sprague, J., & Stuart, D. (1984). The speaker's
public speaking. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. handbook. San Diego: Harcourt Brace

Giffin, K., & Patton, B. R. (1971). Fundamentals of Jovanovich.

interpersonal communication. New York: Welcome to Mirror Image. (n.d.). Mirror Image
Harper & Row. Teleprompters. Retrieved February 26, 2012,

Gregory, H. (2010). Selected chapters from Public from

speaking for college and career, ninth edition. http://www.teleprompters.com/mirrorimage/ind

Boston: McGraw-Hill Learning Solutions. ex.php

photo credits

p. 1 Allida Black Speaking at the Courage to Lead p. 10 Chris Coons as the 2010 Democrat nominee for
Conference by U.S. Mission Geneva U.S. Senate in Delaware by Chris Coons
http://www.everystockphoto.com/photo.php?imageId=752 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chris_Coons.jpg
7414&searchId=488e81758eb12a809a21e316d0f1ab1b&n
pos=230 p. 10 Phoenix Auditorium by Basil Jradeh
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Phoenix_Auditori
p. 5 Iraqi speaker by Scanlan um.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iraqi_Speaker.jpg
p. 11 Lhandon Speaks by STF HQ
p. 6 Ice-T byTino Jacobs http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Lha
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ice-T_(2).jpg don_Speaks.jpg

p.9 [President] Barack Obama at Las Vegas p. 11 Andrea Dernbach and Hoda Salah by Heinrich
Presidential Forum by Center for American Progress Boell Stiftung
Action Fund http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Flickr_-
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Barack_Obama_a _boellstiftung_ _Andrea_Dernbach_und_Hoda_Salah.jpg
t_Las_Vegas_Presidential_Forum.jpg
p. 14 Anthony Pico by Dale Frost
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anthonypico.jpg

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 www.publicspeakingproject.org

informative speaking Public Speaking: The Virtual Text

chapter 15

By Lisa Schreiber, Ph.D.

Millersville University, Millersville, PA

introduction
Every day you give others
information in an informal way, chapter objectives chapter outline
whether you realize it or not. You give After reading this chapter, you
• Introduction
your grandparents driving directions to should be able to: • Functions of Informative
your college campus. You tell your Speeches
professor about a breaking news story. o Provide Knowledge
1. Explain why informative
You teach a friend how to ride a o Shape Perceptions
speeches are important
motorcycle. You explain to your o Articulate Alternatives
2. Recognize the functions of
significant other your spiritual o Allow us to Survive and
informative speeches
philosophy. You show a co-worker 3. Identify the main Evolve
how to operate the cash register. You responsibilities of the • Role of Speaker
o Informative Speakers are
help your younger brother build his informative speaker
4. List and describe the four Objective
first Facebook page. Or you share your
o Informative Speakers are
summer travel experience with your types of informative
speeches Credible
roommate. Without a doubt, o Informative Speakers Make
5. Discuss techniques to
information plays a vital role in our the Topic Relevant
make informative
everyday lives. In the dictionary, the o Informative Speakers are
speeches interesting,
term “inform” has several meanings, coherent, and memorable Knowledgeable
including to impart knowledge; to 6. Apply chapter concepts in • Types of Informative Speeches
o Definitional Speeches
animate or inspire; to give information review questions and
o Descriptive Speeches
or enlightenment; to furnish evidence; activities
to make aware of something; to o Explanatory Speeches
o Demonstration Speeches
communicate something of interest or
• Developing Informative
special importance; to give directions; Not only is there an art in Speeches
and to provide intelligence, news, facts o Generate and Maintain
or data. When you deliver an
knowing a thing, but also a
Interest
informative speech, your primary certain art in teaching it. o Create Coherence
purpose is to give your audience ~ Cicero o Make Speech Memorable
information that they did not already • Conclusion
know, or to teach them more about a • Review Questions and Activities
manager who can’t teach workers how • Glossary
topic with which they are already to assemble microchips will have a
familiar. • References
department with low productivity and
Your ability to give informative quality. And a little league coach who
speeches is one of the most important is unable to instruct players on batting
skills you will ever master, and it will and catching techniques will have a
be used both during the course of your disadvantaged team. It is easy to
career, and in your personal life. A imagine how difficult it would be to go
pharmaceutical sales representative about the business of our daily lives A speaker hasn’t taught until
who can’t describe the products’ without the ability to give and receive the audience has learned.
chemical composition, uses and side information. Speeches to inform are
effects, will have trouble making a sale. the most common types of speeches
A high school math teacher who can’t (Gladis, 1999), so speech writers
explain algebra in simple terms will should give priority to learning how to
have students who will not learn. A construct them.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/us/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA.
PDF documents prepared by Lisa Schreiber and Donna Painter Graphics.
Chapter 15 Informative Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

functions of informative information verbally. We have all seen

speeches “how to” YouTube videos, and
People encounter a number of formal although these have a significant visual
and informal informative presentations components, the “experts” still have to
throughout their day, and these give a verbal explanation. Through
presentations have several meetings, presentations and face-to-
consequences. First, informative face interactions, we gain information
presentations provide people with about how to perform and improve in
knowledge. When others share facts or our jobs. To keep our children safe, we
circumstances associated with some don’t give them an instruction manual,
topic, our comprehension, awareness or we sit down with them and explain
familiarity is increased. The speaker improve our ability to think and things. All of the knowledge we
imparts information, and this evaluate. accumulate while we live will be
information is turned into knowledge. Some informative presentations may passed down to (hopefully) improve on
A music teacher describes the be aimed at helping listeners the lives of those who come after us.
difference between a note and chord as understand the number, variety, and Much of this information will be passed
an introduction to music. When issuing quality of alternatives available to them down in the form of a presentation.
a warning to a teenager, a police officer (Hogan et al., 2010). Consequently,
explains the nature of the moving informative presentations also serve to
violation. A travel agent clarifies for articulate alternatives. A car sales Human history becomes more
customers the policies for airline ticket associate might explain to you the and more a race between
refunds. Participants at a cultural fair features of one car in comparison to education and catastrophe.
are enlightened by a shaman explaining another car in order to help you ~ H. G. Wells
her spiritual practices. Knowledge differentiate between the models. A
helps us to understand the world around doctor might explain to your
us, enables us to make connections, and grandmother her treatment options for
helps us to predict the future. arthritis. A fitness trainer may role of speaker
demonstrate to you several types of Now that you understand the
exercises to help you strengthen your importance of informing others, this
All men by nature desire next section will show you the
abdominal muscles and reduce your
knowledge. speakers’ responsibilities for preparing
waistline. If you go to a temporary
~ Aristotle employment agency, a staff member and presenting informative speeches.
may provide you will a range of job informative speakers are
Second, informative presentations options that fit your qualifications. objective
shape our perceptions. These Successful informative presentations Most public speaking texts discuss
presentations can affect how people see provide information which improves three general purposes for speeches:
a subject by bringing it to light, or may listeners’ ability to make wise to inform, to persuade, and to entertain.
influence what is seen as important by decisions, because they understand all Although these general purposes are
virtue of directing attention to the of their options (Jaffe, 1998). theoretically distinct, in practice, they
subject (Osborn & Osborn, 1991). Finally, informative presentations tend to overlap. Even in situations
Information helps us to interpret our enhance our ability to survive and when the occasion calls for an
experiences, it shapes our values and evolve. Our existence and safety informative speech (one which
beliefs, it may alter our self-concept, depend upon the successful enhances understanding), often
and it gives meaning to situations. communication of facts and persuasive and entertaining elements
Imagine you meet your new boss, and knowledge. An informative speech are present. First, all informative
she is very curt and pre-occupied “helps keep countries developing, speeches have a persuasive component
during the first staff meeting. You may communicates valuable and useful by virtue of the fact that the speaker
at first perceive her as being rude, information in thousands of areas, and tries to convince the audience that the
unless later you find out that just before continues to change, improve or facts presented are accurate (Harlan,
your meeting with her she learned that upgrade the lives of audiences” 1993). Second, a well-written speech
her father had been hospitalized with a (Wilbur, 2000, p. 99). For thousands of can make even the most dry, technical
stroke. Learning this new information years, cultural and technical knowledge information entertaining through
allowed you to see the situation from a was passed from generation to engaging illustrations, colorful
different perspective. In the same way, generation orally. Even today with the language, unusual facts, and powerful
informative presentations enable us to presence of the internet, you are still visuals.
get a sense of “the big picture” and likely to get a good amount of

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In spite of this caveat, when planning

your informative speech your primary T able 15.1 Boost Your Credibility
intent will be to increase listeners’  Citing reputable sources
knowledge in an impartial way. For Establish Expertise By:  Making sure your facts are accurate
instance, in a speech about urban  Covering your points in enough detail to
demonstrate your knowledge
legends (Craughwell, 2000), your
 Revealing your personal expertise with the
specific purpose statement may be: “At topic
the end of my speech, my audience will  Wearing appropriate and attractive clothing
understand what an urban legend is, Help the Audience Identify  Mentioning what you have in common
how urban legends are spread, and with You By:  Being friendly and enthusiastic
common variations of urban legends.”  Relating to listeners’ situations, feelings, and
The topic you choose is not as motives
important as your approach to the  Presenting both sides of an issue
material in determining whether your Show You are Telling the  Sharing what motivated you to select your
speech is informative or persuasive Truth By: topic
 Having open, natural nonverbals that
(Peterson, Stephan, & White, 1992).
correspond to what you say
Can you imagine how speeches on
 Approaching the speech with ethics and
witchcraft, stem cell research, the positive intentions for your audience
federal deficit, or hybrid cars could be
written either to inform or persuade?
Informative speeches need to be as Peterson, Stephan, and White (1992)
objective, fair, and unbiased as explain that there are two kinds of
credibility; the reputation that precedes
In the end, you make your
possible. You are not asking your
audience to take action or convincing you before you give your speech reputation and you have your
them to change their mind. You are (antecedent credibility) and the success based upon credibility
teaching them something and allowing credibility you develop during the and being able to provide people
them to decide for themselves what to course of your speech (consequent who are really hungry for
do with the information. When writing credibility). In many cases, the information what they want.
your speech, present all sides of the audience has no prior knowledge of the ~ Brit Hume
story and try to remove all unrelated speaker, so they make judgments about
facts, personal opinions, and emotions the quality of the evidence and
(Westerfield, 2002). arguments in the speech. In addition, show that we are worthy of our
they look at and listen to the speaker to audience’s attention.
determine if s/he is a reliable source of
informative speakers are information. informative speakers are
credible knowledgeable
Audience members have no
An objective approach also enhances Good informative speeches contain a
motivation to listen to a speaker they
a speaker’s credibility. Credibility, or number of different source citations
perceive as lacking authority or
ethos, refers to an audience’s throughout the speech. To show that
credibility --- except maybe to mock
perception that the speaker is well the information you present is accurate
the speaker. To avoid this pitfall, there
prepared and qualified to speak on a and complete, these sources should be
are at least three ways to boost your
topic (Fraleigh & Tuman, 2011). up-to-date, reliable, unbiased, and
credibility as a speaker; by establishing
directly relevant to your topic. Even if
your expertise, helping your audience
you plan to give a speech about an
identify with you, and showing you are
activity you have done all of your life,
telling the truth (see examples in Table
you will still need to seek out
16.1). It seems to be common sense
additional sources for your speech. By
that we do not listen to speakers who
all means, you should cite and use your
do not know what they are talking
own experiences with the topic, but if
about, who cannot relate to us, or who
you want to appear objective, you will
give the impression of being dishonest.
need to show that your ideas and
However, in planning informative
experiences correspond with others’.
speeches, we can get so wrapped up in
Using a variety of sound reference
the topic that is easy to forget about the
materials helps you appear well-
elements of credibility. Just remember
informed and more trustworthy.
that in order to teach, we first have to

