~ SUNBEAM 0 9 Institute of Information Technology Placement filsive oO fo 7 | Language Basic Generally languages are classified as follows: 1. Procedure oriented programming languages. e.g. C, Pascal etc. 2. Object Oriented Programming languages. e.g. Simula, Smalltalk, C++, Java, C# etc. 3. Object Based Programming Languages. e.g, ada, modula-2, visual Basic 4. Logic Oriented Programming Languages. 5. Rule Oriented Programming Languages. 6. Constraint Oriented Programming Languages. S Advantages of object oriented programming: 1. Code Reusability Objects created for object oriented programs can easily be reused in other programs. Lower Cost Of Development , More effort is put into the object oriented analysis and design which lowers overall cost of development. | 3. Improved Software Maintainability \ Since design is modular, part of the system can be updated in case of issues without a . | Need to make large scale changes. 1] 4. Higher Quality Software : Faster development of software and lower cost of development allows more time and resources to be used in the verification of the software which tends to result in higher quality software. ~wwewye VOD Parts/Elements/Pillars of OOP model: ‘There are four major and three minor elements of object oriented programming médel. Major means.a language without any one of these elements is not considered as object oriented. Following are the major pillars of OOPs: 1. Abstraction 2. Encapsulation 3. Modularity 4. Hierarchy SuMBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, KaradSUNBEAM Institute of Information Technology Placement Iitative as Minor means, each of these elements is useful but not essential. Following Are the minor pillars of OOP: 1. Typing 2. Concurrency 3. Persistence Brief history of C++: The C++ programming language has a history going back to 1979, when Bjarne Stroustrup was doing work for his Ph.D. thesis. One of the language Stroustrup had the opportunity to work with was a language called Simula, which as the name implies is a language primarily designed for simulations. The Simula’67 language is regarded as the first language to support the object-oriented programming paradigm. Stroustrup found that this paradigm was ve usefui for software development, however the Simula language was far too slow for practical use. Shortly thereafter, he began work on "C with Classes", which as the name implies was meant to be a superset of the C language. His goal was to add object-oriented programming into the € language, which was and still is a language well-respected for Its portability without Sacrificing speed or low-level functionality. The first C with Classes compiler was called Cfront. It was a program designed to translate C with Classes code to ordinary C. Cfront would later be abandoned in 1993 after it became difficult to integrate new features into it, namely C++ exceptions. Nonetheless, Cfront made a huge impact on the implementations of future compilers and on the Unix operating system. In 1983, the name of the language was changed from C with Classes to CH Data types: Data type in any language describes three things: 1L.How much memory is required to store the data. 2.Which kind of data that memory can hold. 3.Which operations we can perform on that data. Basically there are only two types of data types but for our convenience we will classify it into three types -Fundamental data types Lvoid unknown size 2.boo! 1 byte Ican contain either true or false value ] SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karadcael ww ewww wy ev Ve VY @ sunBesm <= Institute of Information Technology CHt 3.char LT byte [ASCII Compatible ] 4.wchart 2 bytes —_[ Unicode Compatible | 5.int 4 bytes 6.float 4 bytes 7.double 8 bytes -Derived Datatypes Latray 2.function 3.pointer 4.reference -User Defined Data Types 1.Structure 2.Union 3.Class Access Specifers in C++ There are three acess specifiers in c++ ‘L.private: ft Placement Initiative If we declare elements of the class as private then we can access these members inside same class in which it is declared. We cannot access private members inside nonmember function. Generally data members should be declared as private. 2.protected: If we declare elements of the class as protected then we can access these members inside same class in which it is declared as well as inside derived class. We cannot access protected members outside the class, 3.public: If we declare elements of the class as public then we can access these members inside same class in which it is declared, inside. derived class as well as inside non member functioy. Generally member function should be declared as public Structure In C++ -structure is collection of related elements which get continuous memory space. SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad6 sunBeam =, Institute of Information Technology eee -in case of instantiation use of struct keyword is optional. -we can write variable as well as function inside structure in c++. -by default members of the structure are treated as a public. -to create light weight object we should use structure. Data member: “Variable declared inside class is called data member. -Data membcr is also called field, property or attribute, f we create object then it gets single copy of the data member i.e. data member gets space inside object. Member function: -Function implemented inside a class is called member function. -Member function is also called method, operation,behavior or message. -Member function do not get space inside object rather all the objects of same type share single copy of member function. Class: -syntactically class is collection of data member and member function. -In general ‘Class is collection of such objects which represents common structure and ‘common behavior’. -Since object is always created by looking toward the, class is considered as @ template/model/blueprint for an object. -class is logical entity. -class is a user defined data type. It is also calfed abstract data type. Object: -Syntactically, object is variable of class. -An entity which is having physical existence is called object. -In object oriented way, we can define object as a instance of ciass. -At the time of creation of abject use of class keyword is optional. class Point pointinstance; //valid Point pointinstance; Invalid Some important terminology 1. Instantiation - Process of creating object from a class is called instantiation. 2. Concrete class - If class allows us to create an object of a class then it is called concrete class. 3. Concrete method - Member function of a class which is having a body is called concrete method. SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad ° o ’ 6 oe ee coeweyevyvyvuUYVYVD ~VweMweneweevvevevevevuvse SUNBEAM * Institute of Information Technology Placement Initatve Cr 4. Abstract class - If class do not allows us to create an object of a class then it is called abstract class. 