STANLEY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY FOR

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Experiment: 1
AM GENERATION & DETECTION
AIM:
1. To generate amplitude modulated wave and determine the percent modulation.
2. To demodulate the modulated wave using envelope detector.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
1. Amplitude modulation and demodulation trainer
2. Function generator (20 to 200MHz)
3. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (30MHz)
4. BNC cables
5. Connecting wires
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Carrier Generator:

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Amplitude modulator circuit:

12V

R4
56kΩ
U1
C1
AF
INPUT
0.1µF
BC107BP
R3
10kΩ
R1
10kΩ
C3
CARRIER AM
INPUT OUTPUT
1nF
U2 C4 L1
100kΩ C2 0.002µF 2.5mH
0%
Key=A R2
0.1µF 10kΩ BC107BP

AM Demodulator circuit:
R5 R4
47kΩ 2.2kΩ

C1 D1 C4 C5
AM DEMODULATION
INPUT 0A79 U1 OUTPUT
1kF 22µF 10µF

R1 R2 C2 C3
10kΩ 100kΩ 0.01µF 0.003µF BC107BP
R6
10kΩ C6
R3 10µF
1kΩ

THEORY:
In continuous-wave (CW) modulation, a sinusoidal wave is used as the carrier. When the
amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance with the message signal, then that is called
amplitude modulation (AM).
An AM wave may thus be described, in its most general form, as a function of time as follows:
S(t)=AC [1+Kam(t)] Cos (2πfct)

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Where, Ka Amplitude Sensitivity of the modulator

S(t) Modulated signal
AC Carrier Amplitude
m(t) Message Signal

 The amplitude of Ka m(t) is always less than unity, that is | Ka m(t)| <1 for all t.

It ensures that the function 1+ Ka m(t) is always positive.

 When the amplitude sensitivity Ka of the modulator is large enough to make

| Ka m(t)| >1 for any t, the carrier wave becomes over-modulated, resulting in carrier
phase reversals.
 Whenever the factor 1+ Ka m(t) crosses zero, the modulated wave then exhibits envelope
distortion.

PROCEDURE:
1. Switch ON the amplitude modulation and demodulation trainer and check the O/P of
carrier generator on oscilloscope (without giving any external signal).
2. Connect around 3 KHz to 10 KHz with 2Volts A.F signal at A.F I/P to the modulator
circuit.
3. Connect the carrier signal O/P at carrier I/P of modulator circuit.
4. Observe the modulator O/P signal at AM O/P terminal.
5. Vary the modulating frequency and amplitude and observe the effects on the modulated
waveform.
6. Note down the corresponding Vmax and Vmin values.
7. The depth of modulation can be varied using the variable knob (potentiometer) provided
at A.F input.
8. Calculate the theoretical modulation index using the following formula:
m = Am / Ac
9. Calculate the practical value of percentage of modulation and modulation index using the
following formulae:

Percentage modulation (M) = ×100

(or)

Modulation index (m) =

10. Connect the output of the modulator to the input of demodulator circuit.
11. Observe the demodulated output at the output terminals of the demodulator on the CRO.
12. Compare this signal with the AF signal.

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13. Draw the waveforms of the carrier, message signal, AM envelope and the demodulated
waveforms on a graph sheet.

OBSERVATIONS:

WAVEFORM AMPLITUDE (V) TIME PERIOD

Carrier wave, c(t)

Message signal, m(t)

AM wave, s(t)

Demodulated wave, m(t)

Percent Modulation(M)
Vmax (Volts) Vmin (Volts)
Practical value Theoretical value

CALCULATIONS:
Practical calculations:
m = (Vmax – Vmin) / (Vmax + Vmin)
Theoretical calculations:
m = Am / Ac

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EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:
Carrier signal

Modulating signal / AF signal

Modulated signal / AM waveform

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RESULT:

The amplitude modulation circuit was designed and its modulation index was calculated
for various modulating voltages and was compared with theoretical values.
An AM detector using OA79 was designed and demodulated output was measured for
various values of modulating signals.