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In our information age, people are genre. If you have to work three jobs immediately. In a speech on relaxation
fortunate to have unlimited and free to help pay for school, you could give a techniques, a speaker can lead the
access to information on virtually any speech on effective time management. audience through a simple stress
topic they can imagine via the internet. Genuine curiosity will make the reduction exercise they can use at
Unfortunately, in addition to the research and preparation process easier. home. For a speech on handwriting
credible information, the internet Further, when you have enthusiasm for analysis, listeners can be given paper,
contains an abundance of garbage. a topic, it shows when you speak. On asked to write a sample sentence and
Good speech writers know that it is the other hand, if you do not really care shown how to interpret some points on
important to avoid weak or about your topic, your audience is not the sample. If the audience members
questionable sources (e.g. Wikipedia, likely to care either. have laptops, a speaker can show them
Britannica.com or Ask.com) when In addition to having relevance for how to improve one of their digital
constructing their speeches. Start by you, it is crucial that you tie your topic photos. If listeners can use the
asking what you know, find out what directly to your listeners. Early in the information they learn quickly, they
the experts know, and then move to speech, give listeners at least one tend to remember it longer, and they
find out what information other sources reason why they should care about your are more likely to try the action again
can provide (Gladis, 1999). You can topic and the ways in which the later (Nelson, et al., 2010).
search your library catalogue or information will be beneficial or
Amazon.com to locate books (which entertaining (Morreale & Bovee, 1998).
provide details and depth), and then Establish-ing a motive for your types of informative
check out or order these books via audience to listen to you is commonly speeches
interlibrary loan (often free) if they are referred to by the acronym WIIFM – In the last section we examined how
not available in your library. Explain “What’s in it for me?” This is what the informative speakers need to be
not only how something is done, but audience consciously or unconsciously objective, credible, knowledgeable, and
also why it is done for a great speech asks when you start speaking (Urech, how they need to make the topic
(MacInnis, 2006). This variety gives a 1998). To establish WIIFM, you relevant to their audience. This section
speech depth and a level of interest that clearly link the topic to the listeners’ discusses the four primary types of
cannot be achieved merely by doing a values, attitudes, beliefs and lifestyle. informative speeches. These include
Google search and using the first five Consider not only what the audience definitional speeches, descriptive
websites that pop up. For additional wants to hear, but also what they need speeches, explanatory speeches, and
ideas on locating sources, “Sources of to hear (Gladis, 1999; Maxey & demonstration speeches.
interesting information” is provided at O’Connor, 2006). Take the topic of
the end of this chapter. retirement planning as an example.
Younger listeners may not perceive this definitional speeches
The cure for boredom is as relevant to their lives when they are
In definitional speeches the speaker
curiosity. There is no cure for attempts to set forth the meaning of
not yet making a steady salary. But, if
curiosity. concepts, theories, philosophies, or
you can demonstrate how investing
issues that may be unfamiliar to the
~ Dorothy Parker even a small amount every month can
audience. In these types of speeches,
grow to a considerable nest egg by
speakers may begin by giving the
retirement age, and that getting into the
informative speakers make habit of saving early can lower the
historical derivation, classification, or
the topic relevant number of years they have to work, the
synonyms of terms or the background
When you are selecting your topic of the subject. In a speech on “How to
topic becomes more interesting for
and thinking about what you want to identify a sociopath,” the speaker may
them.
accomplish in your informative speech, answer these questions: Where did the
two factors should drive your decision. word ‘sociopath’ come from? What is
Foremost, you want to select a topic a sociopath? How many sociopaths are
that holds a high degree of interest for there in the population? What are the
you (i.e. the topic is meaningful to symptoms? Carefully define your
you). Students who feel at a loss for terminology to give shape to things the
topic ideas should turn their attention to audience cannot directly sense.
their own lives and activities. If you Describing the essential attributes of
like to play video games, you might one concept compared to another (as
give a speech about how they are made. through use of analogies) can increase
If you have a passion for ska reggae understanding as well. For a speech on
Making the topic relevant for your “Elderly Abuse,” the speaker may
music, you might bring in MP3 cuts to
audience can also mean that you show compare this type of abuse to child or
help define the boundaries of this music
them how to apply the information spousal abuse for contrast.
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Regardless of the listeners’ level of

knowledge about the subject, it is very
important in these types of speeches to
show the relevance of the topic to their
lives. Often the topics discussed in
definitional speeches are abstract ---
distanced from reality. So provide
explicit, real-life examples and
applications of the subject matter. If
you were going to give a speech about
civil rights, you would need to go
beyond commonly held meanings and
show the topic in a new light. In this
type of speech, the speaker points out
the unique and distinguishing
properties or boundaries of a concept in
a particular context (Rinehart, 2002).
The meaning of “civil rights” has
changed significantly over time. What
does it mean today compared to the descriptive speeches To gaze in wonder at that
1960s? How will knowing this The purpose of descriptive speeches magnificent dome and elegant
distinction help audience members? is to provide a detailed, vivid, word gardens will be a moment that
What are some specific incidents picture of a person, animal, place, or you remember for the rest of
involving civil rights issues in current object. Audiences should carry away
news? What changes in civil rights your life. The Taj Mahal just
in their minds a clear vision of the
legislation might listeners see in their subject (Osborn & Osborn, 1991). takes your breath away. What is
lifetimes? Consider this description of the Taj immediately striking is its
Mahal in Agra, India by Steve Cassidy graceful symmetry - geometric
(edited for length). lines run through formal gardens
ending in a white marble
platform. Atop this platform is
Sample Definitional Speech Outline great white bulbous dome
complemented by four towering
Title: “Life is suffering,” and Other Buddhist Teachings (Thompson, 1999) minarets in each corner. The
whole image shimmers in a
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, my audience will understand the reflecting pool flanked by
Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path in Buddhism
beautiful gardens - the effect is
Central Idea: Regardless of your religious beliefs, Buddhist philosophy teaches magical. The first stretch by the
a number of useful lessons you can apply to your own life. reflecting pool is where most
people pose for their photos. But
I. Four Noble Truths
A. All life involves dukkha (suffering) we were impressed by the fresh,
B. Suffering is caused by tanha (longing for things to be other green gardens. As you approach
than they are) through the gardens two
C. If this longing stops (nirodha), suffering will cease mosques come into view flanking
D. The way to eliminate longing is to follow the Eightfold Path
the Taj - both exquisitely carved
II. The Noble Eightfold Path (the Middle Way) and built of red sandstone.
A. Right view
B. Right intention In the descriptive speech, determine
C. Right speech the characteristics, features, functions,
D. Right action or fine points of the topic. What makes
E. Right livelihood
the person unique? How did the person
F. Right effort
make you feel? What adjectives apply
G. Right mindfulness
H. Right contemplation to the subject? What kind of material
is the object made from? What shape is

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it? What color is it? What does it Ehninger, & Monroe, 2000). For
smell like? Is it part of a larger example, to explain the custom of the
system? Can it be seen by the naked Thai wai greeting (hands pressed
eye? What is its geography or location together as in prayer), you also need to
in space? How has it changed or explain how it originated to show one
evolved over time? How does it had no weapons, and the ways it is tied
compare to a similar object? When to religion, gender, age, and status.
preparing for the speech, try to think of
ways to appeal to as many of the senses
as possible. As an example, in a speech
about different types of curried dishes, Sample Explanatory Speech
you could probably verbally describe Outline
the difference between yellow, red, and
green curry, but the speech will have
more impact if the audience can see, Title: Giant Waves, Death, and
Devastation: The 2004 Indian
smell, and taste samples.
Ocean Tsunami (National
Geographic, 2006)
Sample Descriptive Speech
Outline explanatory speeches Specific Purpose: At the end of my
speech, my audience will be aware
An explanatory speech (also known
of the nature of the 2004 Tsunami
as a briefing) is similar to the
Title: Easter Island: The Navel of the and the destruction it caused.
descriptive speech in that they both
World (Fischer, 2006) share the function of clarifying the Central Idea: The 2004 Asian
Specific Purpose: At the end of my
topic. But explanatory speeches focus Tsunami was one of the worst natural
speech, my audience will be able to on reports of current and historical disasters in human history in terms of
visualize some of the main events, customs, transformations, magnitude, loss of human life, and
attractions on Easter Island. inventions, policies, outcomes, and enduring impact.
options. Whereas descriptive speeches
Central Idea: Easter Island hosts a attempt to paint a picture with words so I. Geological event
number of ancient, mysterious, and that audiences can vicariously A. Earthquake
beautiful attractions that make it an epicenter and
experience it, explanatory speeches
ideal vacation destination. magnitude
focus on the how or why of a subject B. Tsunami forms
and its consequences. Thus, a speaker (waves reach up to
I. Stone Giants – “Moai”
might give a descriptive speech on the 100 feet)
A. Average 13 feet
high; 14 tons
daily life of Marie Antoinette, or an C. Tsunami strikes land
B. Play sacred role for explanatory speech on how she came to of various countries
Rapa Nui (native her death. Recall that definitional with no warning
inhabitants) speeches focus on delineating concepts
C. Central Ahu or issues. In this case, a speaker might II. Human casualties reach
ceremonial sites give a defintional speech about the almost 230,000 – top 10
Emergency Economic Stabiliztion Act of all natural disasters
II. Coastline activities A. The countries and
of 2008, or an explanatory speech on
A. Beaches people involved
why the financial bailout was necessary B. Loss of food, water,
B. Snorkeling & Scuba for U.S. financial stability.
C. Surfing hospitals, housing,
If a manager wanted to inform electricity, and
III. Rano Kau Chilean employees about a new workplace plumbing
National Park C. Threat of disease
internet use policy, s/he might cover
A. Giant crater questions like: Why was a policy
B. Sheer cliffs to ocean III. Ongoing effects
implemented? How will it help? What A. Environmental
C. Sea birds happens if people do not follow destruction
established policies? Explanatory B. Economic
Be able to describe anything speeches are less concerned with devastation
visual, such as a street scene, in appealing to the senses than connecting C. Psychological
words that convey your meaning. the topic to a series of related other trauma
~ Marilyn vos Savant subjects to enhance a deep
understanding (McKerrow, Gronbeck,
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I hear and I forget. I see and I feel unintelligent if they are not developing informative
remember. I do and I understand.
successful. Practice your speech with
speeches
friends who know nothing about the The first sections of this chapter
~ Confucious topic to gauge if listeners can do what explained the importance of
you are asking them to do in the time informative speaking, the functions of
demonstration speeches allotted. informative speeches, the role of the
The most practical of all informative
informative speaker, and the four major
speeches, a demonstration speech
Sample Demonstration Speech types of informative speeches. This
shows listeners how some process is
Outline final section of the chapter discusses
accomplished or how to perform it
three goals in developing informative
themselves. The focus is on a
speeches and advice for increasing the
chronological explanation of some Title: How to Survive if You Get effectiveness of your speech. These
process (how potato chips are made), Stranded in the Wilderness (U.S. three goals include 1) arousing the
procedure (how to fight fires on a Department of Defense, 2006). interest of your audience, 2) presenting
submarine), application (how to use the
information in a way that can be
calendar function in Outlook), or Specific Purpose: At the end of my
speech my audience will
understood, and 3) helping the audience
course of action (how court cases
understand what to do if they remember what you have said
proceed to Supreme Court status).
unexpectedly become stranded in (Fujishin, 2000).
Speakers might focus on processes that
the wilderness.
have a series of steps with a specific
beginning and end (how to sell a home Central Idea: You can greatly generate and maintain
by yourself) or the process may be improve your ability to stay alive and interest
continuous (how to maintain the hard safe in the wilderness by learning a Use Attention-Getting Elements
drive on your computer to prevent few simple survival techniques. Before you capture the interest of an
crashes). Demonstration speeches can
audience, you have to get their
be challenging to write due to the fact I. Size up the situation
A. Size up the
attention. As you know, attention
that the process may involve several
surroundings getters are used in the introduction of a
objects, a set of tools, materials, or a
B. Size up your speech, but attention getters can also
number of related relationships or
events (Rinehart, 2002). Nevertheless, physical and be used throughout your speech to
mental states maintain an audience’s attention.
these types of speeches provide the
C. Size up your There are a number of techniques you
greatest opportunity for audience equipment can use that will naturally draw
members to get involved or apply the (handout “What to listeners’ attention (German, et al.,
information later. Include in a Survival 2010).
When preparing this speech, Kit”)
Intensity refers to something that
remember first to keep the safety of the
II. Survival Basics has a high or extreme degree of
audience in mind. One speaker
A. Obtaining water emotion, color, volume, strength or
severely burned his professor when he B. Acquiring food other defining characteristic. In a
accidently spilled hot oil from a wok on C. Building a fire speech about sharks’ senses, showing
her. Another student nearly took the D. Locating shelter how sharks smell 10,000 times better
heads off listeners when he was
demonstrating how to swing a baseball III. Finding help
bat. Keep in mind also that you may A. Call or signal rescue
need to bring in examples or pictures of personnel
completed steps in order to make B. Wilderness
efficient use of your time. Just think of navigation
C. Leaving “bread
the way that cooking demonstrations
crumb” trail
are done on TV --- the ingredients are
pre-measured, the food is pre-mixed,
and the mixture magically goes from
uncooked to cooked in a matter of Any subject can be made
seconds. Finally, if you are having interesting, and therefore any
your audience participate during your subject can be made boring.
presentation (making an origami ~ Hilaire Belloc
sculpture), know what their knowledge
level is so that you don’t make them