5. Abstract method - Member function of a class which do not contain body is called concrete method. 6. Message Passing - Process of calling member function on object is called message Passing. consider the following example Point pt; pt.Point::printRecord( ); //valid : Message passing PtL.printRecord( ); INalid : Message passing 1.State - The state of an object encompasses all of the properties of the object plus the current values of each of these properties. Vatues stored inside object is called state. 2.Behavior - Behavior is how an object acts and reacts, in terms of its state changes and message passing. Member functions of the class represent behavior of the object. B.ldentity - Identity is that property of an object which distinguishes it from all other objects. An object is an entity that has state, behavior, and identity. The structure and behavior of similar objects are defined in their common class. The terms instance and object are interchangeable. Empty class and object: A class which do not conain any member is called empty class.consider the following code. class Empty - { //Empty implementation h According to Bjame stroustrup, to differentiate object from a class, object must get space inside memory and it should be non zero. But compilers do optimization because there is no use of such memory. So size of object of empty class is one byte. SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, KaradEe SUN ® BeAm Institute of Information Technology sureeam Placement Iitetve on this pointer: - this is a keyword in C++ - It is implicit pointer available inside every non static member function of the class, which is used to store address of current abject. - this is constant pointer and its general type is as follows ClassName* const this - this represent address c/ current object while ( *this )represents current object itself. - Data member and member function can communicate with each other with the help of this pointer so this is considered as connection / link between data member and member function. - If any member function accepts parameters then this pointer is always_pass as a_first} parameter implicitly. - We cannot declare this as a function parameter explicitly. - Use of this keyword is optional but we should use it. Tf name of data member and function parameter is same then it is mandatory to use this keyword before data member. - Following function do not get this pointer: M1 Global function \2¢Static member function w@. Friend function. Array of Objects: Point arrl 3 1; //Here parameterless ctor will call three times for( int index = 0; index < 3; ++ index ) arr[ index ].printRecord(); Point arr[ 3} = { Point(10,20),Point(30,40),Point(50,60)}; //Here parameterized constructor will call three times for( int index = 0; index < 3; ++ index ) arr{ index ].printRecord(); Namespace : Namespace is logical term, which is used to control scope of global members. In other words to avoid name ambiguity or name clashing or name collision we should use namespace. int num1 = 10; intnum1 = 20; — //error: ‘num1' : redefinition; multiple initialization ‘SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad ers oooceecocoos ice srasvoy eww ee Vee ~wrrrwyewevve & SuUNBeEAm Institute of Information Technology SUPBEAM Placement Initiative CH int main void ) { printf("Num2 %d\n",num); retum 0; } As shown in above code we cannot give same name to multiple members in same scope. Pronlem may occur, if name of elements refereed from different library and name of element declared in same program is same. To avoid this problem, we should implement global members inside namespace. we can write above program as follows namespace NA { int num1 = } namespace NB t int num = JINow no error } int main( void ) { printf("Num2 =: %d\n",NA::num); //Num printf(*Num2 : %d\n",NB::num1); //Num1 return 0; 3 As shown in above code, we should use namespace name and scope resolution operator to access elements of namespace. We can implement namespace inside scope of another namespace, It is called nested namespace. First we will see nested namespace with different element names. int numi = 10; namespace NA { int num2 = 20; namespace NB is int num3 = 30; ee EE ee ‘SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, KaradSUNBEAM institute of Information Technology Placement Initiative C++ int main(void) { printfNum3 : Sed\n", NA::NB::numg3); JINum3 printf(*Num2 F 7 uNum2 printf("Num1 : H //Num1 return 0; a; Generally we use the statement that to access global variable or function we should use :: operator. Jn namespace topic we have discussed that to access elements of namespace we should :: operator. Consider above code. Since num3 is member of NB namespace & NB namespace is member of NA namespace we have written NA:NB::num3. num2 is member of NA namespace, we have written NA:ntim2.Even though num is not a member of any namespace we Can use :: operator with it. Meaning of this statement is that, if we declare or implement global members without namespace it is considered as member of unnamed or global namespace. if we want to use any member of namespace frequently then instead of specifying namespace name every time we can use using directive. The using directive allows the names ina namespace to be used without the namespace name as an explicit qualifier, consider the following code. int num1 = 10; pamespace NA { Int num2 = 20; namespace NB { int num3 = 30; ui int main(void) { printf("Num1 : %d\n", unum); yNum2 using namespace NA; ‘SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad Bwoovoeooceoeo ee sce Ts e039 030SUNBEAM = Institute of Information Technology a or printf("Num2 %d\n", num2); HNum2 20 printf("Num3 d %d\n", NB::num3); uma: 30 using namespace NB; printf("Num3 fl %d\n", num3); yNum3 30 return 0; + We can write "Vsing namespace namespace_name" statement any number of times. We can give same name fo the outer namespace as well as inner namespace. In this case we cannot use ‘using' di 10 access namespace members. namespace NA { int numa = 10; namespace NA { int num2 = 20; int main(void) { printf("Num. = %d\n", NA::num2); mun. printf("Num2 :%d\n", NAz:NA::num2); JINum2 return 0; + We can give same namespace name to other namespace inside same scope. namespace NA { int num = 10; + namespace NA { int num2 = + int main(void) SunBeam institute of Information Technology, Pune, KaradG sunBeam = Institute of Information Technology printf(*Num. fl %d\n", NA::num1); printf(*Num2, i %d\n", NA::num2); using namespace NA; printf("Num1 =: (%éd\n", num); printf("Num2 : %d\n", num2); return 0; + ie Placement Initiative we should use using statement carefully otherwise we may get unexpected results. consider following code snippet. namespace NA { int num1 = 10; } int main(void) { int num1 = 20; using namespace NA; printf("Num1 printf("Num1 printf("Num1 printf("Num1 return 0; } 'f name of members of namespace is same and if we try to access it with the help of using directive then compiler produces ambiguity error.In this case we should use fully qualified name. consider following code. namespace NA { int num = 10; namespace NB { int num = int num2 SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad 10 9 ° ° 3 2 6 GC oO ° e o Q o ° ° Q Q vo Q e ° | | | |5 SUNBEAM 9 Institute of Information Technology Placement hitiative ) C++ J | int main(void) y { using namespace NA; printf("Num1 2 %d\n",num1); JNum1. using namespace NB: Nprintf("Num1—:——%d\n*, numt); Hambiguity error print"Num1 =: d\n", NBssnum}; 4uNurn. 