Pre – Production

Pre-production is the process of preparing all the elements involved in a film.

At this stage, Finalizing preparations for production go into effect.

STAGES OF PRE - PRODUCTION

Client Query- In this client express their requirement or uncertainty.
Query response- Doubts or questions raised by the clients are answered.
Meeting schedule Is fixed to discuss the various components of films like concept, plan,
budget etc.
Research
Storyboard
A rough, pictorial outline of different scenes, camera angles, perspectives in a film or
interactive scenes.
Concept
The concept is an idea used to tell your story by combining all its characteristics or
particulars.
Script
A video script is a product of Concept, Structure, Content, Style, and Format. Awareness
of the role of each will result in scripts that are targeted to the audience and the goal of
the video.
Recce
Preview and finalization of locations for shoot.
Shooting Schedule
A shooting schedule is a project plan of each day's shooting for a film production. It is
Normally created and managed by the assistant director, who reports to the
production manager managing the production schedule.
Start with an idea (concept)
It is unlikely that you will suddenly decide, out of the blue, to make a video program on a
specific subject.
Something has triggered the idea. Perhaps you heard of an interesting incident that gave
you the idea for a narrative. Maybe a local store asked you to
make a point-of-sales video to help the home handyman. Here is how to start with the
project:
You know the subject to be covered (in principle at least), what the program is to be used
for, and who the audience for the program will be.
The next question you should probably ask is, “How long should it be?” It is important to
know if the client wants a two-hour epic or a two-minute video loop.
Determine how the audience is going to relate to this program. If it is one of a
series, don’t go over the same material again unless it requires revision.
There is also the chance that the viewer may not see the other videos in the series.
 Goals and objectives
What do you really want your audience to know after they have viewed your
production? The answer to this question is essential because it guides the entire
production process. The goals and objectives will determine what is used as a
measuring stick throughout the production process.
Target audience
Whether your program is a video “family album” or a lecture on nuclear physics,
it is essential to determine whom the program is for and its chief purpose:
■ Who is the viewing audience?
■ Is it for the general public, for specialist groups, or for a local group?
■ At what level is it required: basic, intermediate, or advanced?
■ Is any specific , qualification, language, or group experience
necessary for the audience?
■ Are there specific production styles that this audience favors?
Research
For some programs, such as documentaries, news, or interviews, the production
team must conduct research in order to create the program’s content or
make sure the existing content is accurate. This research may be going to the
library, doing online research, or contacting recognized experts in the content
area.
It is important to remember that research is time consuming and may impact
the production budget. This is especially true if a content expert wants an
appearance fee or if flights and lodging are included for the crew or guest.
Production methods
Great ideas are not enough. Ideas have to be worked out in realistic, practical
terms. They have to be expressed as images and sounds. In the end, as the
director you have to decide what the camera is going to shoot and what your
audience is going to hear. Where do you start?
There are two quite different methods of approaching video production:
■ The empirical method is where instinct and opportunity are the guides.
■ The planned method, which organizes and builds a program in carefully
arranged steps.
The empirical approach
Directors following the empirical approach get an idea, then they look around
for subjects and situations that relate to it. After shooting possible material,
they later create a program from whatever they have found. Their inspiration
springs from the opportunities that have arisen.
After accumulating a collection of interesting sequences (atmospheric shots, natural
sound, interviews, etc.), the director reviews the content and puts it into a meaningful
order.
The planned approach
The planned method of production approaches the problem quite differently, although the
results on the screen may be similar. In this situation, the director works out, in advance, the
exact form he or she wants the program to take and then creates it accordingly.
Fundamentally, you can do either of the following:
■ Begin with the environment or setting, and decide how the cameras can be positioned
to get the most effective shots.
■ Envision certain shots or effects you want to see, and create a setting that will provide
those results
A lot will depend on whether you are
■ Interpreting an existing script (as in drama).
This will involve analyzing the script, examining the storyline and the main action in each
scene, and visualizing individual shots.
■ Building a treatment framework. This will involve considering how you are going
to present a specific program subject and working out the kinds of shots you want.
 Idea