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than humans would be an example of Voyager. You could also direct the The wisest mind has something
the intensity principle. audience’s attention to couples who yet to learn.
Novelty involves those things that have wedding ceremonies spoken in
Klingon. ~ George Santayna
are new or unusual. Discussing the
recent invention of the flesh-eating
mushroom death suit developed by Jae
Rhim Lee would be novel. This suit is lyrics to Beatles songs, holiday songs,
designed to help bodies decompose and children’s games are universal.
naturally above ground to avoid the use Commercial jingles and song lyrics
of dangerous embalming chemicals. also work to get the audience involved.
Contrast can also be used to draw You could start a speech on boating
attention through comparison to safety with these lyrics: Just sit right
something that is different or opposite. back / And you'll hear a tale / A tale of
This works best when the differences a fateful trip / That started from this
are significant. If you were showing tropic port / Aboard this tiny ship (from
the audience how to make hot sauce, Tell a Story Gilligan’s Island). Depending on the
and you showed a bar graph comparing Story telling is not only the basis for make-up of your audience, you might
the scoville units (level of hotness) of most of our entertainment; it is also one use lyrics from Johnny Cash, Billy
different chili peppers, this would be of the best ways to teach an audience Holiday, The Doors, The Beatles, Jay-
contrast. Jalapenos rate at 2500 – 8000 (Carlson, 2005). Also known as Z, The Judds or the Arctic Monkeys.
scoville units, habaneros rate at narratives, stories typically have a Just remember you probably can’t read
100,000 – 350,000, and the naga beginning in which the characters and all of the lyrics, you need to make sure
jolokia rates at 855,000 – 1,041,241. setting are introduced, a rise in action, the lyrics are directly linked to your
some complication or problem, and a topic, and you should be sure to cite the
resolution. Stories with compelling artist and song title.
characters can be used in a creative
way to weave facts otherwise dry and
technical facts together (Walters,
1995), as in a speech about preparing a
space shuttle for take-off from a
mouse’s perspective. Jaffe (1998)
differentiates between three types of
narratives that can be used in
informative speeches. The first type of
story is a natural reality in which
natural or scientific facts are brought
together in chronological accounts, as
in the formation of the Grand Canyon.
Audiences will also attend to The second narrative involves social
movement or Activity. To employ this realities which detail historic events,
technique, the speaker can either use Just for fun, can you name the artist
and the development of cultures and who sang the lyrics below? Can you
action words, well-chosen movements, institutions. The last kind of story, the
an increased rate of speech, or s/he can think of a speech topic that would
ultimate reality, is focused on profound correspond to the lyrics? (Answer at the
show action with video. A speech philosophical and spiritual questions
describing or showing extreme sports end of the chapter)
like “Where do we come from?” and
with high levels of risk, a fast pace, or “What happens to us when we die?” Mystery Artist
amazing stunts could be used to
illustrate activity. Nursery rhymes and song lyrics Money, get away.
familiar to the audience can also be Get a good job with good pay
Finally, Humor can be used to draw used in an interactive way to get and you're okay.
attention to a subject or point, but be listeners interested in the topic (Maxey
sure that it is relevant and in good taste.
Money, it's a gas.
& O'Connor, 2006). In a speech about
In a speech about the devotion of the global population explosion, you
Grab that cash with both hands
Trekkies (Star Trek fans), you could could ask audience to finish the phrase and make a stash.
share the example of Tony Alleyne “There was an old woman who lived in New car, caviar, four star
who designed and outfitted his flat in a shoe…” Common commercials, daydream,
England as a replica of the deck of the Think I'll buy me a football team.
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Be Creative them in and show off their make-up speech on travelling to the Pyramids,
Speakers who are different are and costumes. The speaker was wise to you should be aware of this. When you
memorable (Maxey & O'Connor, have her cohorts in the room just long are talking about a topic that your
2006). To give your speech impact, be enough to make the point (but not the audience is familiar with, you should
imaginative and dare to push the entire time which would distract from share little known facts or paint the
envelope of conformity. When you the speaker), and the audience was subject in a new light. In a speech
have spent time researching a topic, attentive and grateful for the variety. about a famous person, you might
you may be able to envision ways to Hanks and Parry (1991) explain that depict what they are like behind the
incorporate surprising facts, props or anyone can be creative, if s/he wants to scenes, or what they were like growing
visuals that make your presentation be and is willing to make the effort. up. In a speech about a new
different from others, and therefore For some tips on how to foster your technology, you might also talk about
more memorable. You could dress like creativity, see Table 16.2. However, the inventors. In a speech about a
a Shakespearian actor for a speech you need to remember that creativity is famous city, you could discuss the
about the famous playwright. You just a tool to help you teach your more infamous landmarks and
could have the audience move their audience. Do not overlook the attractions.
chairs and take part in a yoga requirements of the occasion, the
demonstration. Or you might use your content of your research, or the needs
own audience plants to help with a of your audience in your zeal to be
speech entitled “Behind the Scenes of creative.
TV Talk Shows.” When one student
got up to speak, he drew a row of The worst enemy to creativity is
houses on the blackboard and then self-doubt.
began to drink a glass of water and ~ Sylvia Plath
speak about the life giving properties of
water. After making a few comments, Stimulate Audience Intellect
he threw the glass of water on the Most people have a genuine desire to
blackboard --- erasing most of the understand the world around them, to
houses. Then he began his speech on seek out the truth, and learn how to
the devastating effects of a flood (be solve problems. The role of the
sure to get your professor’s permission informative speaker is to satisfy this
before you do something like this!). desire to learn and know. To illustrate
Another student giving a speech about our quest for knowledge, consider the
“Clowning” had two actual clowns wait success of the Discovery Channel, the
in the hall until she was ready to bring Learning Channel, the History Channel,
the Food Network and other
educational broadcasts. So how do we create coherence
Tbale 16.2 Tips for Jump Starting appeal to the minds of listeners? Think Organize Logically
Your Creativity about all of the information we Several types of organizational
From Everyday Creativity by encounter every day but do not have patterns are discussed in the Selecting
Carlin Flora (2009) time to pursue. Think about subjects and Arranging Main Points chapter.
that you would like to know more Using these as a starting point, you
• Take a different way to work about. Ask what information would be should make sure the overall logic of
the speech is well thought out. If you
• Collaborate with others with
universally interesting and useful for
listeners. Many people fly on were giving speech best suited to
complementary skills chronological order, but presented the
airplanes, but do they know how to
• Seek inspiration in beautiful survive a plane crash? People also steps out of order, it would be very
surroundings difficult to follow. Those of you who
share many ordinary illnesses, so what
• Start working on the problem are some common home remedies? All have seen the movie Memento (which
right away of the people on earth originated presented the sequence of events
• Work in a blue room (it boosts someplace, so who were our ancient backwards), may have noticed how
difficult it was to explain the plot to
creativity) ancestors?
others. In a logical speech, the points
• Get a hobby or play music In addition to finding topics that you are trying to draw are obvious, the
• Think about your problem right relate to listeners, the information we supporting materials are coherent and
before falling asleep supply should be up to date. For correspond exactly to the thesis, and
instance, Egypt recently had a the main points are mutually exclusive
revolution, and if you are giving a and flow naturally from start to finish.
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Clarity of thought is critical in Table 16.3 Simplify Your Language

presenting information. As Peggy Low Impact High Impact
Noonan (1998, p. 64) argues: Under the present circumstances Currently
At the present time Now
The most moving thing in a
Are in agreement with Agree
speech is always the logic. It’s
Due to the fact that Because
never the flowery words and
Is fully operational Works
flourishes, it’s not sentimental In close proximity to Near
exhortations, it’s never the faux Of sufficient magnitude Big enough
poetry we’re all subjected to In close proximity to Near
these days. It’s the logic; it’s the Of sufficient magnitude Big enough
thinking behind your case. A In the event of If
good case well argued and well Each and every one Each
said is inherently moving. It In the course of During
shows respect for the brains of Never before or since Never
the listeners. There is an Deciduous trees (jargon) Trees that lose their leaves
implicit compliment in it. It Somnolent (jargon) Drowsy
shows that you are a serious Awesome (slang) Impressive
person and that you are talking Put the bit on (slang) Borrow
No brainer (cliché) Easy decision
to other serious persons.
An arm and a leg Expensive
When planning your speech, ask Vertically challenged (euphemism) Short
questions like: What information needs Gone to the great beyond (euphemism) Dead
to come first? What organizational
pattern best suits the topic? What
information must be shared or omitted 251 of these words only have one or are unable to process it all or unable to
to aid in audience understanding? two syllables (Hughes & Phillips, make decision. So whether you have
What points or sub-points should be 2000)? Another benefit of using simple five minutes to give a presentation or
grouped together to aid listeners’ language is that you are less likely to three eight hour days, you will need to
understanding? trip over or mispronounce simple narrow and focus your speech topic and
words. Instead of “protracted,” say objectives. If you know that you have
“drawn out.” Instead of “conundrum,” ten minutes to speak, you will not be
say “puzzle.” And instead of able to cover “Car Maintenance for
“loquacious,” say “talkative. As you Dummies,” but you probably could
are writing your speech you also want give a good speech entitled “How to
to avoid technical jargon, slang, Change the Oil in Your Car.” When
clichés, and euphemisms. This type of planning your speech, be sure to
language is difficult to understand and determine the amount of information
tends to be low impact. Compare the that can reasonably be covered in the
Low Impact language column with the time allowed. In fact, rather than
High Impact column in Table 16.3 taking the entire allotted speaking time,
Use Simple Language above to see examples of ways to make you should get into the practice of
One common mistake that speech your language more powerful. speaking only for 90 – 95% of the time
writers make when they are writing that you are given (Reynolds, 2008).
their speech is to use the same language Avoid Information Overload
No one is given an unlimited amount More is not always better --- and your
that they would use in a written audience will appreciate it if you can
document. Experienced speech writers of time to speak. You can’t cover
everything that there is to know about skillfully make your point with time to
know that simple language and ideas spare.
are easier to understand than complex your topic. And even if you could
ones. “Clear speaking is not an speak forever about everything there
alternative to intelligent discourse, but was to know about a subject, your Today knowledge has power. It
rather an enabler of intelligent listeners would never be able to take it
all in. Information overload occurs
controls access to opportunity and
discourse” (Carlson, 2005, p. 79). Did advancement.
you know that Lincoln’s Gettysburg when a person feels that they are faced
address contains only 271 words, and with an overwhelming amount of ~Peter Drucker
information, with the effect that they

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I could get it - and bear the lash own learning style. Second, regardless
as well! And ain't I a woman? I of your own learning styles, you need
have borne thirteen children, to appeal to as many different learning
styles as possible in your informative
and seen most all sold off to speech. To see how each learning style
slavery, and when I cried out prefers to be taught, see the table
with my mother's grief, none but below.
Jesus heard me! And ain't I a Unfortunately, since the ear alone is
woman? a very poor information gathering
device, steps must be taken to improve
make your speech The final way to use repetition in
retention. Typically listeners only
memorable your speech is through nonverbal
retain only a small fraction of what is
Build in Repetition communication. When you say the
explained to them verbally. The first
Audience retention is determined by word “four” and you hold up four
way to enhance retention is to appeal to
a number of factors including listeners’ fingers, or when you verbally agree
as many of the senses as possible.
interest, knowledge, physical and with a point and nod your head at the
Studies show that audiences retain 20
emotional state, level of stress, same time, you are reinforcing the idea
percent of what they hear, 30 percent of
background, and other competing verbally and nonverbally.
what they see, and 50 percent of what
demands (Fujishin, 2000). One way to they hear and see (Westerfield, 2002).
help your audience remember the When the audience has an opportunity
Appeal to Different Ways of
content of your speech is by repetition to do something (adding the kinesthetic
Learning
(Hughes & Phillips, 2000). There are sense), their retention increases to 80
Individuals have different learning
three ways to incorporate repetition percent (Walters, 1995). Or, if
styles, so some people are visual [V]
into your speech. The first form learners, some are aural [A] learners, participation is not possible, a handout
repetition involves restating your main will raise retention to an impressive 85
some learn by reading [R] and writing,
points in your introduction, body and percent – if the audience can review the
and some learn kinesthetically [K]
conclusion. When you do this, you will handout at least once (Slutsky & Aun,
(Fleming, 2001). You can test your
restate your points using different 1997).
own learning style at www.vark-
language --- not repeat the points word learn.com. Understanding your own Another way to help your listeners
for word. The second form of
and others’ learning styles is useful for remember is by the use of techniques
repetition is where a word or a phrase is
two reasons. First, you will find that like association, linking the new topic
repeated in a poetic way, either
you tend to teach others using your to things that the audience knows about
throughout the speech or at a critical
point in the speech. One example of
this would be Abraham Lincoln’s Table 16.4 The VARK Model of Learning
“government of the people, by the
people, for the people.” Another Learning Style Approach the Learner With…
example can be found in Sojourner
Truth’s speech, delivered in 1851 at a Visual Learners Maps, charts, graphs, diagrams, brochures, flow
women’s rights convention. charts, highlighters, different colors, pictures,
word pictures, and different spatial
… That man over there says that arrangements
women need to be helped into
carriages, and lifted over Aural Learners Explanations of new ideas, large and small
ditches, and to have the best group discussions, lectures, audio recordings,
place everywhere. Nobody ever stories, and jokes
helps me into carriages, or over
mud-puddles, or gives me any Read/Write Learners Lists, essays, reports, textbooks, definitions,
best place! And ain't I a woman? printed handouts, readings, manuals, and web
pages
Look at me! Look at my arm! I
have ploughed and planted, and Kinesthetic Learners Field trips, hands-on projects, sensory
gathered into barns, and no man stimulations, laboratories, recipes and solutions
could head me! And ain't I a to problems, and collections of samples
woman? I could work as much
and eat as much as a man - when From Hawk and Shaw (2007, p. 7)and Fleming (2001).