20 printf("Num1 ——: d\n", num2); yNumn2 30 return 0; o”V } We can declare using directive at local scope as well as file scope. In following code snippet we have declared “using namespace namespace_name" statement at local scape. namespace NA { int num1 = 10; + void show _record(void) { using namespace NA; printf("Num2 =: %d\n", num1); 3 void display_record(void) { using namespace NA; printf("Num1 =: d\n", numt); + int main(void) { ~~ yee wrwrvyrveve ew wewevvue ushow_record(); isplay_record( SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad ’ "G sunBeam Institute of Information Technology suneeam Placement hitative ceed return 0; 3 IF we want to access namespace elements at multiple location then we should declare "using Namespace namespace_name" statement at file scope. Consider the following example. namespace NA { int num = using namespace NA; void show_record(void) { printf("Num2, %d\n", num void display_record(void) { printf(*Num1. %d\n", num); t int main(void) t nshow_secord(); fisplay_record(); return 0; } 5 unnamed or anonymous namespace - In C/C++,if we dectare any global element as static then we can access such element inside same file only. In C++ unnamed namespace or anonymous namespace is superior alternative given for global static member declarations. namespace { int num1; SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad "Soe oo eooececoooecoosInstitute of Information Technology | & SsuNnBeam Placement Initiative aaa } int main(void) { oO 2.0 num1 = 10; printf("Num1. : %d\n", num’); return 0; i Each unnamed namespace has an identifier, assigned and maintained by the program and represented here by unique above code is implicitly interpreted as follows: namespace unique { vue int numa; 3 int main(void) af unique::num1 = 10; printf("Num2 2 %d\n", unique::num1); retum 0; wwwewvevuy + namespace Alias - if name of the namespace is too lengthy then we can create alias for it. Consider the following syntax. namespace namespace_name { int num1; + namespace NA = namespace_name;~ int main(void) it ~~~ ~r~wew printf("num1 : %d\n", Ni ’ return 0; } Points To Remember: ) ] 1. Namespace is logical term which is used to group or organize functionally equivalent or related code together. ————————— | ] SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad Page 13@ SUNBEAM Institute of Information Technology Placement initiative surmeam lea 2. In C++, We can achieve logical modularity with the help of namespace. 3. To access members of namespace we should use scope resolution( :: Joperator. 4, We can write anyglobal variable, function, enum, structure, class as well as namespace inside namespace. 5. We cannot write namespace inside class i.e. A namespace definition must appear either at file scope or immediately within another namespace definition. 6. We cannot implement entry point function( main ) inside namespace. 7. Inside same as well as different file we can give same name to the multiple namespace. 8, We cannot create instance of namespace. 9. Instead of declaring global element as static we should put them inside unnamed namespace. ‘Constructor: Process of storing user defined value inside variable/object at the time of declaration/creation is callec itialization. int number = 123; //initialization Constructor is member function of a class which is used to initialize the object. namespace NPoint 5 class Point { ivate: int xPosition; int yPosition; Point( void ) //constructor { this->xPosition = 0; this->yPosition + int main(void) { NPoint::Point pointinstance; //Here for pointinstance object constructor will call SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad 4 is ecoceeccoooosocsVeuwVwuy wwwewerwewe vee yew SUNBEAM Institute of Information Technology ee an return 0; } Due to following reasons constructor Is special member function -its name is same class name -it do not have any return type ( but we can write return statement inside constructor). -it is not designed to call explicitly on object rather it gets call implicitly. -in complete life cycle bject, constructor gets call only once Types of Constructor: C++ supports three kinds of constructor. 1. Pararneterless constructor. 2. Pararneterized constructor. 3. Default constructor. Most of us consider copy constructor is fourth type of constructor. But it is kind of parameterized constructor. We will discuss copy constructor separately. Parameter less constructor: A constructor which do not take any parameter is called parameter less constructor. parameter less constructor is also called zero parameter constructor or user defined default constructor. | if we create an object without passing argument then parameter less constructor gets call. Point pt; Here for pt1 object parameterless constructor will cali Parameterized constructor: if constructor takes parameters then it is called parameterized constructer. If we create an object by passing argument then parameterized constructor gets call. Point ptl( 10, 20 ); Here for pti object parameterized constructor which is taking 2 parameters will call Point pt2( 500 ); Here for pt2 object parameterized constructor which is taking 1 parameter will call How many and which kind of constructor should be exist inside a class depends on instantiation. Constructor calling sequence is depends on order of object declaration. Default constructor: If class do not contain any kind of constructor then compiler provides one constructor for the ciass it is called default constructor. Default constructor do not perform any operation on data member declared in our class. It look like as follows —_—————— SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad Page 15@ sunBesam Institute of Information Technology Placement initiative suneeam CH Point( void ) t Prempty*/ h Compiler generated default constructor do not take any parameter i.e. compiler never generate default parameterized constructor. If we want to create an object by passing argument then we cannot rely on default constructor. In this case we should define parameterized constructor inside a class. We will see exact use of default constructor in virtual function topic. Constructor is designed for initialization it doesn't mean we cannot call methods from it. We cannot declare constructor as const, volatile, virtual or static. We can declare constructor as Inline only. Inline function we will discuss fater. Aggregate type: ff type allows us to store multiple elements then it is called aggregate type and object is called aggregate object. In C language, array, structure and union is called aggregate type. Aggregate type allows us to initialize object using initializer list. Consider the following code: int arf } = { 10, 20, 30 }; struct point ptl = { 10, 20 }; class may be classified as aggregate type if it obeys following rule. 1. class should not contain user defined constructor. 