Goals

Scheduling

Script/Production Plan
Select/ Obtain Locations Design/ Implement Graphic Plan
Select/Hire Crew Production Meetings Create/ Implement Audio Plan
Select/ Implement Equipment Select/Contract Talent
Rehearsal

Production

Post production

Project Complete
Single camera shooting
When shooting with a single camera, the director is usually in one of two
situations:
■ Planning in principle and shooting as opportunity allows. For example, the
director intends on taking shots of local wildlife; but what is actually shot
will depend on what the crew finds at the location.
■ Detailed analysis and shot planning. This approach is widely used in filmmaking.
Here the action in a scene is reviewed and then broken down into separate shots. Each shot
is rehearsed and recorded independently.
Where action is continuous throughout several shots, it is repeated for
each camera viewpoint.
■ Shot 1. Long shot: An actor walks away from camera toward a wall mirror.
■ Shot 2. Medium shot: The actor repeats the action, approaching the camera
located beside the mirror.
■ Shot 3. Close-up shot: The actor repeats the walk as the camera shoots
into the mirror, watching his expression as he approaches.
Multi camera shooting
When shooting with two or more cameras, a director tends to think in terms of
effective viewpoints rather than specific shots.
The results may be similar, but the
strategy is different; cameras need to be positioned to catch various aspects of
the continuous action.
Contracts
Whenever you hire talent (actors, talent, and musicians) or use services (such as
a scaffolding company), contractual agreements arise. Government agreements may
also be involved. So before you commit in any way, find out exactly what is entailed both
financially and legally.
Apart from general shots, whenever you want to shoot in the street, it is wise to let
the local police know in advance. Productions may cause an obstruction or break
local laws. If you are going to be shooting footage of people, you are required to
get their permission in writing (with their name and address) on a talent release
form (. While terminology varies, depending on the purpose of the
production and the nature of the actor’s contribution, the release form generally
authorizes the director to use the individual’s performance—free or for a fee.
Talent Name: ________________________________
Video Project Title: ____________________________
I hereby consent for value received and without further consideration or
compensation to the use (full or in part) of all video taken of me and/or
recordings made of my voice and/or written extraction, in whole or in part,
of such recordings or musical performance for the purposes of broadcast,
cybercast, or distribution in any manner by _______________ (production
company name).
Location: ____________________________ Date: ___________________
Talent’s or legal guardian’s signature: ____________________________
Address: __________________________ City: __________________
State: _______ PIN: _____________ Date: ___/___/___
A script, in its simplest terms, is your structural outline for the content that will be
spoken throughout your video. Prior to filming any video, you should have a script in
place or at least an outline of any spoken content. Feature filmed movies will
definitely have a well thought out and detailed script in place, but for the purposes
of creating a production for your video, a shorter one will do.

KEY ELEMENTS FOR A SCRIPT

Introduction – The start of your video is where you need to grab your audience’s
attention. If the content is not captivating, then your target audience is likely to get bored
and leave. The introduction is your opportunity to clarify the subject of the video
boosting your prospects.
Body – The body of the script should include details of the products or services that your
business is selling or the issues you may be trying to raise. The body of the script is your
opportunity to make a case for why your business is special. Keep your message to the
point
Conclusion – Your concluding statements need to convert your target audience into
believers. If you have retained them up to this stage of your video, then now is your
opportunity to convince them why your business is so special. This conversion process
requires a thorough understanding of your target audience and their desires.
 Scripts do the following:
■ Help the director to clarify ideas and to develop a project that works
■ Help to coordinate the production team
■ Help the director to assess the resources needed for the production