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or already understands. If you were plenty of people use Power Point, and it to have an impact on a number
giving a speech about rugby, you might does not necessarily make their speech of listeners in your audiences.
compare it to soccer and football to better or more memorable. That is one of the real powers of
help the audience understand the rules. Perhaps the best reason to use
The use of acronyms also aids
spoken communication. Develop
visuals aids during an informative skill for getting the material
retention. On the “Krusty Krab speech is to help your audience
Training Video” episode of Spongebob across to audiences, and you can
understand a concept that may be
Squarepants (a spoof on corporate difficult to understand just by
and will change lives for the
training videos), they use the acronym explaining it. In a speech about heart better and make a worthy
“POOP.” When I asked my then eight- bypass surgery, would it be better to contribution as a speaker.
year-old son if he remembered (several verbally describe the parts of the
weeks after watching the episode) what human heart, or to show a picture of it?
“POOP” stood for, he immediately and Informative speaking is a crucial
How about a model of the heart? How skill that, if developed, will help you be
correctly answered “People Order Our about an actual human heart? Be sure
Patties.” The final technique to help more successful in both your personal
to consider your audience! What if life and your professional career.
audiences remember information is the your speech is about an abstract
simplicity criterion. Information is best concept that does not lend itself well to When constructing an informative
retained when it is explained from top slick graphic representations? One way speech, you should strive to be
to bottom (rather than bottom to top), trainers get their audiences involved objective, spend time developing your
when events are presented from first to and make their presentations credibility, demonstrate that you have
last (rather than last to first), and when memorable is to provide handouts done your research, and link your
information is presented in the positive which the listeners complete (in part) subject to the lives of the listeners.
voice (rather than in the negative voice) themselves. You could use fill-in-the There are four main types of
(Devito, 1981). blank statements (where you provide informative speeches. Definitional
Use Visuals the answer), open-ended questions speeches present the meanings of
Visual aids can be a very powerful where listeners can write their thoughts, concepts, theories, philosophies, or
and efficient way to present facts that and activities like matching or issues. Descriptive speeches provide
might otherwise be difficult to convey crossword puzzles. Regardless of the detailed word pictures of people,
verbally. The benefits of visuals used type of visual media you select for your animals, places, or objects.
for informative speeches include speech, just make sure that it does not Explanatory speeches report events,
increasing interest, understanding, overpower you or the subject. Work to customs, transformations, inventions,,
retention, and the speed at which your keep the audience’s attention on you policies, outcomes or options.
audience can understand complex facts. and what you are saying, and use the Demonstration speeches show listeners
We live in a mediated culture, where visual to complement what you have to how some process is done or how to do
people are visually oriented. This say. it themselves.
means that they expect to be visually
Only one person in a million Several techniques can be used by
stimulated with pictures, graphs, maps,
becomes enlightened without a speakers to increase the effectiveness
video images and objects. Speakers
of their informative speech. Speakers
who do not make use of visuals may be teacher’s help. can arouse interest by using attention
at a disadvantage when compared to ~ Bodhidharma getting elements, telling a story, adding
speakers who use them. This is
creative features, and stimulating the
assuming of course that the visuals
enhance what you are saying and that conclusion intellect of the audience. Speakers can
The primary goal of informative create coherence through logical
you use them well. As you know,
speaking is to increase listeners’ organization, the use of simple
knowledge so they can better language, and by avoiding information
understand the world around them and overload. Finally, a speaker can make
can make more informed decisions. a speech more memorable via
Discussing the impact a speaker can repetition, appealing to different ways
have on an audience, Perry Wilbur of learning, and by using visuals
(2000, p. 99) explains: appropriately.

Always keep in mind that if your If you have knowledge, let others
talk helps just one listener in light their candles at it.
your audience, it has been ~Margaret Fuller
successful. It is far more likely

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chapter review questions and activities

review questions

1. For each of the characters described below, what types of informative speeches might each person be called
upon to give in her or his personal and professional life? List as many as you can think of for each.
A. Stacy is an emergency room physician and medical school professor. She also serves on the board of
directors for a local college. For recreation she enjoys rock climbing.

B. Rick is an animal control officer who volunteers his time at both the animal shelter and the local Habitat
for Humanity group. He is in a bowling league with other city employees.

C. Akiko is in insurance sales and volunteers in the math classroom at her children’s middle school. As a
hobby, she collects and sells antiques.

2. Early in the module, the importance of credibility was discussed. Can you think of any presentations you
heard where you DID NOT feel that the speaker had credibility? What did the speakers do and/or say to make
you think they lacked credibility? If you were to give these speakers advice on how to improve their credibility,
what would you say?

3. The chapter states that speakers need to be objective, credible, knowledgeable and that they need to make the
topic relevant to the audience. Rank these responsibilities in order from most to least important, and then
explain your ranking.

4. Imagine you are giving an informative speech on ______________ [you fill in the blank]. How would you
apply each of the five attention getting techniques --- intensity, novelty, contrast, activity and humor --- in your
speech? Make note of at least one idea for each technique.

5. After you have selected a topic for your informative speech, answer the questions below to help determine
ways to orient your topic to your audience. Questions adapted from Ulloth and Alderfer, (1998b, pp. 61 - 62).
A. How much information does your audience already have about your topic?

B. What social or cultural influences of audience members might affect their reaction to your topic?

C. How can your topic be made interesting if the audience has no knowledge or apparent interest in it?

D. Are there any mental, physical, or emotional factors in the audience that may affect their response to
your speech?

E. What do you want your audience to understand after you have delivered your speech?

Answers to song lyrics question on page 8:

Mystery Artist: Pink Floyd “Money” from Dark Side of the Moon

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Chapter 15 Informative Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

activities
1. The list directly below includes a number of potential sources for your informative speech (Walters, 1995;
Ulloth & Alderfer, 1998; Slutsky & Aun, 1997). Using this list for ideas, which of these potential sources could
be used in the research process for each of the following speech topics?

speech topics
Tattoos Action figure collecting Free local activities
Making great BBQ Music piracy Auctions
Bruce Lee Decorating on a budget Creating a web site

sources of interesting materials

• Libraries • Trade associations and publications

• Bookstores • Special interest clubs and groups
• Used book stores • People selling products and services
• Video stores • Research departments of television
• Music stores stations and newspapers

• Reference books • Objects related to the subject

• Phone books (use for experts and • Museums

specialized businesses) • Computer search engines and data
• Schools and colleges (where your topic bases (on and off campus)
is taught or researched) • Other sources (e.g. specialized stores,
• Magazines and newsletters friends, colleagues, educational videos)

2. Use the list of potential informative speech topics below to complete the steps of this activity.
A. Which of the topics listed below might also be used for a persuasive speech?

B. For each of the four different types of informative speeches (Definitional, Descriptive, Explanatory,
Demonstration), identify three topics that would be appropriate to use for each type of speech.

C. At this point, you should have twelve topics listed --- three each under each type of speech. Now, take
one topic from each of the four groups and generate a specific purpose statement and three potential main
points. You will have four different speeches, each with their own specific purpose and main points.

potential speech topics

• Adventure vacations • Diamond selection • Orchids
• The Alamo • Ghandi’s achievements • Ramadan
• Alternatives to chemo • Hospice care • Robots for the home
therapy • Hot air balloons • Space vacations
• Boating safety • How a meteor killed the • Using Power Point
• Building a pond dinosaurs effectively
• Changing the oil in your car • How to set up a wireless • Unemployment and the
• Characteristics of successful network economy
managers • Illicit drug policy • What to do when your
• Cultural changes resulting • Matching dog breeds with identity is stolen
from 9/11 owners

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glossary

Activity
The use of action words, physical or visual General Purpose
movement, or faster rate of speech to draw the The speaker’s overall goal, objective, or intent: to
audience’s attention. inform, to persuade, or to entertain.

Attention Getter Humor

A device or technique used to gain the audience’s The use of amusing or comical facts, stories, or
attention in the introduction or keep the audience’s forms of expression to maintain an audience’s
attention during the course of a speech. attention.

Contrast Information Overload

An attention getting technique whereby supporting An overwhelming feeling of being faced with so
ideas are compared to emphasize difference. much information one cannot completely process it.

Credibility Informative Speech

Refers to the audience’s perception of the speaker’s A speech in which the primary purpose is to provide
expertise, authenticity, and trustworthiness. the audience with information that they did not
already know, or to teach them more about a topic
Definitional Speech with which they are already familiar.
A type of speech in which the speaker attempts to
explain or identify the essential qualities or Intensity
components of concepts, theories, philosophies, or Supporting material that is characterized by a high
issues. degree of emotion, color, volume, strength, or other
defining characteristic.
Demonstration Speech
A speech that shows listeners how some process is Novelty
accomplished or how to perform it themselves. Very recent or unusual supporting ideas.

Descriptive Speech WIIFM

A speech that provides a detailed, vivid, word An acronym that stands for “What’s in it for me?”
picture of a person, animal, place, or object. This is the question that listeners ask themselves
when they begin to listen to a speech. Listeners
Explanatory Speech want to know; What does this speech have to do
Also known as a briefing, the focus of this speech is with my life? Is this information useful to me? Is
on reports of current and historical events, customs, the speaker talking about something I already know?
transformations, inventions, policies, outcomes, and Is the subject interesting? Why should I pay
options. attention?

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Chapter 15 Informative Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

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persuasive speaking Public Speaking: The Virtual Text

chapter 16

By Sarah Stone Watt, Ph.D. & Joshua Trey Barnett

Pepperdine University Indiana University
Malibu, CA Bloomington, IN

introduction
At the gas pump, on eggs in the chapter outline:
grocery store, in the examination room chapter objectives:
After studying this module, you should be able  Introduction
of your doctor’s office, everywhere you to:  What is Persuasive Speaking?
go, advertisers are trying to persuade  Functions of Persuasive
you to buy their product. This form of 1. Explain what a persuasive Speeches
persuasion used to be reserved for speech is. o Speeches to Convince
magazines and television commercials, 2. Describe the functions of o Speeches to Actuate
but now it is unavoidable. One persuasive speeches.  Types of Persuasive Speeches
marketing research firm estimates that 3. List the different types of o Propositions of Fact
a person living in a large city today persuasive speeches. o Propositions of Value
4. Identify persuasive o Propositions of Policy
sees approximately 5,000 ads per day
strategies that make a  Choosing a Persuasive Speech
(Story, 2007). It is easy to assume that Topic
speech more effective.
our over-exposure to persuasion makes 5. Apply the appropriate  Approaching Audiences
us immune to its effect, but research organizational pattern o Receptive Audiences
demonstrates that we are more based on your persuasive o Neutral Audiences
susceptible than ever. In fact, goals. o Hostile Audiences
advertisers have gotten even better at 6. Distinguish between  Persuasive Strategies
learning exactly the right times and ethical and unethical o Ethos
places to reach us by studying different forms of persuasion. o Logos
audiences and techniques (Aral & 7. Apply module concepts in o Pathos
Walker, 2012; Blackman, 2009; final questions and  Organizing Persuasive
activities. Messages
Rosendaal, Lapierre, van Reijmersdal,
o Monroe’s Motivated
& Buijzen, 2011). Sequence
background unbeknownst to you. o Direct Method Pattern
I do not read advertisements. Amidst being persuaded, you were also o Causal Pattern
I would spend all of my time actively persuading others. You may o Refutation Pattern
have tried to convince the Internet sales  Conclusion
wanting things. person to give you a better deal and an  Module Activities
~ Franz Kafka extended contract, and later persuaded  Glossary
a group of friends to enjoy a night on  References

We also encounter persuasion in our the town. Persuasion is everywhere.

daily interactions. Imagine you stop at useful one. First, it acknowledges the
what is persuasive artfulness, or skill, required to persuade
a café on your way to school, and the
barista persuades you to try something
speaking? others. Whether you are challenged
You are used to experiencing with convincing an auditorium of 500
new. While enjoying your espresso, a
persuasion in many forms, and may that they should sell their cars and opt
sales person attempts to persuade you
have an easy time identifying examples for a pedestrian lifestyle or with
to upgrade your home Internet package.
of persuasion, but can you explain how convincing your friends to eat pizza
Later, while walking across campus,
persuasion works? Osborn and Osborn instead of hamburgers, persuasion does
you observe students who are
(1997) define persuasion this way: not normally just happen. Rather it is
enthusiastically inviting others to join
“the art of convincing others to give planned and executed in a thoughtful
their organizations. Within thirty
favorable attention to our point of manner. Second, this definition
minutes, you have encountered at least
view” (p. 415). There are two delineates the ends of persuasion—to
three instances of persuasion, and there
components that make this definition a convince others to think favorably of
were likely others emanating in the
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-
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Chapter 16 Persuasive Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