2. Class should not contain private and protected members. 3. class should not be derived from any other class. 4. class should not contain virtual function. Aggregate class is also called Plain Old Data struct( POD- struct ) Test your understanding: class Point { private: int xPosition; int yPosition; SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad oS oe 3 3 o Q Q o a a oO eo G Q Qo Q 38 o a a e a @ | i& sunBeam Institute of Information Technology nS i sureeam Plaoement Initative C++ publi Point( void ); Point( int value ); Point(int xPosition, int yPosition); wuUev.0 vo h In following cases which constructor will call? Point pt; Point pt2( 10); Point pt3( 20, 30 ); Point pt4( ); Point ptS = 40; Point pt6 = 50, 60; Point pt7 = (50, 60 ); Point pt8 = { 70, 80 }; Point pt9( 90, 100 ); Point pt10 = pi 10. Point* ptr; ~~wrryrwwrwrvwrvwevvvvw vue ) | As per our requirement, we can use any access specifier for constructor. If we declare constructor as private or protected then we can create instance of class only inside member function. If we declare constructor as public then we can create instance of class inside| ) | member function as well as non member function, Note: Generally we should public access specifier for constructor. Constructors member initializer list ) | c++ allows us to initialize data members of the class inside constructors body as well | | constructors member initializer list. If we initialize data members inside constructors pod| gc } | SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad Page 17@& SUNBEAM surBeAm Institute of Information Technology Placement itiative a then it gets executed in the same order in which it is written inside constructor body. For example: class Test { private: int x; int ys int z; public: Test(void) { this->z = this->y: this->y = this->x; this->x = 20; hb int main(void) { Test test; //10,garbage value,garbage value return 0; + If we initialize data members inside constructors member initializer list then it gets executed according to the order of data member declaration. For example: class Test { private: int x; int y; int 2: public: Test(void) : zly), x(10), yx) { } h int main(void) { Iictor's member initializer list ‘SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad 8 booceoeocooooococoesSUNBEAM Institute of Information Technology Placement hitative on 1/10,10,10 return 0; } we cannot initialize array inside constructors member initializer list. It is limitation of constructors member initializer list. we can use constructors member initializer list and constructor body together. In this case cuntime environment executes constructors member initializer list first and tren constructors body. Note:Generally we should use constructor's member initializer to initialize data members. In case of modularity constructors member initializer list must appear in definition part only. Default argumentis): int sum(int numd, int num2) { return num + num2; a int sum(int num1, int num2, int num3) { retum num] + num2 + num3; } int sum(int num1, int num2, int num3, int num4 ) t return num] + num2 + num3 + num4; + int maintvoid) { int result = 0; result = sum(10, 20); result = sum(10, 20, 30); result = sumt0, 20, 30, 40); return } we consider above functions then its implementation is logically equivalent. Since all the functions having same name and same type of parameters then we can reuse its implementation by assigning some default values to the parameters. For example SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad Page 19 ”& sunBesam = Institute of Information Technology sureeal Placement Initiative C++ int sum(int num, int num2, int num3 = 0, int num4 = 0) it retum num1 + num2 + num3 + num4; } int main(void) it int result = 0; result = sum(10, 20); result = sum(10, 20, 30); result = sum(10, 20, 30, 40); return 0; 3 Default values assign to the parameters of function is called default argument and function parameter is called optional parameter. In above code 0 is default argument and num3 and num4 are the optional parameters. We cannot assign default arguments randomly. If we want to assign default arqument to the parameter then it is necessary to assign default argument to all its right side parameters. We can assign default arguments to parameters of any member function as. well as not member function. Note:In case of modularity, we must specify default arguments in declarations part only. Constructor Chaining: Process of calling constructor from another constructor is called constructor chaining. If we want to reuse implementation of existing constructor then we can use this feature. Since c++ support default argument, it do not support constructor. chaining. In C+4 we cannot call constructor with pointer or object explicitly. But it is possible to call to constructor explicitly. Constant: I-value( Locator Value ): 2 Expressions that refer to memory locations are called "I-value" expressions. An |-value represents a storage region's "locator" value, or a "left" value, implying that it can appear on the left of the equal sign ( =). L-values are often identifiers. In following example, x is an I-value because it persists beyond the expression that defines it. int main) { intx = 34 SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, KaradD SUNBEAM ay) Institute of Information Technology eT Placement initiative CHt cout << x << endl; y or 3 ) | rvalue( Reference Value) An rvalue is a temporary value that does not persist beyond the expression that uses it. All |- | values are rvalues but not all values are I-values. } | In above example, the expression 3 + 4 is an r-value because It evaluates to a temporary value that does not persist beyond the expression that defines it. d y | Readonly Members: Once initialized, if we don’t want modify state of an object then we should declare ) | variable/object as a constant. In C++ it is compulsory to initialize constant variable. 