Basic script formats

There are many different script formats. However, basically, script layouts take
one of two forms:
■ A single-column format
■ A two-column format
SINGLE-COLUMN FORMAT
Although there are variations of the single-column format, all video and audio information is
usually contained in a single main column.
Before each scene, an explanatory introduction describes the location and the action.
Reminder notes can be made in a wide left-hand margin. They include transition symbols
(for example, X + Cut; FU= fade-up), indicate cues and camera instructions, and incorporate
thumbnail sketches of shots or action.
FADE IN:
1. EXT: FRONT OF FARMHOUSE—DAY
Front door opens. FARMER comes out, walks up to gate.
Looks left and right along road.
2. EXT: LONG SHOT OF ROAD OUTSIDE FARM (Looking east)—DAY
POV shot of FARMER looking along road, waiting for car.
3. EXT: FARM GATE—DAY
Medium shot of farmer leaning over gate, looking anxiously.
He turns to house, calling.
FARMER:
I can’t see him. If he doesn’t come soon, I’ll be late.
4. INT: FARMHOUSE KITCHEN—DAY
Wife is collecting breakfast things. Sound of radio
WIFE:
You’re too impatient. There’s plenty of time.
5. EXT: FARM GATE—DAY
Medium shot of FARMER, same position. He looks in other direction.
Sound of distant car approaching. Sudden bang, then silence.
TWO-COLUMN FORMAT
Like the one-column format, there are many variations of the two-column format
This traditional television format is extremely flexible and
informative.
It gives all members of the production crew shot-by-shot details of
what is going on. Crew members can also add their own specific information
(e.g., details of lighting changes) as needed.
SHOT CAM (Position) SCENE/ACTION/AUDIO
CAMS: 1B, 2D, 3A SOUND: BOOM POLE
Scene 4. INT. BARN—NIGHT

1 FI 2D (FARMER ENTERS- WIND

LS DOORWAY LAMP ON WALL - RAIN
Zoom in to MS BESIDE DOOR)
as farmer enters FARMER It’s getting late.
How is the poor beast doing?
2 1B O/S SHOT SON: I don’t think she’ll last the night.
SON’S POV She has a high fever./
3 3A LS FARMER (FARMER WALKS FORWARD TO THE STALL)
He comes in WS FARMER: I called Willie. He’s on his way.
(FARMER KNEELS BESIDE COW)/
4 2D CU SON SON: D’you think he’ll be able to get here?
5 1C CU FARMER FARMER: If the bridge holds. But the river is still rising.
Suggestions on scriptwriting