PRE-LAB QUESTIONS:

1. What is modulation?
2. What is the need for modulation?
3. Define Amplitude modulation.
4. Define modulation index.
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of AM?

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Experiment: 2
FM GENERATION AND DETECTION
AIM:

1. To generate frequency modulated signal and determine the modulation index and
bandwidth for various values of amplitude and frequency of modulating signal.
2. To demodulate a Frequency Modulated signal using FM detector.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

1. Frequency modulator and demodulator trainer kit

2. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
3. Signal generator (20 to 20 MHz)
4. BNC cables
5. Connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FM Modulator Circuit:

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FM Demodulator Circuit:

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THEORY:

The process, in which the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal, is called “Frequency Modulation (FM)”.
The FM signal is expressed as
S(t)=AC Cos[2πfct+sin(2πfmt))]
Where, AC Carrier Amplitude
fm frequency of the message signal
fc frequency of the carrier
 Modulation index of FM wave
S(t) Modulated signal
PROCEDURE:

1. Switch ON the frequency modulation and demodulation trainer kit.

2. Without giving any AF input signal, observe the carrier signal at the FM O/P terminal
and measure the amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal.
3. Connect around 3KHz to 10 KHz with 3 Vpp sine wave (A.F signal) to the input of the
frequency modulator at AF input terminal.
4. Now observe the frequency modulator output on the CRO and adjust the amplitude of the
AF signal to get clear frequency modulated wave form.
5. Now slowly increase the amplitude of modulating signal and measure fmin and maximum
frequency deviation (Δf) at each step.
6. Evaluate the modulating index (mf = β) using the formula β = Δf / fm

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where Δf = |fc - fmin|.

7. Calculate Bandwidth, BW = 2 (β + 1) fm = 2(Δf + fm)
8. Vary the modulating frequency (AF Signal) and amplitude and observe the effects on the
modulated waveform.
9. Connect the FM o/p to the FM i/p of demodulator.
10. By varying the potentiometer provided in the demodulator section, observe the output.
11. Draw the Carrier signal, baseband signal, FM output and the demodulated waveform on a
graph sheet.

OBSERVATIONS:

WAVEFORM AMPLITUDE TIMEPERIOD

Carrier wave, c(t)

Message signal, m(t)

FM wave, s(t)

Demodulated wave, m(t)

CALCULATIONS:

fm Tmax fmin Δf BW

(KHz) (μsec) (KHz) (KHz) (KHz)

modulating index, β = Δf / fm

where Δf = |fc - fmin|

Bandwidth, BW = 2 (β + 1) fm = 2(Δf + fm)

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EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

RESULT:

Frequency modulated and demodulated waves are generated and the modulation index, β
and bandwidth are calculated for various values of amplitude and frequency of modulating
signal.

PRE-LAB QUESTIONS:

1. Define Frequency modulation.

2. What is frequency deviation?

3. Define modulation index of FM.

4. What are the advantages of FM over AM?

5. Compare AM and FM with respect to bandwidth and circuit complexity.

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Experiment: 3
PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-EMPHASIS CIRCUITS
AIM:

To study the frequency response of pre-emphasis and de–emphasis circuits.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

1. Pre-emphasis & de-emphasis circuits trainer

2. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
3. Signal generator (20 to 20 MHz)
4. BNC probes
5. Connecting wires
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PRE-EMPHASIS CIRCUIT:
12V

L1 L2
R2 75mH 50mH
47kΩ

R4 R5
1kΩ 1kΩ
C1 R1 C2
AF OUTPUT
INPUT 10kΩ BC107
22µF 0.1µF

R3
10kΩ

GROUND

DE-EMPHASIS CIRCUIT:
R1

75kΩ C1
AFOUTPUT
INPUT
0.1µF

R2 C2
1000PF
50kΩ

THEORY:

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Pre‐emphasis refers to boosting the relative amplitudes of the modulating voltage for higher
audio frequencies. Pre‐emphasis is done at the transmitting side of the frequency modulator.  
Signals with higher modulation frequencies have lower SNR. In order to compensate this, the
high frequency signals are emphasised or boosted in amplitude at the transmitter section of a
communication system prior to the modulation process. That is, the pre‐ emphasis network
allows the high frequency modulating signal to modulate the carrier at higher level, this causes
more frequency deviation.   The circuit consists of a transistor, resistor and an inductor. It is
basically a high pass filter or Differentiator. A pre‐emphasis circuit produces a constant increase
in the amplitude of the modulating signal with an increase in frequency.   The cut off frequency
is determined by the RC or L/R time constant of the network. Normally, the cut off frequency
occurs at the frequency where capacitive reactance or inductive reactance equals R.
The cut off frequency is given by the formula  
fc   =  R/(2π L)
By the use of an active pre‐emphasis network we can reduce the signal loss and distortion with
the increase of SNR. Also the output amplitude of the network increases with frequencies above
cut off frequency.  
De‐emphasis is the complement of pre‐emphasis, in the antinoise system called emphasis. This
circuit is used to attenuate the high frequency signal that is boosted at the transmitter section.
The circuit is placed at the receiving side.
It acts as a low pass filter. The cut off frequency is given by the formula
                             fc   =  1/(2πRC)
The circuit consists of a passive network consisting of a resistor and a capacitor. It is basically a
low pass filter or integrator. The pre‐ emphasis network   in front of the FM modulator and a de‐
emphasis network at the output of the FM demodulator improves the Signal to Noise Ratio for
higher modulating signal frequencies, thus producing a more uniform SNR at the output of
demodulator.

PROCEDURE:

1. Switch ON the pre-emphasis and de-emphasis trainer.

2. Give the input from signal generator to AF input of pre-emphasis circuit. By varying the
amplitude knob, set the input voltage to some milli volts (say 4mV, 6mV …), set the
frequency to 4 KHz.
3. Connect either 75mH or 50mH inductor.
4. By increasing the input signal frequency from 500Hz to 20 KHz, observe the pre-
emphasis output voltage (Vo) on the CRO and calculate the gain using the formula
20 log (Vo / Vi).
5. Connect the output of pre-emphasis to the input of de-emphasis circuit and connect either
75KΩ or 50KΩ resistor.
6. Observe the De-emphasis output at AF O/P of De-emphasis circuit.
7. Draw the graph between frequency (X – axis) and attenuation in dB (Y – axis) to shown
the emphasis curves on semi log graph.

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OBSERVATIONS:
Pre – emphasis:
Input voltage, Vi = inductor, L =

Frequency Output voltage Gain in dB

(Hz) (V) 20 log (Vo / Vi)

De – emphasis:
Input voltage, Vi = inductor, L =
resistor, R =

Frequency Output voltage Gain in dB

(Hz) (V) 20 log (Vo / Vi)

EXPECTED GRAPHS:

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RESULT:

The performance of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis is studied.

PRE-LAB QUESTIONS:

1. What do you understand by pre-emphasis?

2. What is de‐emphasis?

3. What should be the time constant for the de emphasis circuit?

4. Why pre-emphasis is done after modulation?

5. List some applications of pre‐emphasis circuit.

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Experiment: 4

MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES: TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

AND DEMULTIPLEXING
AIM:

To study the operation of Time Division Multiplexer and De-multiplexer.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

1. Time Division Multiplexing and De Multiplexing Trainer

2. Dual-channel 20MHZ oscilloscope
3. BNC cables
4. Connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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THEORY:

Time division multiplexing is method of sharing the channel that is particularly suited to
digital communications. TDM involves giving multiple users exclusive access to the entire
channel (or to a carrier frequency if TDM is used in conjunction with FDM) Importantly ,
provided the duration of access is extremely short (much less than a second) and the rate of the
access is fast, the users appear to have simultaneous and continuous access to the channel(or
carrier). The primary advantage of TDM is that several channels of information can be
transmitted simultaneously over a single cable.
TDM (or TDMA for time division multiple access) has been used extensively in
telecommunications with PCM digital data. PCM samples analog signals converting them to
proportional binary numbers. The binary numbers are then transmitted serially in frames usually
containing an additional bit (or bits) for frame synchronization by the PCM decoder. The PCM
encoder’s clock and the frame-size determine the sample rate.
Suppose the PCM decoder only reads and decodes the contents of every alternate frame in the
serial data. The effect of this is the same as halving the sample rate. So, the maximum message
frequency would also be halved. The benefit of reading only every second frame however is, the
unread frames are free to be filled with the PCM data for a second message having a maximum
frequency equal to the first. Of course, for TDM to work with PCM signals, the PCM decoder
must be designed to read the alternate frames as separate sets of data.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the trainer TDM multiplexer to the mains and switch on the power supply.
2. Connect the sine wave to channel 1, square wave to channel 2 and triangle wave form

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to channel 3 terminals of 8x1 multiplexer.

3. Observe the sine, square and triangular waveforms on the kit and make a note of the
corresponding amplitudes and time periods.
4. Connect the sine wave to ch1, square wave to ch2 and triangular wave to ch3 terminals
of 8x1 multiplexer.
5. Observe the multiplexer output on channel 1 of CRO.
6. Observe TDM wave form using CRO at different values of clock frequency, input
signal voltage levels and sketch them.
7. Connect MUX output to demux input.
8. Observe the corresponding signal outputs at channel 2 of CRO.
9. Note down amplitudes and time periods of all the waveforms.
10. Plot multiplexing and de-multiplexing output waveforms on a graph sheet.

OBSERVATIONS:
Multiplexing Demultiplexing

Time period Amplitude Time period

Signals Amplitude Vp-p
(msec) Vp-p (msec)
Sinusoidal wave
Square wave
Triangular wave

EXPECTED GRAPHS:

Multiplexer inputs:

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Multiplexed output:

Demultiplexed outputs:

RESULT:

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The Time Division Multiplexing System was studied.

PRE-LAB QUESTIONS:

1. In what situation multiplexing is used?

2. Mention the types of multiplexing?

3. Why sync pulse is required in TDM?

4. What are the functions of commutator switch?

5. Give the advantages of multiplexing.

Experiment: 5

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MIXER CHARACTERISTICS
AIM:
To observe the characteristics of the frequency mixer and to measure its conversion gain.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
1. Frequency mixer trainer
2. Function generator (20 to 200MHz) --- 2
3. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (30MHz)
4. BNC cables
5. Connecting wires
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
12V

R4
T1
C3 4.7kΩ
Vout
R1 0.1µF R5
47kΩ 1kΩ

Q
C1
Fx

22µF R2
10kΩ 2N2369 C2
Fy

22µF
R3
1kΩ

THEORY:
The mixer is a nonlinear device that mixes the incoming signal of frequency f c with a local
oscillator voltage of frequency fl and generates an output voltage of an intermediate frequency
(fl-fc). The nonlinear mixer circuit has two sets of input terminals and one set of output terminals.
Mixer will have several frequencies present in its output, including the difference between the
two input frequencies and other harmonic components.

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PROCEDURE:

1. Switch ON the power supply of trainer kit.

2. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
3. Apply 90 KHz signal to the base of the transistor (fx) and 100 KHz signal to the
emitter of the transistor (fy) by using function generators.
4. Observe a sinusoidal signal with a difference of 10 KHz frequency across the output
terminals of frequency mixer circuit by using CRO.
5. By varying the base signal frequency, take a note of the amplitudes of the base signal
and the output signal in CRO.
6. Now, calculate the conversion gain using the following formula

Output voltage
Conversion gain = -----------------------------
Base signal voltage

7. Plot conversion gain Vs base signal frequency.

OBSERVATIONS:

FREQUENCY VOLTAGE OUTPUT

(BASE SIGNAL) (BASE SIGNAL) VOLTAGE CONVERSION GAIN
(Hz) (V) (V)

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EXPECTED GRAPHS:

Mixer Characteristics
0.8

0.7

0.6
Conversion Gain

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125
Frequency (KHz)

RESULT:

Mixer circuit operation is studied.