9 | Note:Generally we should declare function parameter as a constant. ) | constant Data Member: » if we dont want to modify state of the data member inside any member function of the class( including contructor ) then we should declare data member as a constant. | Note:It is compulsory to initialize constant data member inside constructors member p | initializer is. b class Math vyt private: y const double Pl; //constant data member ) | public: ) Math(void) : PI(3.14) { , Mtthis->Pl = 3.142; JNot allowed Constant Member function: If we don’t want to modify state on current object inside member function then we should | | declare member function as constant. We can declare only such function as a constant which get this pointer. Since global function do not get this pointer, we cannot declare global function as a constant. SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, KaradSUNBEAM Institute of Information Technology Placemant Initiative on Non constant member function always get this pointer of following type: ClassName* const this; Constant member function always get this pointer of following type: const ClassName* const this; ‘As shown in above declaration. if we deciare member function as constant then current object is considered as const object inside that member function, Class Test ‘f private: int number; public: Test(void) : number(10) { } /Mest* const this = &testinstance; void increment() t this->number = this->number +1; /allowed } IIconst Test* const this = Atestinstance; int getNumber(void)const { Ifthis->number = this->number + 1; //Not allowed return this->number; Int main(vold) t Test testinstance; return 0; + With the help of non constant object we can invoke constant as well as non constant member function. mutable is a keyword in c++, which allows us to modify state of non constant data member inside constant member function. class Test ‘SunBeam Institute of Infarmation Technology, Pune, Karad 2 wewooceooceoeooos=> ew YY YY we eV eV ev SS OS SUNBEAM Institute of Information Technology Placement iatve an private: const int num1; const int num2; mutabie int count; public: Test(const int num1 = 0, const in num2 = 0) : numi{nurn), num2(num2) t this->count = } void print(void)const { this->count = this->count + 1; //allowed cout<< "Count : — * << this->count << endl; cout <<"Numl: " << this->num1 << end; cout << "Num2: "<< this->num2 << endl; he int main(void) { Test testinstance; testinstance. print(); testinstance.print(); return 0; + We can declare object of class as a constant, Using canstant object we can call only constant member function, const, volatile and mutable is called Access modifier. Reference: typdef is feature of C language which allows us to create alias for the existing data type. e.9. typedef unsigned int size_t; size:t size = sizeoft int ); Reference is feature of C++ which allows to create alias for existing object. eg. intnuml = 10; SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad 2G@ SUNBEAM Institute of Information Technology — + srseam CHt inté& numa, In above code, num2 is reference variable where num1 is referent variable. Once initialized we cannot change referent of reference. int num1 = 10; int num2 = 20; int& num3 = num1; —_//num3 is reference variable for num1; num3 = num2; ITkere we are not changing reference .ather copy value from num2 into num: Since references are implicitly considered as a constant pointer, it is compulsory to initialize references. Following code illustrate how references are implicitly const and pointer. class Test { private: double& num3; public: IN is compulsory to initialize references in ctors member initilaizer list Test(double& num2) : num3( num2 ) { } } int main(void) { double numi = 10; Test testinstance( num ); size_t size = sizeof(testinstance); _// 4 bytes, return 0; My e Even though data member is a type of double, size of an object is 4 bytes, it means that references are implicitly treated as a pointer. References need to initialize inside ctors member initializer list it means that references are implicitly treated as const. int num = 10; int& num2 = num1; Now we can treat above statement as follows: int num = 10; SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad 2 QHROSOOHOOFTECSCOCOOCA™H S3067) SU. vu ~~~r~rwrvrvvrvrvvuevvuvv eV SUNBEAM Institute of Information Technology C++ int& num2 = num; Hint® const num2 = &num1; i.e. References are automatically dereferenced constant pointer variables. In following code i have used constant in combination with reference. int num1 = 10; int& num2 = num1; const int& num3 = num1; Here we can read as well as modify state of num1 via num2 but we cannot modify state via num3. References are not designed to use independently rather it is designed to pass and return object from function by reference. Note:Generally we should not return local variable by reference. In thi declare local variable as static. Points To Remember: Reference is derived data t) 2.Reference is ct tocreate alas for the object. case we should 6.We cannot create reference to constant. 7.We cannot create array of references. &.We can create reference to pointer, array, function as well as object. 9.We can pass object to the function by value, by address and by reference. 10.With the help of reference we cannot save the memory rather we can minimize complexities of pointer, Test your understanding: How will you create reference to array? What is the difference between pointer and reference? Macro vs inline Function: Macro: A macro is short form of macro instruction. It is a rule or pattem that specifies how a certain sequence of characters should be mapped to a replacement output sequence of characters according to a defined procedure. In short, ca re eal SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad Page 25 25SUNBEAM Institute of Information Technology Placement nialve Gr symbolic constant is also called macro. The mapping process that transforms a macro use into a specific sequence is known as macro expansion. Preprocessor is program which expands the macro. Preprocessor performs two main task: L.Expands the macro and 2.Removes the comments which included in .c file There are two types of macros, object-like and function-like, Object-like macros do not take parameters; function-like macros do Consider the example of object like macro #define PI 3.142 Consider the example of function like macro #define SQUARE( number) number * number int main(void) { int number = 5; cout << SQUARE(number) << endl; return 0; Several identifiers are predefined, and expand to produce special information. __LINE__ A decimal constant containing the current source line number. __FILE__A string literal containing the name of the file being compiled. _DATE__A string literal containing the date of compilation, in the form "Mmmm dd yyy" __TIME__A string literal containing the time of compilation, in the form "hh:mm:ss" Inline Function: Giving call to the function is always overhead to the compiler because each time a function is called, a significant amount of overhead is generated by the calling and return mechanism. ‘Typically, arguments are pushed onto the stack and various registers are saved when a function is called, and then restored when the