for consent are solid practices with scientist would likely recite a number
desirable outcomes. By the same of statistics linking human productivity
token, safer sex advocates also with global warming in her effort to
routinely spread the message to convince the government officials that
populations who might be likely to both the causes and solutions to the
engage in unsafe or nonconsensual climatic changes were a distinctly
sexual behavior. human problem.
In a nutshell, persuasive speeches
must confront the complex challenge of
influencing or reinforcing peoples’
beliefs, attitudes, values, or actions, all
characteristics that may seem natural,
our point of view. Persuasion ingrained, or unchangeable to an
“encompasses a wide range of audience. Because of this, rhetors (or
communication activities, including speakers) must motivate their audiences
advertising, marketing, sales, political to think or behave differently by
campaigns, and interpersonal relations” presenting reasoned arguments.
(German, Gronbeck, Ehninger, &
Monroe, 2004, p. 242). Because of its The triumph of persuasion
widespread utility, persuasion is a
pervasive part of our everyday lives. over force is the sign of a
Although persuasion occurs in nearly civilized society.
every facet of our day-to-day lives, ~ Mark Skousen
there are occasions when more formal
acts of persuasion—persuasive
speeches—are appropriate. Persuasive functions of persuasive
speeches “intend to influence the speeches
beliefs, attitudes, values, and acts of So far, we have discussed the
others” (O’Hair & Stewart, 1999, p. functions of persuasive speeches—to
influence or reinforce—only speeches to actuate
337). Unlike an informative speech, Other times, persuasive speeches
where the speaker is charged with peripherally as they relate to our
working definition. Next, we turn to an attempt to influence or reinforce
making some information known to an actions. Speeches to actuate are
audience, in a persuasive speech the in-depth discussion about how
persuasive speeches function. designed to motivate particular
speaker attempts to influence people to
behaviors. Think of a time when you
think or behave in a particular way. speeches to convince found yourself up at 2 a.m. watching
This art of convincing others is Some persuasive speeches attempt to infomercials. Someone on the
propelled by reasoned argument, the influence or reinforce particular beliefs, television screen was trying very hard
cornerstone of persuasive speeches. attitudes, or values. In these speeches, to sell you a $20 spatula that morphed
Reasoned arguments, which might called speeches to convince, the into a spoon with the click of a button.
consist of facts, statistics, personal speaker seeks to establish agreement The salesperson described its utility
testimonies, or narratives, are employed about a particular topic. For instance, a and innovation for your kitchen, and he
to motivate audiences to think or climatologist who believes that global described why it would be a good
behave differently than before they warming is caused by human behavior purchase for you—after all, how does a
heard the speech. might try to convince an audience of busy person like you have time to use
There are particular circumstances government officials to adopt this two different utensils? “But wait,” he
that warrant a persuasive approach. As belief. She might end her speech by would say, “there’s more!” In case he
O’Hair and Stewart point out, it makes saying, “In recent years, humans have had not already convinced you that you
sense to engage strategies of persuasion been producing machines that expel needed this kitchen tool, he ended his
when your end goal is to influence any CO2 either in their production, their spiel with a final plea—an extra
of these things—“beliefs, attitudes, consumption, or in both. At the same Spoonatula for free. In this infomercial,
values, and acts”—or to reinforce time, the level of CO2 in the the salesperson attempted to convince
something that already exists. For atmosphere increased dramatically. you that you needed to buy the kitchen
instance, safe sex advocates often The connection is clear to many of us tool—it will save you time and money.
present messages of reinforcement to that humans have caused this damage Thus, not only was the commercial an
already safe sexual actors, reminding and that it is up to us to similarly attempt to convince you to change how
them that wearing condoms and asking intervene.” Throughout her speech, the you felt about spoons and spatulas, but

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Chapter 16 Persuasive Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

also an effort to incite you to action— Heather MacDonald (2002) proposes “Carmageddon” because they proposed
to actually purchase the Spoonatula. that studies confirming racial profiling there would be an “inevitable and likely
This illustrates a function of persuasive are often based in “junk science”; in epic traffic tie-up” (Kandel, 2011, para.
speeches, to motivate behavior. fact she says, “there’s no credible 1). As a result of the predictions
evidence that racial profiling exists” motorists stayed off the roads and made
types of persuasive (para. 1). To substantiate her alternative plans that weekend resulting
speeches proposition, MacDonald relies on a in much lighter traffic than expected.
Persuasive speeches revolve around study of traffic stops on the New Jersey The proposition may have been true,
propositions that can be defended turnpike along with personal narratives, but the prediction was not fulfilled
through the use of data and reasoning. policy analysis, and testimony from a because people were persuaded to stay
Persuasive propositions respond to one criminologist. The claim that racial off the freeway.
of three types of questions: questions of profiling exists is either true or false, When advancing propositions of
fact, questions of value, and questions but there is evidence for and against fact, you should focus on the evidence
of policy. These questions can help the both propositions; therefore no you can offer in support of your
speaker determine what forms of consensus exists. proposition. First, make sure that your
argument and reasoning are necessary
While some propositions of fact deal speech contains sufficient evidence to
to support a specific purpose statement.
with the existence of a particular back up your proposition. Next, take
Everything we hear is an phenomenon or the accuracy of a the time to interpret that evidence so
theory, others focus on causality. For that it makes sense to your audience.
opinion, not a fact. example, the U.S. government Last, emphasize the relationship
Everything we see is a appointed a commission to evaluate the between your evidence and your
perspective, not the truth. causes of the nation’s recent economic proposition as well as its relevance to
crisis. In their report the commission the audience (Herrick, 2011).
~ Marcus Aurelius concluded by proposing that
recklessness in the financial industry Bitter experience has taught
propositions of fact and failures on the part of government us how fundamental our
Questions of fact ask whether regulators caused the economic crisis.
However, Congressman Paul Ryan has values are and how great the
something “can potentially be verified
as either true or false” (Herrick, 2011, proposed that Medicare is to blame, mission they represent.
p. 20). These questions can seem very and the chief investment officer at JP ~ Jan Peter Balkenende
straightforward—something is or it is Morgan has proposed that U.S. housing
not—but in reality, the search for truth policy is the root cause of the problem
is a complex endeavor. Questions of (Angelides, 2011). Each of these three propositions of value
fact rarely address simple issues such propositions of fact is backed by its Persuasive speakers may also be
as, “is the sky blue?” They tend to deal own set of historical and economic called to address questions of value,
with deep-seated controversies such as analysis. which call for a proposition judging the
the existence of global warming, the (relative) worth of something. These
cause of a major disaster, or someone’s propositions make an evaluative claim
guilt or innocence in a court of law. To regarding morality, aesthetics, wisdom,
answer these questions, a proposition or desirability. For example, some
of fact may focus on whether or not vegetarians propose that eating meat is
something exists. For example, in the immoral because of the way that
U.S. there is a debate over the animals are slaughtered. Vegetarians
prevalence of racial profiling, the may base this claim in a philosophy of
practice of law enforcement officers utilitarianism or animal rights
targeting people for investigation and (DeGrazia, 2009).
arrest based on skin color. On one Sometimes a proposition of value
hand, the American Civil Liberties compares multiple options to determine
Union advances the proposition: Propositions of fact may also be used which is best. Consumers call for these
“Racial profiling continues to be a to make predictions concerning what comparisons regularly to determine
prevalent and egregious form of will happen in the future. In the which products to buy. Car buyers
discrimination in the United States” summer of 2011, ten miles of a popular may look to the most recent Car and
(ACLU, 2012, para. 2). They verify Southern California freeway were Driver “10 Best Cars” list to determine
this claim using data from government closed for an entire weekend. their next purchase. In labeling a car
studies, crime statistics, and personal Motorists, news outlets, and one of the best on the market for a
narratives. However, journalist government officials called the closure given year Car and Driver (2011) says

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live in a vegetative state (Caplan, new behavior—shopping with reusable

2005). Ms. Schiavo’s parents bags.
vehemently disagreed with his When answering a question of
argument. They also claimed to value policy, speakers will typically begin by
life and, with the support of religious describing the status quo. If you are
groups, relied on the evaluation criteria arguing that a change must be made,
of the sanctity of life to contend that you must first identify the problem
she should be kept alive (Catholic inherent in the current behavior, and
Culture, 2005). Both sides gained then demonstrate that the problem is
widespread support based on people’s significant enough to warrant
agreement or disagreement with their immediate consideration. Once you
evaluation criteria. Despite have established that there is a problem
that the cars “don’t have to be the intervention on behalf of both state and which the audience ought to consider,
newest, and they don’t have to be federal legislators, the courts eventually you can then offer your proposal for a
expensive . . . They just have to meet ruled that Mr. Schiavo had the right to preferable course of action (Herrick,
our abundant needs while satisfying our have his wife’s feeding tube removed 2011). Then, it is up to you to
every want” (para. 1). and allow her to die. demonstrate that your proposed policy
Both the vegetarian and car will have more benefits than costs.
examples offer standards for evaluating
A policy is a temporary creed
the proposition. Since propositions of liable to be changed, but
value tend to be more subjective, while it holds good, it has got
speakers need to establish evaluation
criteria by which the audience can
to be pursued with apostolic
judge and choose to align with their zeal.
position. When advancing a ~ Mahatma Gandhi
proposition of value, offer a clear set of
criteria, offer evidence for your
evaluation, and apply the evidence to propositions of policy
demonstrate that you have satisfied the Although the Schiavo case was
evaluation criteria (Herrick, 2011). rooted in a question of value, the debate
resulted in a question of policy. In 2011 the U.S. Postal Service, the
Questions of policy ask the speaker to nation’s second-largest employer, told
An inner process stands in Congress it was facing an $8.3 billion
advocate for an appropriate course of
need of outward criteria. action. This form of persuasive speech budget shortfall (Bingham, 2011). To
~ Ludwig Wittgenstein is used every day in Congress to solve the problem, the Postal Service
determine laws, but it is also used proposed that be permitted to end
interpersonally to determine how we Saturday mail delivery and close some
The 2005 disagreement between post offices. To make their argument,
family members over removing a ought to behave. A proposition of
policy may call for people to stop a they first described the status quo
woman’s feeding tube after she had saying that the demand for their service
been in a coma for 15 years sparked a particular behavior, or to start one. For
example, some U.S. cities have started had dramatically decreased with the
national debate over the value of life popularity of email and online bill-pay
that highlights the importance of banning single use plastic bags in
grocery stores. Long before official services. They explained that in
evaluation criteria. After years of preceding years they laid off workers
failed medical treatments and public policy on this issue was
established, organizations such as The and cut spending to help with the
rehabilitation attempts, Terri Schiavo’s shortfall of revenue, but now another
husband petitioned the court to remove Surfrider Foundation and the Earth
Resource Foundation advocated that plan was necessary to avoid defaulting
her feeding tube, initiating a legal battle on their financial obligations. They
with her parents that went all the way people stop using these bags because of
the damage plastic bags cause to offered evidence that people preferred
to the President of the United States ending Saturday mail to alternatives
(Cerminara & Goodman, 2012). marine life. In this case local
governments and private organizations such as paying more for stamps or
Opposing sides in the debate both allocating more tax money to post
claimed to value life. To support his attempted to persuade people to stop
engaging in a damaging behavior— offices (Bingham, 2011). Although
proposition that his wife had a right to they made a compelling case, the USPS
die, Mr. Schaivo applied the evaluation shopping with single use plastic bags.
However, the organizations also still needed to overcome perceived
criteria of quality of life and argued disadvantages to their proposition such
that she would not want to continue to attempted to persuade people to start a
as the negative impact on businesses

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and rural towns (Bingham, 2011; advocate for better mental health care Decaro, Adams and Jefferis offer
Stephenson, 2012). A full year later, for people who have fought in wars. advice for carrying out a thorough
the policy proposition passed the U.S. And candidates, of course, will give audience analysis in Chapter 5 of this
Senate but continues to await approval many speeches during a campaign that book. Some questions you might ask
in the House (Stephenson, 2012). tease out the various reasons they, and before giving a speech include, “Who
not another candidate, should be is hosting the speech?” Often this can
choosing a persuasive elected. Appendix A (at the end of the provide a great deal of information
speech topic chapter) offers a lengthier list of about who will be in the audience.
In order to offer a persuasive speech, possible topics for persuasive speaking, Audience members at a National Rifle
you must decide precisely what it is but keep in mind the advice that Association gathering probably do not
you want to talk about, to whom you Burnett offers in Chapter 8 (public need to be convinced that the Second
will be speaking, and to what ends you speaking: the virtual text) regarding Amendment to the U.S. Constitution—
hope the speech will lead. Persuasive topic selection. The topics in Appendix the right to keep and bear arms—is
speeches do not normally happen A are written as propositions that can worth upholding. You should also ask,
within a vacuum, even in a public be defended. Some are propositions of “Is the audience fairly heterogeneous?”
speaking course where that might seem fact, others are propositions of value, In a public speaking class, you may be
to be the case. In fact, most persuasive and yet others are propositions of able to gauge that through your
speeches serve as a response to larger policy. interactions with your fellow
circumstances—gas prices increase classmates before you make your way
dramatically and drivers cannot afford If I can get you to laugh with to the podium; but in other settings this
to fill up their tanks; war veterans may not be the case. If an organization
suffer from post-traumatic stress
me, you like me better, which
is sponsoring or has invited you to
disorder (PTSD) and can find little makes you more open to my speak, this is a question that can be
governmental assistance for the ideas. And if I can persuade directed to organizational staff with
necessary treatments; an election is access to demographic information.
forthcoming and candidates need to
you to laugh at the particular
Some demographics that may be
secure votes. These are just a few point I make, by laughing at useful as you craft your speech include
times when a persuasive speech would it you acknowledge its truth. age, gender, sexual orientation, ethnic
make sense. A driver might try to or cultural background, socioeconomic
persuade their employer to embrace
~ John Cleese
status, religion, and political affiliation.
telecommuting as a response to the Each of these characteristics is known
high rate of gasoline. Veterans with approaching audiences to influence a listener’s beliefs,
PTSD might stage speeches to a When choosing a topic for your attitudes, values, and actions.
national audience imploring them to persuasive speech, it is crucial to
consider the composition of your
audience. Because persuasive speeches
are intended to influence or reinforce
an audience’s thoughts or behaviors,
speakers must consider what and how
the audience thinks, feels, and does.
Your audience might be ambivalent
about your topic, or they may be
strongly opposed, in strong agreement,
or somewhere along the spectrum. In
persuasive speeches, it matters where
they fall on this continuum. For
instance, if you want to argue that
abortion should be illegal and your
audience is composed of pro-life
advocates, your speech might seem like receptive audiences
you are preaching to the choir. But if Persuasive speakers will not
your audience is made up of staunch generally address an audience that
pro-choice activists, your speech would already fully agrees with them and is
be raising a significant objection to a behaving in the way they would like,
set of beliefs, values, attitudes, and because that audience no longer needs
actions the audience was already to be persuaded. However, you may
committed to. find yourself in situations that allow