Be visual
Although audio and video images are both important in a production, viewers
perceive television as primarily a visual medium. Material should be presented
in visual terms as much as possible. If planned and shot well, the images
can powerfully move the audience, sometimes with very few words. At other
times, programs rely almost entirely on the audio, using the video images to
strengthen, support, and emphasize what the audience hears. Visual storytelling
is difficult but powerful when done well
Adaptation
Production scripts should be developed as a smooth-flowing sequence that
makes one point at a time. Avoid the tempting diversions that distract the
audience from the main theme. As much as possible, try not to move back and
forth between one subject and another. Directors need to avoid the three-ring
circus effect, which can occur when they are trying to cover several different
activities simultaneously. Ideally, one sequence should seem to lead naturally
on to the next.
Relative pace
As sequences are edited together, editors find that video images and the
soundtrack have their own natural pace.
That pace may be slow and leisurely, medium, fast, or brief. If editors are fortunate, the
pace of the picture and the sound will be roughly the same. However, there will be
occasions when editors find that they do not have enough images to fit the sound
sequence or do not have enough soundtrack to put behind the amount of action in the
picture.
Tips on developing the script
How scripts are developed varies with the type of program and the way individual
directors work. The techniques and processes of good script writing are a study in
themselves, but we can take a look at some of the guiding principles and typical points
that need to be considered.
The nature of the script
■ The script may form the basis of the entire production treatment.
Here the production is staged, performed, and shot as indicated in the script. As
far as possible, dialog and action follow the scripted version.
■ The scriptwriter may prepare a draft script (i.e., a suggested treatment).
The director studies and develops this draft to form a shooting script.
■ The script may be written after material has been shot.
Certain programs, such as documentaries, may be shot to a preconceived outline
plan, but the final material will largely depend on the opportunities of the moment.
The script is written to blend this material together in a coherent story line, adding
explanatory commentary/dialog. Subsequent editing and postproduction work is
based on this scripted version.
■ The script may be written after material has been edited.
Here the videotape editor assembles the shot material, creating continuity and a
basis for a story line. The script is then developed to suit the edited program.
Occasionally, a new script may replace the program’s original script with new or different
text. For example, when the original program was made in a language that differs from
that of the intended audience, it may be marketed as an M&E version, in which the
soundtrack includes only “music and effects.” All dialog or voiceover commentary is
added (dubbed in) later by the recipient in another language.
Scriptwriting basics
A successful script has to satisfy two important requirements:
■ It must fulfill the program’s main purpose. For example, it must be able to amuse,
inform, intrigue, or persuade (i.e., the artistic, aesthetic, dramatic element of the script).
■ It must be practical. The script must be a workable vehicle for the production crew.
Fundamentally, we need to ensure that the following occurs:
■ The script meets its deadline. When is the script required? Is it for a specifi c
occasion?
■ The treatment is feasible for the budget, facilities, and time available. An overambitious
script will necessarily have to be rearranged, edited, and scenes rewritten to
provide a workable basis for the production.
The treatment fits the anticipated program length. Otherwise it will become necessary
to cut sequences or pad the production with added scenes afterward to fi t the
show to the allotted time slot.
■ The style and the form of presentation are appropriate for the subject. An unsuitable
style, such as a lighthearted approach to a serious topic, may trivialize the subject.
■ The subject treatment is suitable for the intended audience. The style, complexity,
concentration of information, and so on must be relative to their probable interest
and attention span.
Who is the program for?
■ What is our target age group? (e.g., children, college classes, mature students)
■ Are the audience members specialists? (e.g., sales staff, teachers, hobbyists)
What is the purpose of this program?
■ Is it for entertainment, information, or instruction?
Is the program one of a series?
■ Does it relate to or follow other programs?
■ Do viewers need to be reminded of past information?
What does the audience already know?
■ Is the audience familiar with the subject?
■ Does the audience understand the terms used?
■ Is the information complicated?
■ Does previous information need to be recapped?
■ Would a brief outline or introduction help (or remind) the audience?
■ Is the audience likely to be prejudiced for or against the subject, or the product?
(e.g., necessitating diplomacy or careful unambiguous treatment)
What is the length of the program?
■ Is it brief? (having to make an immediate impact)
■ Is it long enough to develop arguments or explanations for a range of topics?
Camera script: Adds full details of the production treatment to the left side of the
“rehearsal script” and usually also includes the shot numbers, cameras used, positions
of camera, basic shot details, camera moves, and switcher instructions (if
used).
■ Cue card: The talent may read questions or specific points from a cue card that is
positioned near the camera. Generally it is held next to the camera lens.
■ Format (running order): The show format lists the items or program segments in a
show in the order they are to be shot. The format generally shows the duration of
each segment and possibly the camera assignments.
■ Full script: A fully scripted program includes detailed information on all aspects of
the production. This includes the precise words that the talent/actors are to use in
the production.
■ Outline script: Usually provides the prepared dialog for the opening and closing and
then lists the order of topics that should be covered. The talent will use the list as
they improvise throughout the production.
■ Rehearsal script: Usually includes the cast/character list, production team details,
rehearsal arrangements, and so forth. There is generally a synopsis of the plot or
storyline, location, time of day, stage/location instructions, action, dialog, effects
cues, and audio instructions.
■ Scene: Each scene covers a complete continuous action sequence.
PRODUCTION
Production refers to the tasks that are executed During the filming or shooting. This
includes tasks such as setting up scenes, the capture of raw footage, and usage of
set designs.
Shooting
Shooting are an essential aspect of a film where angles, transitions and cuts are
used to express ideas and movements.
POST – PRODUCTION
It is a term for all stages of production occurring after the actual end of shooting and/or
recording the completed work.
STAGES OF POST - PRODUCTION
Editing Is a process in which film is modified by adding (music, graphics, voice over etc).
First video cut
Is a rough preview of film before finalizing.
Final video
cut Is the process where editor works with the raw footage, selecting shots and combining
them into sequence to create a finished motion film.
Feedback An important part of the production process as it speaks about the quality of
work done.
Lighting – Natural & Artificial
Photography and film are mostly about capturing light.