function returns. The trouble is that thes instructions take time. ‘An inline function is one for which the compiler copies the code from the function definition directly into the code of the calling function rather than creating a separate set o' in memory. instead of transferring control to and from the function code segment, a modified SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad SBeooegcecoceceooooro¢~ G& SUNBEAM = Institute of Information Technology Plecoment nilane ina copy of the function body may be substituted directly for the function call. In this way, the performance overhead of a function call is avoided. To declare function as inline we shouid use inline keyword. inline int max( int num1, int num2 ) { return num1 > num2? num1 : num2; } If we implement member function inside structure/class then it is by default treated as inline.If we define functions globaly then we must specify inline keyword explicitly. Consider the following code. class Point t private: int xPosition; int yPosition; public: inline Point(); inline void pr ~~ r~wrervrerye ey ye wwe inline Point::Point() { this->xPosition = 0; this->yPosition = 0; i} ) | inline void Point::printRecord() { , cout << "x Position : "<< this->xPosition << endl; , cout << "Y Position : "<< this->yPosition << endl; y "J int main(void) yt Point ptt; ptl.printRecord(); return 0; } SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad aSUNBEAM Institute of Information Technology Placement Initiative as We can declare constructor as inline only. The inline specifier is only a suggestion/request to the compiler that an inline expansion can be performed; the compiler is free to ignore the suggestion. In following condition, function cannot be classified as inline Lif function contains a code which leads to larger executables. 2.1 we implement function using recursion. 3.If we implement function using loop. Note:If we declare function as inline then we cannot divide class declaration and definition in multiple files. Test your understanding Why inline functions are hazardous? string clas: Cas well as C++ programming language supports strings but string is not a fundamental data type in it Standard Template Library. contains class ‘basic_string’ which allows us to handle the string. string is typedef of basic_string. nema aaa typedef basic_string string. ‘basic_string’ class is declared in string( #include)header file. Lets see how to use it. string name; cout<<"Enter your name : cin>>name; cout<<"Name <> number; } Void print_result(const int& result) { cout << "Result : "<< result << endl; } int main(void) { SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad@ SUNBEAM Institute of Information Technology Bie int num1; saccept secord(num2); int num2; saccept_record(num2); if (num2 == 0) throw string("Divide By Zero Exception"); int result = num / num2; cout << "Result: " << result << endl; } catch ( string ex) { cout << ex << endl; } retum 0; iz We can write try catch block inside another try as well as catch block, Outer catch block can handle exception which are unhand-led by the inner catch block but catch block of inner try cannot handle exception which are unhand-led by outer catch block. If we do not handle thrown exception then C++ runtime implicitly gives call to inate” Function which implicitly gives call to the ‘std::aburt' function which stops execution of program abnormally.in this case we should write such a catch block which can handle all kind of exception thrown by user. A catch block which can handle all types q exception is called generic catch block, catch(...) { JF Inside generic catch block*/ + If we want to use generic as well as specific catch handler together then generic catch] handler must be the last handler. In C++, we can throw exception from outside try block via function. Consider the following example: void accept_record(int& number) ‘SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad 30 eogceocooo0scocsdchee ene ewe oe ete SUNBEAM Institute of Information Technology C++ cout << "Enter number cin >> number; } int calculate(int num1, int num2) { if (num2 == 0) throw string("Divide By Zero Exception"); retum num! / num2: } void print_result(const int& result) { cout << "Result : "<empty()) throw string(“List is empty"); else itop0 7 class Stack. { private: LinkedList collection; public: void pop(void)throw( string ) { try { collection.deleteFirst(); SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, KaradSUNBEAM a Institute of Information Technology catch (string e) { throw string("Stack is full HException chaining i c Stack Unwin In the C++ exception mechanism, control moves from the throw statement to the first catch statement that can handle the thrown type. When the catch statement is reached, all ofthe | automatic variables that are in scope between the throw and catch statements are destroyed in a process that is known as stack unwinding. 3 In stack unwinding, execution proceeds as follows: 8 L.Control reaches the try statement by normal sequential execution, The guarded section in the try block is executed. a 2.If no exception is thrown during execution of the guarded section, the catch clauses that catch clause that follows the associated try block. c 3.If a matching handler is still not found, or if an exception occurs during the unwinding (2 process but before the handter gets control, the predefined run-time function terminate + called. if an exception occurs after the exception is thrown but before the unwind begins, terminate is called. o 4.f a matching catch handler is found the process of unwinding stack begins. This involves the destruction of all automatic objects that were fully constructed—but not yet destructed— between the beginning of the try block that is associated with the catch handler and the throw site of the exception. Destruction occurs in reverse order of construction, The catch handler is executed and the program resumes execution after the last handler—that is, at the first statement or construct that is not a catch handler. ‘Types of Function: An operation denotes a service that a class offers to its clients. Client typically performs five kinds of operations on an object.These functions allows us to write loosely coupled class. 1. Selector: an operation that accesses the state of an object but does not alter the state. Selector function is also called inspector function. a a ‘SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad Page 34 eoecocoegogence g eoogc~wwrwye ev BOVEY & sunBeam = Institute of Information Technology — aa int getReal( void )const { return this->_real; } Generally we should declare inspector function as a constant. 2.Modifier: an operation that alters the state of an object. Modifier function is also called mutator function. void setReal( const int real ) t this->_real = real; 3. Iterator: an operation that permits all parts of an object to be accessed in some well- defined order. 