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your message. If the audience is

already likely to agree with your point,
they will be looking for ways to act on
it. Offer practical steps that they can
take. Even if the steps must be carried
out later (i.e. the parents in our example
may have to wait to get home and start
talking with their child about social
networking habits), give them a way to
respond to the message immediately
and show their support. In this case vendors are handing out are stylish and,
you may have them write down the first best of all, free! But that t-shirt could
thing they will say to their child, or cost you thousands of dollars before
you to appeal to a receptive audience practice saying it to the person next to you even graduate.” Rather than
which already knows something about them. Having them act on your beginning with a diatribe on the evils of
your topic and is generally supportive message before leaving reinforces their debt, which many of them may not yet
of, or open to, the point you are trying already favorable response to what you have experienced, you relate to their
to make. For example, parents are are asking (Beebe & Beebe, 2003). desire for a free t-shirt and a common
generally interested in keeping their belief they are likely to share, that
children safe. If you seek to persuade I swore never to be silent “free” should not translate to
them that they should work with their whenever and wherever “expensive.” If you cannot relate the
kids to prevent them from being taken topic directly to the audience, another
advantage of on social networking human beings endure approach is to relate the topic to
sites, they are likely to welcome what suffering and humiliation. We someone they care about, like a family
you have to say. Although they are must always take sides. member or friend. Keep in mind that,
already convinced that it is important to while the receptive audience may be
keep their children safe, this audience Neutrality helps the eager to respond immediately, the
may not yet be persuaded that they oppressor, never the victim. neutral audience may simply be more
have the need or ability to keep their Silence encourages the concerned about the topic or more
kids safe in an online environment. In inclined to consider the behavior
order to persuade this receptive tormentor, never the change you are advocating (Beebe &
audience, you should first attempt to tormented. Beebe, 2003). In this case, consider
foster identification with them by ~ Elie Wiesel offering resources for more
highlighting things you have in information, or a few minor steps they
common. If you are a parent you might can take when they are ready.
say something like, “I have two neutral audiences
children and one of my biggest Most of the groups that a persuasive He who dreads hostility too
concerns is making sure they are safe.” speaker addresses are neutral
audiences. These audiences are not
much is unfit to rule.
If you are not a parent you might say,
“one of the things I appreciate most passionate about the topic or speaker, ~ Lucius Annaeus Seneca
about my parents is that I know they often because they do not have enough
are always trying to keep me safe.” information or because they are not hostile audiences
With these statements, you not only aware that they should be concerned. Unfortunately, some audiences may
relate to the audience, but also Beebe & Beebe (2003) explain that the be resistant or even hostile to your
demonstrate that you share a common challenge in addressing a neutral persuasive speech. A hostile audience
concern. audience is to foster their interest in may take issue with your topic or with
your proposition. They offer a few tips you as a speaker. In this case, your
If you would persuade, you for cultivating interest in a neutral primary goal is to persuade the
audience. Begin by gaining their audience to listen to what you have to
must appeal to interest rather attention. To do this you might offer a say (Beebe & Beebe, 2003). Once they
than intellect. story or statistic that relates the topic are willing to listen, then you will have
~ Benjamin Franklin directly to the dominant demographic the ability to change their minds in the
in the audience. If you are trying to future. Later in this chapter we will
convince first-year college students to address ways that you can foster a
Next, offer a clear statement of avoid credit card solicitors on campus
purpose and tell the audience what you better relationship with the audience by
you might start with something like, “I building your ethos. However, if the
would like them to do in response to know those t-shirts the credit card

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audience is opposed to your persuasive strategies has concluded (Zarefsky, 2005, p.14).
proposition, there are a few steps that ethos This means that what you wear and
you can take to encourage them to at In addition to understanding how how you behave, even before opening
least hear you out. If the audience is not your audience feels about the topic you your mouth, can go far in shaping your
likely to agree with your proposition, are addressing, you will need to take ethos. Be sure to dress appropriately
wait until later in the speech to offer it. steps to help them see you as credible for the occasion and setting in which
Opening with a clear statement of and interesting. The audience’s you speak. Also work to appear
purpose, which a receptive audience perception of you as a speaker is confident, but not arrogant, and be sure
welcomes, will make an unreceptive influential in determining whether or to maintain enthusiasm about your
audience more hostile to your goals. not they will choose to accept your topic throughout the speech. Give great
For example, if you begin by telling proposition. Aristotle called this attention to the crafting of your opening
business owners that you think they element of the speech ethos, “a Greek sentences because they will set the tone
should pay workers more, they are word that is closely related to our terms for what your audience should expect
likely to think of all the reasons that ethical and ethnic” (Campbell & of your personality as you proceed.
will threaten their livelihood rather than Huxman, 2009, p. 232). He taught
listening to your message. Instead, speakers to establish credibility with I covered two presidents, LBJ
begin by highlighting issues on which the audience by appearing to have good and Nixon, who could no
you agree. You might open with a moral character, common sense, and
discussion of the challenges businesses longer convince, persuade, or
concern for the audience’s well-being
face in attempting to retain quality (Beebe & Beebe, 2003). Campbell & govern, once people had
workers and increase productivity. Huxman (2009) explain that ethos is decided they had no
not about conveying that you, as an credibility; but we seem to be
I have spent many years of individual, are a good person. It is
my life in opposition, and I about “mirror[ing] the characteristics more tolerant now of what I
rather like the role. idealized by [the] culture or group” think we should not tolerate.
(ethnic) (p.232), and demonstrating that ~ Helen Thomas
~ Eleanor Roosevelt you make good moral choices with
regard to your relationship within the
logos
Once you have identified areas of group (ethics).
Another way to enhance your ethos,
agreement, you can offer your and your chances of persuading the
proposition as a way of addressing your audience, is to use sound arguments. In
shared goals. To promote an increase a persuasive speech, the argument will
in wages, you might explain that a focus on the reasons for supporting
study of more than 10,000 workers and your specific purpose statement. This
managers in a variety of industries argumentative approach is what
demonstrated that companies who pay Aristotle referred to as logos, or the
their workers more were also more logical means of proving an argument
motivated to invest in new technology, (Braet, 1992).
enhance their management techniques,
better train workers, and better deliver When offering an argument you
their services, all of which lead to begin by making an assertion that
higher productivity and increased requires a logical leap based on the
profits (Applebaum & Bernhardt, available evidence (Campbell &
2004). Focusing on areas of agreement Huxman, 2009). One of the most
will make the audience more receptive popular ways of understanding how
to your proposition, but they will still this process works was developed by
hold some reservations. Acknowledge British philosopher Stephen Toulmin
those reservations and demonstrate that (Herrick, 2011). Toulmin explained
you have given them ample that basic arguments tend to share three
consideration. Cite credible evidence common elements: claim, data, and
that supports your proposition in light warrant. The claim is an assertion that
While there are many things
of those reservations. Showing that you want the audience to accept. Data
speakers can do to build their ethos
you understand and respect their refers to the preliminary evidence on
throughout the speech, “assessments of
opposing position is the most important which the claim is based. For example,
ethos often reflect superficial first
step toward encouraging a hostile if I saw large gray clouds in the sky, I
impressions,” and these first
audience to at least hear you out. might make the claim that “it is going
impressions linger long after the speech

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a restaurant chain called Walt’s Wine

Table 16.1 The Toulmin Model & Dine and you noticed that someone
reported feeling sick after eating at a
Basic Argument Walt’s, and another person reported
data claim that the Walt’s they visited was
I had a hard time finding a The school needs more parking understaffed, and another commented
place to park on campus spaces. that the tables in the Walt’s they ate at
today. had crumbs left on them, you might
conclude (or claim) that the restaurant
chain is unsanitary. To test the validity
warrant of a general claim, Beebe and Beebe
If I can’t find a place to park, there must be a shortage of (2003) encourage speakers to consider
spaces. whether there are “enough specific
instances to support the conclusion,”
whether the specific instances are
Argument With Backing typical, and whether the instances are
data claim recent (p.384).
Obesity is a serious problem U.S. citizens should be encouraged
in the U.S. to eat less processed foods.
warrant
Processed foods contribute to obesity more than natural, or
unprocessed, foods.

backing
“As a rule processed foods are more ‘energy dense’ than fresh
foods: they contain less water and fiber but more added fat and
sugar, which makes them both less filling and more fattening”
(Pollan, 2007).

to rain today.” The gray clouds (data) just considered, you could explain that
are linked to rain (claim) by the the color of a cloud is determined by
warrant, an often unstated general how much light the water in the cloud
connection, that large gray clouds tend is reflecting. A thin cloud has tiny
to produce rain. The warrant is a drops of water and ice crystals which
connector that, if stated, would likely scatter light, making it appear white.
begin with “since” or “because.” In our Clouds appear gray when they are filled
rain example, if we explicitly stated all with large water droplets which are less The opposite of inductive reasoning
three elements, the argument would go able to reflect light (Brill, 2003). is deductive reasoning, moving from a
something like this: There are large general principle to a claim regarding a
gray clouds in the sky today (data). Logic is the beginning of specific instance. In order to move
Since large gray clouds tend to produce wisdom, not the end. from general to specific we tend to use
rain (warrant), it is going to rain today syllogisms. A syllogism begins with a
(claim). However, in our regular ~ Leonard Nimoy
major (or general) premise, then moves
encounters with argumentation, we to a minor premise, then concludes
tend to only offer the claim and The elements that Toulmin identified with a specific claim. For example, if
(occasionally) the warrant. (see Table 16.1) may be arranged in a you know that all dogs bark (major
To strengthen the basic argument, variety of ways to make the most premise), and your neighbor has a dog
you will need backing for the claim. logical argument. As you reason (minor premise), you could then
Backing provides foundational support through your argument you may conclude that your neighbor’s dog
for the claim (Herrick, 2011) by proceed inductively, deductively, or barks (specific claim). To verify the
offering examples, statistics, testimony, causally, toward your claim. Inductive accuracy of your specific claim, you
or other information which further reasoning moves from specific must verify the truth and applicability
substantiates the argument. To examples to a more general claim. For of the major premise. What evidence
substantiate the rain argument we have example, if you read online reviews of do you have that all dogs bark? Is it

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possible that only most dogs bark? pathos and endless days in the hospital, she
Next, you must also verify the accuracy While we have focused heavily on spent her time thinking of ways to make
of the minor premise. If the major logical reasoning, we must also life better for other women battling
premise is truly generalizable, and both recognize the strong role that emotions breast cancer instead of worrying
premises are accurate, your specific play in the persuasive process. Aristotle about her own situation. That concern
claim should also be accurate. called this element of the speech for others continued even as Susan
pathos. Pathos draws on the emotions, neared the end of her fight (Komen
sympathies, and prejudices of the National, n.d.).
audience to appeal to their non-rational Brinker promised her sister that she
side (Beebe & Beebe 2003; Reike, would continue her fight against breast
Sillars, & Peterson, 2009). Human cancer. This story compels donors to
beings are constantly in some join her fight.
emotional state, which means that
tapping into an audience’s emotions Speakers can also tap into emotions
can be vital to persuading them to using nonverbal behaviors to model the
accept your proposition (Dillard & desired emotion for their audience. In
Meijnders, 2002). the summer of 2012, the U.S. House of
Representatives debated holding the
One of the most helpful strategies in Attorney General in contempt for
appealing to your audience’s emotions refusing to release documents
is to use clear examples that illustrate concerning a controversial gun-tracking
your point. Illustrations can be crafted operation. Arguing for a contempt
verbally, nonverbally, or visually. To vote, South Carolina Representative
offer a verbal illustration, you could tell Trey Gowdy did not simply state his
Your reasoning may also proceed a compelling story. For example, when claim, instead he raised his voice,
causally. Causal reasoning examines fundraising for breast cancer research, slowed his pace, and used hand
related events to determine which one Nancy Brinker, creator of Susan G. motions to convey anger with what he
caused the other. You may begin with Komen for the Cure, has plenty of perceived as deception on the part of
a cause and attempt to determine its compelling statistics and examples to the Attorney General (Gowdy, 2012).
effect. For example, when the offer. Yet, she regularly talks about her His use of volume, tone, pace, and hand
Deepwater Horizon drilling rig sister, explaining: gestures enhanced the message and
exploded in the Gulf of Mexico in Susan G. Komen fought breast built anger in his audience.
2010, scientists explained that because cancer with her heart, body and soul.
many animals in the Gulf were nesting Throughout her diagnosis, treatments, Speech is power: speech is to
and reproducing at the time, the spill
could wipe out “an entire generation of persuade, to convert, to
hundreds of species” (Donovan, 2010, compel. It is to bring another
para. 2). Their argument reasoned that out of his bad sense into your
the spill (cause) would result in species
loss (effect). Two years later, the good sense.
causal reasoning might be reversed. If ~ Ralph Waldo Emerson
we were seeing species loss in the Gulf
(effect), we could reason that it was a
In addition to verbal and nonverbal
result of the oil spill (cause). Both of
illustrations, visual imagery can
these claims rely on the evidence
enhance the emotional appeal of a
available at the time. To make the first
message. For example, we have all
claim, scientists not only offered
heard about the dangers of drugs, and
evidence that animals were nesting and
there are multiple campaigns that
reproducing, but they also looked at the
attempt to prevent people from even
effects of an oil spill that occurred 21
trying them. However, many young
years earlier in Alaska (Donovan,
adults experiment with drugs under the
2010). To make the second claim,
assumption that they are immune from
scientists could examine dead animals
the negative effects if they only use the
washing up on the coast to determine
drug recreationally. To counter this
whether their deaths were caused by
assumption regarding methamphe-
oil.
tamines, the Montana Meth project
combines controversial statements with