PRE-LAB QUESTIONS:
1. What is a mixer?

2. What is the need of mixer in a receiver?

3. Draw the mixer characteristics.

4. What are the main components of RF receiver?

5. What is the relation between dBm, dBW and Watt?

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Experiment: 6(a)
SAMPLING PAM & RECONSTRUCTION
AIM:
To study the pulse amplitude modulation and demodulation.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation and demodulation trainer

2. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
3. BNC cables
4. Connecting wires
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Clock generator:
+12V
8

555
VCC
4 OUT 3 RF OUTPUT
C1 2

22µF 5
7
R1
39kΩ
6
C2
100PF
1

PAM modulator:

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PAM demodulator:
+12V

R1 R4
56kΩ 4.7kΩ C1
0.01µF

BC107 C2
PAM DEMODULATED OUTPUT
INPUT 10µF

R2
10kΩ
R3
1kΩ

THEORY:
PAM is the simplest form of data modulation. The amplitude of uniformly spaced pulses
is varied in proportion to the corresponding sample values of a continuous message m(t).
A PAM waveform consists of a sequence of flat-topped pulses. The amplitude of each pulse
corresponds to the value of the message signal x (t) at the leading edge of the pulse. The pulse
amplitude modulation is the process in which the amplitudes of rectangular pulses vary with the
instantaneous sample values of a continuous message signal in a one-to-one fashion.

PROCEDURE:

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1. Switch ON the PAM modulator and demodulator trainer.

2. Observe the output of AF generator and clock generator using CRO and note that AF
signal is approximately 3Vpp of 100Hz frequency and clock generator output is pulse
train of 10Vpp with frequency between 200Hz and 4 kHz.
3. Connect pulse output and AF output to the respective inputs of sampling PAM circuit.
4. Connect one of the inputs of oscilloscope to the sampling circuit output and another to
the AF signal.
5. Initially set the amplitude of AF generator to minimum level and sampling frequency to
200Hz (by adjusting the potentiometer).
6. Observe the output of sampling circuit by varying amplitude of the modulating signal.
7. Connect the sampling PAM circuit output to the input of the reconstructing circuit.
8. Observe the output of reconstructing circuit (AF signal) at 200Hz sampling frequency
and vary the sampling frequency until we get the original signal.
9. Plot the waveforms of Clock, AF signal, sampled PAM signal and the reconstructed
output signal.

OBSERVATIONS:

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EXPECTED GRAPHS:

RESULT:

Pulse Amplitude Modulation is studied.

PRE-LAB QUESTIONS:
1. Define PAM and draw the waveforms?
2. How do you generate and demodulate the PAM waves.

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3. Explain the operation of the PAM circuit used in the experiment.

4. Explain the purpose of various components used in the PAM circuit.
5. Explain the terms aliasing error and guard band.
6. State and prove sampling theorem.

Experiment: 6(b)
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
AIM:
To study the pulse width modulation and demodulation.