4, Constructor: an operation that initializes an object. 5. Destructor: an operation that deinitializes an object. Header Guard: In case of repeated inclusion of headers, if we want to replace contents of header only once then we should use header guard.Header guard is also called #include guard or macro guard. Header guards are implemented by using three preprocessor directives in a header file. Two are placed at the beginning of the file, before any pertinent code. The last is placed at the end of the file, #ifndef unique_symbol #define unique_symbol #endif The symbol used is not crucial, but it must be unique. It is traditional to use all capital letters for the symbol. Only letters, numbers and the underscore character can be used in the symbols. No other punctuation is allowed. A very common symbol is to use the name of the header file, converting the -h suffix to a SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, KaradInstitute of Information Technology Placement Initatve @ SUNBEAM C++ Consider the Complex.h header file with header guard as follows: #ifndef — COMPLEX_H #define COMPLEX_H class Complex { private: int real; int imag; public: int getReal()const; void setReal( const int real ); oy endif Modular approach: If we want to divide code into multiple files then class declaration should appear in header file and member function definition should appear in source file. We should define all globaj functions in Main.cpp file. ‘To define functions globally, we should use following format: ReturnType ClassName::MemberFunctionName( ... ) Points To Remember: 1.We must specify default arguments only in declaration part only( .h file ). 2.Constructors member initializer list must be appear in definition part only( .cpp ). 3.const keyword must be appear in declaration as well as definition part( .h & .cpp ). 4.static keyword must be appear in declaration part only( .h file ). 5.Global definition for static data member must be appear in source file( .cpp ). 6.Friend keyword must be appear in declaration part only.( .h ) 7.virtual keyword must be appear in declaration part only( .h file ). ——— ‘SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad@ SUNBEAM Institute of Information Technology SUTBEAM Prcement Initiative wut fg 8,We should not define pure virtual function inside source file. 9,Exception specification list can be appeared in declaration as well as definition. But it must appear in declaration, 10.User defined header files should be included using double quotes( #include*Complex.h" ). 11.In case of multiple files,we should use following sequence of header files. i,all C language standard header files. ii.all C++ language standard header files. iliall user defined header files. ve Modularity: -Process of dividing complex system into modules which can be compiled separately, bu which have connections with other modules is called modularity. -It is major pillar of oops. -Modilarity helps to minimize module dependancy. -In C++, we can achieve logical modularity with the help of namespace and physical modularity with the help of multiple files. Abstraction: -Process of getting essential characteristics of an object is called abstra -An abstraction focuses on the outside view of an object. -Abstraction focuses on the essential characteristics of some object, relative to the perspective of the viewer. kinds of abstractions include the following: Entity abstraction =>An object that represents a useful model of a problem domain q solution domain entity Action abstraction =>An object that provides a generalized set of operations, all of which )] perform the same kind of function. ) | Virtual machine abstraction => An object that groups operations that are all used by some superior level of control, or ) | operations that all use some junior-level set of operations ) | Coincidental abstraction => An object that packages a set of operations that have relation to each other ~ vyeyevwrvewevvuvvv COU Y ) | Encapsulation: Abstraction and encapsulation are complementary concepts: Abstraction focuses on the observable behavior of an object, whereas encapsulation focuses on the implementation that Gives rise to this behavior. ———— , | SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad Page 37 aee SUNBEAM ® Ee Institute of Information Technology suMBeAm Placement Inialive CH -Encapsulation is the process of compartmentalizing the elements of an abstraction that constitute its structure and behavior or binding of data and code together is called encapsulation. -Encapsulation hides the details of the implementation of an object. Information Hiding t It is the process of hiding all the secrets of an object that do not contribute to its essential characteristics. Generally we can hide data/information with the help of private or protected access specifier. Data Security. Process of giving control access to the members of class is called data security. To achieve data security first encapsulate variable and function inside a class and then the help of access specifiers give access to the data members using getter and setter method. class Account { private: float balance; public: void withdraw( float amount ) { if( amount >= 100 ) this->_balance = this->balance - amount; else throw Exception("Invalid amount”); Function Overloading: If implementation of function is Jogicaily equivalent then we should give same name to the function. If we want to give sami the function then we must obey following rules: ‘Lnumber of parameters pass to the function must be different. void sum( int num1, int num2 ){ } void sum( int num1, int num2, intnum3 ){ } — //allowed 2.1f number of parameters are same then type of at least one parameter must be different. void sum( int num1, int num2 ){ + void sum( int num1, double num2 }{_} Jfallowed SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad Page 38 38 eococeeoocoocoocoosG sunBesam = Institute of Information Technology SUTBEAM Placement Intiative 0.9 9090 a 3.|f number of parameters are same then order of type of parameter must be different. void sum( int num1, floatnum2){ —} void sum( float num1, intnum2){ } — //allowed 2 9v 4,0n the basis of retum type we cannot give same name to the function. i.e. return type is not considered. void sum( int num1, int num2 ){ } int sum( int num, int num2){ } JINot allowed Process of writing such functions which is having same name but different signature is called function overloading.Functions which are taking part into function overloading are called overloded function. In case of overloading functions must be exist inside same scope. Except main function and destructor, we can overload any global function as well as member function. Since ANSI has not defined any strict specification on return type, catching values from the function are optional. so return type is not considered at the time of overloading. 