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graphic images on billboards to evoke strategies to varying degrees based on

fear of the drug (see www.methproject. their specific purpose and audience.
org /ads/print/ for some disturbing
examples). Young adults may have ethics of persuasion
heard repeated warnings that meth is In addition to considering their topic
addictive and that it has the potential to and persuasive strategy, speakers must
cause sores, rotten teeth, and extreme take care to ensure that their message is
weight loss, but Montana Meth ethical. Persuasion is often confused
Project’s visual display is more with another kind of communication
compelling because it turns the that has similar ends, but different
audience’s stomach, making the methods—coercion. Like persuasion,
message memorable. This image, coercion is a process whereby thoughts
combined with the slogan, “not even or behaviors are altered. But in
once,” conveys the persuasive point coercive acts, deceptive or harmful
without the need for other forms of methods propel the intended changes, speakers should watch for four
evidence and rational argument. not reason. Strong and Cook (1992) common categories of fallacies:
contrasted the two: “persuasion uses “fallacies of faulty assumption,” which
Appeals to fear, like those in the argument to compel power to give way
Montana Meth Project ads, have proven occur when the speaker reasons based
to reason while coercion uses force to on a problematic assumption; “fallacies
effective in motivating people to compel reason to give way to power”
change a variety of behaviors. directed to the person,” which occur
(p. 7). The “force” that Strong and when the speaker focuses on the
However, speakers must be careful Cook mention frequently manifests as
with their use of this emotion. Fear attributes of an individual opponent
promises for reward or punishment, but rather than the relevant arguments;
appeals tend to be more effective when sometimes it arises as physical or
they appeal to a high-level fear, such as “fallacies of case presentation,” which
emotional harm. Think of almost any occur when the speaker
death, and they are more effective international crime film you have seen,
when offered by speakers with a high mischaracterizes the issue; and
and you are likely to remember a scene “fallacies of suggestion,” which occur
level of perceived credibility (Beebe & where someone was compelled to out
Beebe, 2003). Fear appeals are also when the speaker implies or suggests
their compatriots by way of force. Jack an argument without fully developing it
more persuasive when the speaker can Bauer, the protagonist in the American
convince the audience they have the (Herrick, 2011, p. 256). See the Table
television series 24, became an 16.2 on the following page for
ability to avert the threat. If audiences infamous character by doing whatever
doubt their ability to avoid or minimize examples of each of these types of
it took to get captured criminals to talk. fallacies. To learn more about
the threat, the appeal may backfire Although dramatic as an example,
(Witte & Allen, 2000). fallacies, see Chapter 6 by Russ
those scenes where someone is tortured (Critical Thinking and Reasoning), or
in an effort to produce evidence offer a see the supplemental handout found on
I would rather try to familiar reference when thinking about the Persuasive Speaking chapter
persuade a man to go along, coercion. To avoid coercing an homepage (www.publicspeaking
because once I have audience, speakers should use logical project.org/persuasive.html)
and emotional appeals responsibly.
persuaded him, he will stick. There are some positive steps you
If I scare him, he will stay The pendulum of the mind can take to avoid these pitfalls of
persuasive speaking and ensure that
just as long as he is scared, alternates between sense and you are presenting your message in the
and then he is gone. nonsense, not between right most ethical manner. We have already
~ Dwight D. Eisenhower and wrong. discussed some of these, such as
offering credible evidence for your
~ Carl Jung arguments and showing concern for the
David Brooks (2011) argues that, audience’s well being. However, you
“emotions are not separate from reason, Persuasive speakers must be careful should also offer a transparent goal for
but they are the foundation of reason to avoid using fallacies in their your speech. Even with a hostile
because they tell us what to value” reasoning. Fallacies are errors in audience, where you may wait until
(para. 2). Those values are at the core reasoning that occur when a speaker later in the speech to provide the
of fostering a credible ethos. All of fails to use appropriate or applicable specific purpose statement, you should
Aristotle’s strategies, ethos, logos, and evidence for their argument. There are be forthcoming about your specific
pathos, are interdependent. The most a wide variety of fallacies, and it is not purpose. In fact, be truthful with your
persuasive speakers will combine these possible to list them all here. However, audience throughout the speech.

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Table 16.2 Examples of Fallacies

Fallacies of Faulty Assumption
Causal Fallacy It is cloudy outside, and I feel sick. Cloudy days make me sick.

The school board voted to buy new picnic tables for the lunch room. Many students
were out sick the following day. The students must be upset about the picnic tables.
Bandwagon Everyone takes out a loan to buy a car, so you should too.
Fallacy
None of the cool kids wear helmets when they ride bikes. You should take yours off.
Begging the Lion King is an excellent film because it has excellent animation.
Question
Marijuana is good for you because it is natural.
Fallacies Directed to the Person
Ad Hominem We should reject President Obama’s health care legislation because it is socialism.

We should ignore Donald Trump’s opposition to tax hikes because he’s just rich and
selfish.
Poisoning the Before the defense makes their closing statement, keep in mind that their client has not
Well said one truthful word throughout the trial.

My opponent is going to try to manipulate you into thinking her plan is better for the city.
Appeal to First, I wanted to tell you that this is my favorite class. I tell all my friends how much I love
Flattery it. I just think I deserve a better grade on my exam.

You are such a generous person, I know you’ll want to donate to this cause.
Fallacies of Case Presentation
Non Sequitur I don’t plan to vote today because I am moving next week.

You should clean your room because I am going to do the laundry.

Red Herring I should not be fined for parking in a red zone when there are so many people out there
committing real crimes like robbery and murder.

War is wrong, but in times of crisis we should support the president.

Appeal to This diet is the best one for people with my health condition, Oprah said so.
Misplaced
Authority I want to visit the Museum of Modern Art. My English professor says they have the best
collection anywhere!
Fallacies of Suggestion
Paralepsis I’m not saying he cheated; he just did uncharacteristically well on that exam.

If she wants to work for a crook, that’s her business.

Either-Or Either you’re with us or against us.

Love it or leave it.

Arrangement I have so much to do today. I have to get my car fixed, finish a paper, take a nap, and
pick my mom up from the airport.

So many highly respected musicians will be there: Paul McCartney, Elton John, LMFAO,
Billy Joel . . .

It is appropriate to use fictional phrase, “hypothetically,” or “imagine,” strategies insures that you have
scenarios to demonstrate your point, to signal that you are making it up evidence to back up emotional claims,
but tell the audience that is what you (Beebe & Beebe, 2003). Additionally, and that you are sensitive to the
are doing. You can accomplish this by be sure to offer a mix of logical and audiences’ emotional reactions to your
introducing fictional examples with the emotional appeals. Blending these logical claims. Attending to both

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aspects will help you be more ethical

and more persuasive. Figure 16.1 Monroe’s Motivated Sequence SampleOutline
Proposition: You (the audience) should volunteer or donate at the Morris
The most important County Animal Protection Agency.
persuasion tool you have in I. Attention step
your entire arsenal is A. When was the last time you saw a dog chained to a tree in a
neighbor’s yard, heard about a puppy mill in your town, or went
integrity. into a pet store only to find dogs and cats for sale?
~ Zig Ziglar B. I work with the Morris County Animal Protection Group and I
would like to share some ways in which you can help prevent
these travesties.
organizing persuasive C. First, I will describe some of the major problems in Morris
messages County, and then I will tell you how you can get involved.
Once you have selected your topic, II. Need step: Many animals in Morris County are abused and neglected.
know who your audience is, and have A. There are too many stray animals that are neither spayed nor
settled on an end goal for your neutered, resulting in an overabundance of cats and dogs.
persuasive speech, you can begin B. These animals often cannot find enough food to survive and
drafting your speech. Outlines are the local shelter cannot accommodate such high populations.
organized according to the particular C. The cost of local spay/neuter programs is too high for our
speech, and the following agency to handle.
organizational patterns are used III. Satisfaction step: Raising $1 million for the Morris County Animal
routinely for persuasive speeches. Protection Agency can effectively solve these problems.
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence A. We could afford to spay or neuter most stray animals.
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence is B. Obtained animals could be fed and accommodated until a
an organizational pattern that attempts home can be secured for them.
to convince the audience to respond to C. Additionally, we could subsidize spay/neuter costs for local
a need that is delineated in the speech citizens.
(Monroe, 1949). Five separate steps IV. Visualization step: Imagine what we can do for our animals with this
characterize the Motivated Sequence money.
organization style: A. What will it be like if we can carry out these actions?
1. The attention step should get the B. What will it be like if we cannot do these things?
audience’s attention as well as describe V. Action appeal step: Donate to the Morris County Animal Protection
your goals and preview the speech. Agency.
A. If you want to help protect the many struggling stray animals in
2. The need step should provide a Morris County, make a donation to our organization.
description of the problem as well as B. Your donation will make a real difference in the lives of our
the consequences that may result if the animals.
problem goes unresolved. In this step, C. We cannot effect real change for the animals of our county
the speaker should also alert audience without each and every one of you.
members to their role in mitigating the
issue.
3. The satisfaction step is used to precisely how the audience should react
outline your solutions to the problems to your speech and how they should
you have previously outlined as well as carry out these actions. As the final
deal with any objections that may arise. step, you should also offer a concluding
4. In the visualization step, audience comment. See Figure 16.1 to see this
members are asked to visualize what method of arrangement illustrated.
will happen if your solutions are direct method pattern
implemented and what will happen if If your goal is to convince your
they do not come to fruition. audience to adopt a particular idea, you
Visualizations should be rich with might prefer the direct method pattern
detail. as a way of organizing your speech.
5. The action appeal step should be This pattern consists of a claim and a
used to make a direct appeal for action. list of reasons to support it. Every piece
In this step, you should describe of support in the speech directly

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Chapter 16 Persuasive Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

supports the central claim you wish to words, a causal pattern first addresses
make. As Jaffe (2004) points out, “It’s some cause and then shares what
a good pattern to use when listeners are effects resulted. A causal speech can be
apathetic or neutral, either mildly particularly effective when the speaker
favoring or mildly opposing your wants to convince their audience of the
claim” (p. 329). The outline for a relationship between two things. With
speech on vegetarianism in Figure 16.2 sound causal reasoning, a speech of this
provides three reasons that sort can be used to convince the
vegetarianism provides useful health audience of something they were
benefits for people struggling with previously opposed to believing.
obesity. As the example in Figure 16.3
illustrates, the basic components of the
Figure 16.2 Direct Method causal speech are the cause and the
Pattern Sample Outline effect. Such an organizational style is
Proposition: Vegetarianism offers useful when a speaker needs to share
the results of a new program, discuss persuade audience members that your
many positive health benefits for side of the argument is better or more
people struggling with obesity.
how one act led to another, or discuss
the positive/negative outcomes of accurate. In a refutation speech, the
I. Vegetarianism often speaker must anticipate the audience’s
taking some action. Through this
reduces the amount of opposition, then bring attention to the
pattern, the speaker can convince
processed food that one tensions between the two sides, and
audiences to adopt a new belief about a
eats. finally refute them using evidential
particular phenomenon.
II. Vegetarianism promotes a support. Refutation patterns are
sense of reflective Figure 16.3 Causal Pattern frequently seen in debates, where
consumption. Sample Outline speakers are fundamentally opposed to
III. Vegetarianism decreases one another’s arguments. Refutation
Proposition: Macintosh
the likelihood that one will generally happens through a set of four
contract some diseases,
computers make people steps: (1) signaling the argument to
such as cancer and heart more creative. which you are responding, (2) stating
disease. I. Macintosh computers rely your own argument, (3) providing
As you can see from this example, on a simple, intuitive justification or evidence for your side
the statement of reasons that interface and are sold of the argument, and (4) summarizing
follows the proposition directly through a marketing your response. An advocate of reusing
supports the central claim of the campaign that as opposed to recycling might present
speech. Each reason offers encourages users to the argument in Figure 16.4 to respond
another bit of evidence that “Think Different.” (cause) to someone who believes recycling is
vegetarianism is a good option II. The simplicity of the best way to individually work on
for people struggling with obesity. Macintosh computers environmental stewardship. As this
allows people to be more example illustrates, a refutation speech
creative since they are should clearly delineate where the
History creates not spending their time audience is perceived to stand on an
figuring out how to use issue, why their view is in
comprehensibility primarily their computer. And disagreement with the speaker’s, and
by arranging facts these same consumers why the audience should adopt the
meaningfully and only in a are socialized to “think speaker’s position. Moreover, the
differently” with their speaker should be sure to highlight the
very limited sense by Macintosh computers importance of the debate, which will
establishing strict causal from the moment they clue the audience into why they should
connections. consider purchasing one. spend their time listening to a speaker
(effect) who clearly disagrees with them. An
~ Johan Huizinga example of this pattern can be found on
refutation pattern the next page in Figure 16.4.
causal pattern Sometimes an occasion will arise
Similar to a problem-solution Neither irony nor sarcasm is
when your audience is already opposed
speech, which was covered in Chapter
to your argument. In this case, a argument.
8, a causal speech describes a general
refutation pattern can be engaged to ~ Samuel Butler
cause and a specific effect. In other