Light is the one single element without which video /film wouldn’t even be
conceivable.
The entire history of film and photography revolves around developing cameras and
other equipment that can capture light accurately.
Natural light is produced by the sun, artificial light sources can include glowing bulbs,
fluorescent tubes and light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
Sunlight contains all the colors of the spectrum, which is necessary for photosynthesis in
plants. Although many artificial lights do not radiate a full spectrum of colors, which could
inhibit plant growth, full-spectrum bulbs that mimic natural sunlight are available.
 SUN-Natural Light source

Artificial Light source

 Types of video /film lights

Know artificial light sources

1)Tungsten (Quartz Halogen/Tungsten Halogen)

Tungsten light sources are basically related to the same type of incandescent filament bulbs
which we were used at home and Offices.
but it has pressurized halogen gas inside which helps to redeposit evaporated tungsten
metal back onto the filament. The glass bulb is made from a much stronger quartz or
aluminosilicate glass.
The lamps operate at a higher temperature than normal incandescent tungsten bulbs, and
so they can achieve a higher color temperature, and higher luminous efficiency. They
naturally produce a warm light, but blue color correction gels can be used to simulate
daylight.
 2)HMI
HMI stands for Hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide and is a metal-halide gas discharge
medium arc-length lamp.
A HMI bulb contains mercury vapor mixed with metal halides.
An electrical arc between two electrodes excites the mercury vapor and metal halides
resulting in a very high light output and luminous efficiency. HMI lamps are capable of
between 85 and 108 lumens per watt, up to four times that of conventional incandescent
lamps.
The specific mix of gases in a HMI bulb is designed to emit a 6000K color temperature
light, closely matching natural sunlight. Electronic ballasts produce a flicker free light due
to their very high frequency operation. Pulse width modulation can be used to dim HMI
lights.
Uses
HMI’s are often used when high output is required and when recreating or augmenting
sunlight shining into interiors, or for exterior lighting. Powerful HMI’s can be used to light
large areas.
 3)Fluorescent
A fluorescent lamp uses the excitement of low pressure mercury vapor to produce
ultra-violet light, in turn causing a phosphor coating on the inside of the glass tube to
glow giving off light in the visible spectrum.
A fluorescent light is much more efficient than an incandescent light.
The spectrum of light emitted is different to an incandescent source and depends on
the mix of phosphors used. The color temperature of a fluorescent can vary also from
2700K to 6500K depending on the phosphor mix.
Uses
They produce a soft and even light and can be used in relative close proximity to the
subject. Fluorescent lighting is often used to light interiors and has the advantage of
being more compact and cooler in operation than tungsten or HMI lighting.
4)LED
LED stands for light emitting diode and is a solid-state semiconductor device. Only
recently, LED’s of sufficient power have become available to make practical LED film
lighting possible. LED’s are extremely efficient but are still limited in overall light
output when compared to any of the other light sources.
LED lights can be daylight or tungsten balanced, sometimes switchable or having
variable color temperature. Some have variable color through the entire RGB
spectrum, which is something not possible with any other lighting technology.
Uses
LED’s are becoming more and more common on film sets. They can easily be battery
powered making them very portable and requiring no separate ballasts or heavy
cabling. Panels made from LED lights can be small and compact, or large for a variety of
situations.
 Light Quality
The quality of light-whether it is hard or soft-is important in lighting, contributing to the
mood of a scene.
Hard Light
The sun is obviously our largest light source, but because of its great distance away, by the
time the light rays reach us on a clear, unclouded day, they are virtually parallel, making it
a hard light source. Parallel rays (or close to parallel rays) are a characteristic of hard
lighting.
Hard light quality
Hard light creates crisp, dark, and harsh-edged shadows, emphasizing angles and edges.
Hard light is good for showing contrast and giving dimension to a subject, a landscape, or
an object. It's also good for showing form and volume. Hard lighting can show texture
very well, as in leather or an engraving, and it's good for lighting night scenes, where you
want dark, hard-edged shadows. On set, hard light can come from a point source, such as
a naked light bulb or a focused spotlight or a small, focused source such as a Fresnel lens.
Soft Light
The term soft light refers to a light that wraps around objects and creates shadows with
soft edges or (ideally) no shadows. The rays of a soft light are less parallel to the
illuminated object than the rays of a hard light, illuminating an object from multiple
directions, so a soft shadow or no shadow at all results. A soft light is a flattering light for a
portrait, lessening the contrast of wrinkles on a face. It reduces texture and smoothes an
object's surface. The danger of soft lighting is that it can leave the subject a bit
dimensionless .