9 Test Your Understanding 1.What will be the output of following program? void print(int number) { wevvuvwvvsy wr cout << "int: "<< number << endl; + void print(double number) { cout<< "double : "<< number << endl; print( 10 ); print( 10.5 ); print( 10.5f ); 2.What will be the output of following program? void print(int number) t ) | SunBeam institute of Information Technology, Pune, KaradQO SUNBEAM Institute of Information Technology Pena iene CHt * << number << endl; Chena is void print(float number) { Q- cout << "float: * << number << endi; ° print( 10); ° print( 10.5 ); print( 10.5 ); Coeococogoooso Coo ooo ETOSdO0°9% 3.What will be the output of following program? void print(int number) { cout << "int: “<< number << endl; a void print(int® number) cout <<"int& =: " << number << endl; print( 10 ); int number = 10; print( number ); 4.What will be the output of following program? void print(boo! object) { cout << "bool : * << object << endi; } void print(char object) { cout << "char 7 "<< object << endl; + SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad 40SUNBEAM institute of Information Technology oF print true ); print( ‘A’ ); print( 65 ); 5.What will be the output of following program? void print(int numa = 0) { cout << “int: "<< num1 << endl; + void print(int numi, int num2 = 0) cout << “int : “ < #include using namespace std; int main(void) { auto_ptr autoPointer(new int()); *autoPointer = 10; cout << "Value: "<< *autoPointer << endl; return 0; ‘Test your understanding: 1. int ptr = new int(); 2. Int ptr = new int( 3 ); 3. int* ptr = new int! 3 J; SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad “0& SuUNBeam ray | = Institute of Information Technology Se er Whatis the difference between malloc and new? Destructor: 0 A member function of class that has the same name as the class and is prepended with ~ lO operator is called destructor. It is us > clean up after an object of a class is no longer in the scope of program segment. Consider the syntax for destructor: ~ oO ~Point( void) _/Adestructor for the Point class { } a) There are two situations in which a destructor is calied. The first is when an object is destroyed under “normal” conditions, e.g., when it goes out of scope or is explicitly deleted. | The second is when an object is destroyed by the exception-handling mechanism during the lo stack-unwinding part of exception propagation. if we do not define destructor for the class then compiler provides one destructor for th class by default. It is called default destrucotr. Default destructor always does the job o| deinitialiation only. ey On exit from function or block, Objects created in that function are destroyed by the compiler automatically. But an object might have an accumulated resources (dynamic memory, disk 4: blocks, network connections etc. during its life time. These resources are stored in the objects data members and are manipulated by the member functions. When the object destroyed, it ry that the resources held by the object are released because abject is no longer accessible. Because compller isn't aware of the resources held by the object, it is responsibility of object to release such resources. To help an object in doing so, on exit from function, destructor is called on all objects created statically{7h other words, to reléase operating system resources held by the object we should write destructor inside class\, Consider the following code snippet: namespace NString { class String { private: unsigned int length; char* buffer ‘SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad esogcoooococoosO v G SUNBeEam == Institute of Information Technology suneeam o Placement Initatve on publi String(unsigned int length = 0 )//etor { uTODO vy } ~String(void)//dtor { if (this->buffer != NULL) { delete[] this->buffer; this->buffer = NULL; Points To Remember: 17To Prevent resource leak we should use destructor. 2.Destructor calling sequence is exactly opposite of constructor calling sequence( in array too ). 3,Since destructor do not take any parameter we cannot overload 4.We can declare destructor as inline and virtual only. ~ 5.Even though destructor is designed to call implicitly, we can call it explicitly too. 6.if we try to create object using new then constructor gets call and if we try to delete that object using delete operator then destructor gets call. Consider following example: ~~ywwewvwrvevevvevvy eV String* ptr = new String); _{fttere ctor will call implicitly ) delete ptr; /fHere dtor will call implicitly YT if we create an instance with the help of placement new operator then we cannot deallocate ) ] memory of an object using delete operator. if we do not use delete operator then destructor will not be call. But to avoid resource leak we need to call destructor explicitly. Consider the 1] following code. char arr[30); SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Katad ' 51— q@ SUNBEAM — Institute of Information Technofogy surBeam Placement itiative BD. on What is the difference between malloc and new? Destructor: ‘A member function of class that has the same name as the class and is prepended with ~ operator is called destructor, It is used to do clean up after an object of a cfass is no longer in_ f program segment. Consider the syntax for destructor: ~Point( void) —_//destructor for the Point class { QO oo } There are two situations in which a destructor is called. The first is when an object is destroyed under "normal" conditions, e.g., when it goes out of scope or is explicitly deleted. The second is when an object is destroyed by t indling mechanism during the stack-unwinding part of exception propagation: co If we do not define destructor for the class then compiler provides one destructor for tHe class by default. It is called default destrucotr. Default destructor always does the job oJ deinitialiation only. Goods On exit from function or block, Objects created in that function are destroyed by the compiler automatically. But an obj mulated resources (dynarric memory, disk blocks, network connections etc )during its life time. These resources are stored in the objects data members and are maniputated by the member functions. When the object 5 destroyed, cessary that the resources held by the object are released because object is no longer acce ssible. Because compiler isn't aware of the resources held by the object, it is responsibility of object to release Such resources. To help an object in doing so, on exit from function, destructor is called on all objects created statically. [Tn other words, to release ‘operating system resources held by the object we should write destructor inside class\ Consider the following code snippet: Cooo namespace NString { class String { private: unsigned int length char* buffer; ‘SunBeam Institute of Information Technology, Pune, Karad 50 eooceccoooce ce