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Chapter 16 Persuasive Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

Figure 16.4 Sample Outline

Refutation Pattern
(Imagine that the speaker is
giving the speech at a recycling
convention)
Proposition: Reusing products is
better than recycling them.
I. Although Thomas argued
that recycling is the most
important individual act of
environmental
stewardship, I would like to
argue that reusing is an
even better way to care
for our environment.
(signaling and stating)
II. Reusing has several
advantages over
recycling. (providing
evidence)
A. Reusing reduces
consumption.
B. Reusing extends the life of
a product before it needs
to be recycled.
C. It is cheaper to use reuse together to create a compelling sure to offer the most ethical arguments
an item than to recycle it. argument for your specific audience. by avoiding fallacies and supporting
III. Given these advantages, Knowing your audience can help emotional appeals with relevant
it is more useful for people when it comes to choosing the evidence.
to reuse items when appropriate strategies for convincing Once you have compiled the most
possible than it is to them that you are a credible speaker. relevant arguments and emotional
recycle them. Once you have established your appeals for a given audience, take care
credibility, you can advance both to organize your message effectively.
conclusion logical and emotional appeals to move Give thought to your persuasive goals
The primary goal of persuasive your audience toward the belief or and determine whether they can be best
speaking is to influence an audience’s behavior you hope they will adopt. As achieved through the use of Monroe’s
beliefs or behaviors so that they can you weave these appeals together, be Motivated Sequence, a direct method
make necessary or positive change. pattern, a causal pattern, or a refutation
Persuasive speaking is a vital skill in all pattern.
areas of life, whether it is a political
The combination of a confident and
candidate convincing voters to elect
credible speaker with the right
them, an employee convincing the boss
organization of logical and emotional
to give them a promotion, or a sales
appeals can go far in swaying an
person convincing a consumer to buy a
audience.
product, individuals must understand
what persuasion is and how it
functions.
It's better to get smart than to
get mad. I try not to get so
When formulating a persuasive
speech, remember to determine the type insulted that I will not take
of question you seek to answer so that advantage of an opportunity
you can decide whether to offer a to persuade people to change
proposition of fact, a proposition of
value, or a proposition of policy. their minds.
Weave the topic and the proposition ~ John H. Johnson

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Chapter 16 Persuasive Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

review questions and activities

review questions
1. Early in the chapter the prevalence of persuasion was discussed. Think of an instance in which you knew you were
being persuaded. What were you being persuaded to do? Was the persuader focused on changing your beliefs, attitudes,
values, or actions? How do you know?

2. Imagine you are giving a persuasive speech on ______________ [you fill in the blank]. Draft a specific purpose
statement on this topic for a speech to convince. Next, draft a specific purpose statement on the same topic for a speech to
actuate.

3. Draft a proposition of fact, proposition of value, and proposition of policy for one or more of the following topics:
a. Shortening class time
b. Pro-anorexia images on social networking sites
c. Airline fees

4. You have been invited to speak to administrators about increasing alumni support for the school. What steps will you
take to build your ethos for this audience? What logical appeals will you make? How will you appeal to their emotions?

5. Identify the following fallacies (adapted from Labossiere, 1995):

a. If those actions were not illegal, they would not be prohibited by law.
b. Our team had a losing record until we won the last three games. I wore blue socks in the last three games. Blue
socks are lucky, and if I keep wearing them, we can’t lose!
c. The store Joe works at changed the dress code, requiring him to buy all new work clothes. When he went to the
manager to complain, she told him that no one else voiced concern, so he must be the only one who had that
problem.
d. Your roommate has invited his classmate, Annie, over to work on a project. Before Annie arrives, your
roommate explains that she will probably be late because she never helps with the work and always leaves him to
take care of everything.
Answers can be found on the bottom of page 16-16

6. Imagine you are giving a speech in which you hope to convince audience members to begin retirement planning while
they are still in their twenties. Which of the organizational patterns described above best fits this topic? Why? Describe its
advantages over the other organization styles for the specific purpose.

activities
1. Using a recent newspaper, locate an example of a proposition of fact, a proposition of value, and a proposition of
policy, and underline each one. Then, see if you can locate the data, warrant, and backing for each of these claims. If
you cannot locate one or more of the elements, write your own based on the information provided in the article.

2. Two organizations, Mercy For Animals (MFA) and People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), sponsor
billboard advertisements to advocate that people transition to a vegetarian diet.
MFA: http://www.mercyforanimals.org/advertisements.aspx
PETA: http://www.peta.org/mediacenter/ads/Outdoor-Ads-Vegetarianism.aspx
Examine the billboards from each organization and consider the following:
a. What logical claims are advanced by each organization’s billboards?
b. Are there any logical fallacies on the billboards?
c. What emotional appeals are used on the billboards?
d. Are any of the emotional appeals unethical? If so, why?
e. Which is the more ethically persuasive campaign? Why?

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Chapter 16 Persuasive Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

glossary

Argument Evaluation Criteria Proposition of Fact

A proposition supported by one A set of standards for judging the An argument that seeks to
or more reasons or pieces of merit of a proposition. establish whether something is
evidence. Fallacies true or false.
Backing Errors in reasoning that occur Proposition of Policy
Foundational evidence which when a speaker fails to use An argument that seeks to
supports a claim, such as appropriate or applicable establish an appropriate course of
examples, statistics, or testimony. evidence for their argument. action.
Causal Pattern Hostile Audience Proposition of Value
A speech designed to explain a An audience that is opposed to An argument that seeks to
cause-effect relationship between the speaker or to the persuasive establish the relative worth of
two phenomena. proposition. something.
Causal Reasoning Identification Receptive Audience
The process of formulating an A connection that is fostered An audience that is generally
argument by examining related between the speaker and their supportive of, or open to, the
events to determine which one audience by highlighting shared persuasive proposition.
caused the other. attributes or attitudes. Refutation Pattern
Claim Inductive Reasoning A speech designed to anticipate
The proposition you want the The process of formulating an the negative response of an
audience to accept. argument by moving from audience, to bring attention to the
Coercion specific instances to a tensions between the two sides of
A process whereby thoughts or generalization. the argument, and to explain why
behaviors are altered through Logos the audience should change their
deceptive or harmful methods. The logical means of proving an views.
Data argument. Speeches to Actuate
Preliminary evidence on which a Monroe’s Motivated Sequence Persuasive speeches which seek
claim is based. An organizational pattern that to change or motivate particular
Deductive Reasoning attempts to convince the audience behaviors.
The process of formulating an to respond to a need that is Speeches to Convince
argument by moving from a delineated in the speech through Persuasive speeches which seek
general premise to a specific five sequential steps. to establish agreement about a
conclusion. Neutral Audience particular topic.
Demographics An audience that is neither open Status Quo
Statistical information that nor opposed to the persuasive The current situation.
reflects the make-up of a group, proposition. Syllogisms
often including age, sex, ethnic or Pathos Reasoning beginning with a
cultural background, The use of emotional appeals to major premise, then moving to a
socioeconomic status, religion, persuade an audience. minor premise, before
and political affiliation. Persuasion establishing a specific claim.
Direct Method Pattern The art of influencing or Warrant
A speech designed to present a reinforcing people’s beliefs, The (often unstated) connection
claim with a list of several attitudes, values, or actions. between data and claim.
supporting pieces of data. Persuasive Speeches
Ethos Speeches which aim to convince
The audience’s perception of a an audience to think or behave in
speaker’s credibility and moral a particular way.
character.

Answers to question 5:
a. begging the question, b. causal fallacy, c. bandwagon fallacy, d. poisoning the well

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photo credits

p. 1 Judi Chamberlin by Tom Olin p. 7 Danny Shine by Acapeloahddub

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Judi_Chamberlin_2000 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Danny_Shine_Speaker
_From_Privileges_to_Rights.jpg %27s_Corner.JPG
p. 2 NASUWT officer speaking by Sam Saunders p. 8 Dining booth by Wayne Truong
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/NASUWT http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dining_Booth.jpg
_officer_speaking_at_Bristol_public_sector_pensions_rally_in_ p. 9 Deepwater Horizon fire by US Coast Guard
November_2011.jpg http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Deepwate
p. 2 Air Pollution by US Environmental Protection Agency r_Horizon_fire_2010-04-21.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:AirPollutionSource.jpg p. 9 Nancy Brinker by Nancy Brinker
p. 3 California Traffic by Downtowngal http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nancy_Brinker.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Interstate p. 10 Speaker’s Corner speaker by Deborah MacLean
_10_looking_east_from_Crenshaw_Boulevard.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Speakers-Corner-
p. 4 McLaren F1 by Jagvar Speaker-1987.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/MclarenF p. 12 Roman Rackwitz by Romrack
1.JPG http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_Rackwitz_Pres
p. 4 USPS mailboxes by Erasergirl entation.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USPS_mailboxes.jpg p. 13 Jeanette Chong-Aruldoss by Terence Lee
p. 5 Jade Raymond by Gamescore Blog http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jeanette_Chong-
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jade_Raymond_- Aruldoss_at_a_Reform_Party_rally,_Speakers%27_Corner,_Sin
_E3_2007_2.jpg gapore_-_20110115.jpg
p. 5 Audience member at USO show by .S. Air Force p. 14 Bonnie Franklin by Pattymooney
Master Sgt. Adam M. Stump http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Actress_Bonnie_Frankl
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Defense.gov_photo_ess in_Speaks_at_March_For_Women%27s_Lives_2004.jpg
ay_081112-F-6684S-757.jpg p. 14 Martin_Kingham by pfctdayelise
p. 6 Children at play by Nils Fretwurst http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Martin_Kingham,_CF
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Children_play_in_push MEU.JPG
_car.jpg
p. 6 Credit cards by Lotus Head
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Credit-
cards.jpg

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Chapter 16 Persuasive Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

Appendix A Persuasive Speech Topic Ideas

Environmental • Citizens should try to reuse items before recycling them.

Topics • The U.S. should ban mountaintop removal as a mode of harvesting coal.
• Contemporary climate change is human-caused.
• Governmental funding for clean energy should be increased.
• All municipalities should offer public transportation.
• The U.S. should ratify the Kyoto Protocol.
• Bottled water should undergo the same quality testing as municipal water.
• Preservation is a better environmental sustainability model than is conservation.
• Hunting should be banned on all public lands.
Social Justice • The right to marry should be extended to gays and lesbians.
Topics • Abortion should be illegal.
• State colleges should be free to attend.
• Martin Luther King, Jr. was the most influential leader of the civil rights movement
• The death penalty should be abolished.
• Convicted rapists should be sentenced to the death penalty.
• Women should receive equal pay for equal work.
• Affirmative action does not work and should be ended.
• Individuals and communities affected by environmental injustices should receive
compensation.
Campus Life • Dorm rooms should have individual thermostats.
Topics • Professors’ office hours should be held at reasonable hours, not 7 a.m. on Mondays.
• Free coffee should be provided in all classroom buildings before noon.
• Student fees at universities are too high.
• Dining halls should provide nutritional information for all meals.
• Student government leaders should host regular forums to answer questions from the
general student population.
• Plagiarism should be prosecuted to the fullest extent.
Everyday Life • The legal drinking age should be lowered to 18.
Topics • Frequent flyers should not be required to remove their shoes in airport security lines.
• Eating five meals a day is better than eating three.
• Smoking should be illegal in all public areas.
• Gmail is the best email service.
• All restaurants should offer vegan and vegetarian options or substitutes.
• Netflix and Hulu are better ways to watch movies and television shows.
• ATM fees should be outlawed.
• Proximity to religious facilities should have no bearing on alcohol sales.
Economic • Social security benefits should be guaranteed for those who pay in to the program.
Topics • All multi-year jobs should include pension plans.
• The U.S. should spend less on wars and more on education.
• Everyone should be required to pay an equal percentage of taxes.
• A consumption tax is more just than an income tax.
• The minimum wage in the U.S. is too low.
• Multi-million dollar bonuses for corporate executives are unjust because they preclude
better wages/reduced prices for others.
Quirky Topics • Tacos are the greatest of human inventions.
• Ghosts are real.
• Short haircuts are more comfortable than long hairstyles.
• Bourbon should only be served “on the rocks.”
• Traditional eyeglasses make those who wear them look smarter.
• Eating chicken with a fork should be illegal. (An actual law in Gainesville, Georgia!)

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