Soft light quality

Soft light or diffused light, usually known as a floodlight, scatters in all directions
It occurs naturally, when the sun is obscured by clouds and whenever sunlight is reflected
from rough light toned surfaces.
When subjects are illuminated by this soft light, there are no distinct shadows, only
slight variations in surface brightness. So texture and surface contours are not
pronounced in the picture. In fact, they may not be visible at all.
Several techniques can be used to provide soft light. Some rely on diffusion
material such as a spun-glass sheet, frosted plastic, or wire mesh to scatter the
light. (A diffuser can be placed over a hard light source to reduce its intensity
and soften its quality to some extent.) In others, the light from a hidden lamp
hits a reflector and then scatters.
 Fluorescent tube soft lights are often used as a soft-light source.

Open face adjustable light unit can be used as a spot or floodlight

 Camera light

LED 6000K energy-efficient on-camera ring light is designed to

provide an overall shadowless shot, or it can utilize individual
sections of the ring.
 3 Point lighting

Three-point lighting
For most situations, the best lighting results come from using variation
of the three basic light directions.

Three-point lighting is also known as “triangle lighting”.

Three lights are used to create the lighting treatment:
the key, fill, and back lights.
The key,
The main light, or key light, is positioned slightly above and to one side of the
camera. This is normally a spotlight, and it reveals the shape and surface features
of the subject. The key light produces district, harsh shadows.
The fill light is a floodlight that is placed on the opposite side of the camera
from the key light. It reduces the shadows (made by the key light) but should
not eliminate the shadows. The fi ll light also reduces the lighting contrast. The
more the key light is offset, the more important this soft fi ll light (fi ller or fi llin)
becomes. If the key is nearly frontal, you may not need fi ll light at all. Note
that in the subject’s image in Figure 11.8, the shadows on her face have not
been eliminated. This helps give the face texture and shape.
3 POINT LIGHTING -set up

Key Light
Outdoors, the main source of light is the sun. Its rays come down to earth from one
direction. You can think of the sun as the key light, because it is the dominant light
outdoors. You can think of any light that is the dominant light in a scene as a key
light, although a key light is generally used to highlight and add dimension to the
main subject in a scene. The key light is generally the first light you set up, and it is
part of the commonly used three-point lighting set up. It is the light that really sets
the mood of a scene.

The key light in a scene can be animated, or it can constantly change as your
character moves. Sometimes, you might want your character to be moving in and
out of the light to add a sense of distance and depth or drama to your scene. Other
times, you may want your character to be in the light at all times, so that nothing he
or she is doing is lost. In a scene, the key light can be constantly changing, as for
example when your character moves from under one street lamp to under another.
Fill Light
You've set up your key light, but now you decide that you want to add more light to
the scene. The first light typically added is called the fill light. Fill light is generally a
soft light that doesn't cast shadows.
The fill light adds light to the scene, softening the light from the key light by lowering
the contrast of the dark to light areas. Often, a fill light is set up lower than and
opposite to the key light, on the other side of the camera axis, pointing toward the
object to be illuminated.
Fill lights are usually low, as they are often emulating the reflected light that would
be coming off the floor. You can use bounce light to add to the fill light.