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COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

1. Pulse width modulation and demodulation trainer

2. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
3. BNC probes
4. Connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: Clock generator:

+12V

8
555
VCC
4 OUT 3 RF OUTPUT
C1 2
22µF 5
7
R1
39kΩ
6
C2
100PF
1

PWM modulator:
+12V
555
R2 R1
5.1kΩ 1kΩ
VCC

VCC
RST OUT
OUT
DIS
THR

CLOCK INPUT TRI

AF INPUT CON

GND

C1
0.01µF

PWM demodulator:

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PROCEDURE:

1. Switch ON the pulse width modulation and demodulation trainer.

2. Connect the clock output to the clock input terminal (pin 2) of the PWM modulator.
3. Connect the AF output to the AF input terminal (pin 5) of the PWM modulator.
4. Observe the PWM output at pin 3 of IC 555 on CRO.
5. By varying frequency and amplitude of the modulating signal, observe the corresponding
changes in the width of the output pulses.
6. Connect the PWM output to the PWM input terminals of the PWM demodulation circuit.
7. Observe the demodulated output at the AF output terminals of the PWM demodulation
circuit on the CRO.
8. Plot the waveforms of the Clock, AF signal, PWM output and the demodulated output.

OBSERVATIONS:

WAVEFORM AMPLITUDE TIMEPERIOD

Clock signal

Message signal, m(t)

PWM wave, s(t)

Demodulated wave

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EXPECTED GRAPHS:

RESULT:

Pulse width modulation (PWM) and demodulation is studied.

PRE-LAB QUESTIONS:
1. Define PWM and draw the waveforms of PWM.
2. Explain how a PWM waveform can be generated and demodulated.
3. What are the advantages of PWM compared to PPM?
4. What is the disadvantage of PWM?
5. Explain the operation of the PWM circuit used in the experiment.
6. Explain the purpose of various components used in the PWM circuit.
7. What are the advantages of using pulse modulation techniques compared to analog modulation
techniques?

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Experiment: 6(c)
PPM GENERATION & DETECTION
AIM:
To study the pulse position modulation and demodulation.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

1. Pulse Position Modulation and demodulation trainer

2. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
3. BNC probes
4. Connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: Clock generator:

+12V
8

555
VCC
4 OUT 3 RF OUTPUT
C1 2

22µF 5
7
R1
39kΩ
6
C2
100PF
1

PPM Modulation:

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+12V
IC555 R4
R5 1kΩ
5.1kΩ R3 R2
555

VCC
1kΩ R1 5.1kΩ VCC
4.7kΩ
RST OUT
OUT PPM OUTPUT

VCC
VCC DIS
RST OUT
OUT C1 THR
DIS TRI
THR 1000pF CON
C4
CLOCK INPUT TRI
0.002µF GND

AF INPUT CON

C2 GND C3
0.01µF 0.1µF

PPM Demodulation:

PROCEDURE:

1. Switch ON the PPM modulator and demodulator trainer.

2. Connect the clock output to pin 2 of IC 555.
3. Connect the AF output to the pin 5 of IC 555.
4. Observe the PWM output at the pin 3 of IC 555 on the CRO.
5. Now, connect the PWM output to the PPM input of the second IC 555. (pin 2)
6. Observe the PPM output at the pin 3 of the second IC 555 on the CRO.
7. Connect PPM output to PPM input of the PPM demodulator.
8. Observe the demodulated output on the CRO.
9. Draw the clock signal, AF signal, PWM output, PPM output and demodulated signal
waveforms on a graph sheet.

OBSERVATIONS:

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WAVEFORM AMPLITUDE TIMEPERIOD

Clock signal

Message signal, m(t)

PWM wave

PPM wave

Demodulated wave

EXPECTED GRAPHS:

RESULT:

Pulse position modulation (PPM) and demodulation is studied.

PRE-LAB QUESTIONS:
1. Define PPM? Draw the waveforms of PPM.
2. Explain, how a PPM wave can be generated and demodulated?
3. What are the advantages of PPM over PWM?
4. What is the disadvantage of PPM compared to PWM?

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5. Explain the operation of the PPM circuit used in the experiment.

6. Draw the internal block diagram of 555 timer.
7. Explain the astable mode operation and monostable mode operation of 555 timer.
8. Give some applications of 555 timer.
9. Explain the purpose of various components used in the PPM circuit.

Communications lab Manual Page 35