Key to Fill
A key-to-fill ratio is just a measure of the brightness of key light to that fill light.
If key light is 3 times as bright as fill light, that's a 3:1 ratio.
The expression high key lighting or low key lighting refers to the amount of fill light in
your scene
Back Light
A third type of light commonly used in a three-point lighting setup is the back light,
sometimes referred to as a rim light
When the sun is lower in the sky, its rays can put rim lighting around people and
objects out in the landscape, separating them from the background.
Back lighting is a device to help emphasize a figure or object. Often, set up a back light
to illuminate a subject this way.
If there is already enough contrast between your character and the background, you
might not want to use a backlight to rim and define your subject.
There are valid applications for both hard and soft light:
• Soft light is flattering to most faces because it creates few shadows and tends to wrap
around objects.
That same quality makes it less useful for creating modeling and depth definition.
• Hard light creates deep, intense shadows and it is easier to control. The trick is using it
appropriately, because it can tend to look fake or “sourcey.”
Reflecting Light
One of light’s most useful characteristics is that it moves in a straight line. When you hold up
a lighting instrument, the light shines where you point it. If you place a smooth reflective
surface in the beam, the light will bounce off the reflector at the same angle that you have
positioned the reflector.
If the reflector is set at a 45-degree angle in front of the light, the light will hit the reflector
and bounce off at a 45-degree angle from the reflector or 90 degrees from the light. It’s
much like shooting pool.
You look at the reflector as if it is the side of the table and angle your shot so that the light
goes towards your intended target.
You can also use multiple smooth-surface reflectors in much the same way you would use a
double bank-shot to get your light into hard to reach places
Another handy characteristic of light is that it will reflect color off a surface. Reflect the light
off a green wall and it will be green. Shine the light on a blue surface and it will reflect blue.
To warm up a scene, you could reflect the light off a gold surface to light your subject in a
golden glow.
Manufacturers of reflective material take advantage of the characteristics of light and
provide a variety of options for the videographer.
Primarily, reflectors come in three varieties: smooth surface, pebbly or dimpled surface
and reflective scrims.
Smooth-surface reflectors reflect the light towards your subject at the same intensity as the
source. You can also use these reflectors to get light into hard-to-reach areas or to provide a
harsh, hard light to dramatize the shot. These reflectors are usually stiff and can range in size
from small hand-held reflectors to huge, six-foot-by-nine-foot stand-mounted reflectors.
You can buy these in silver or gold. A crafty videographer will set up a bank of gold-colored
reflectors to reflect the noon sun at an angle that imitates the golden evening glow of the
setting sun. You can use large silver reflectors to change the angle of the sun or reflect it into
places that don’t normally see the light of day. This can be quite handy if you are attempting
to shoot a scene that needs a lot of "natural" light
Pebbled surface or pitted surface reflectors diffuse the reflected light so that it isn’t so
harsh. These reflectors come in a variety of shapes and sizes and are the most flexible of the
reflectors.
A popular type of diffusion reflector has a soft gold surface on one side and silver on the
other, stretched over a flexible frame that you can twist into a small 12-inch circle. Crew
members can hold these reflectors to reflect the light exactly where it’s wanted at all times.
A very useful, third type of reflector is the reflective scrim.
A scrim is a piece of material that looks like a thick piece of screening. Light will shine
through it, but it has enough surface area that it can also reflect light. You can stretch most
scrim material onto flexible frames to make better use of its non-reflective black side and
its reflective silver or gold side. The black side acts as a scrim to reduce the intensity of light
shining through it. This is useful if you are shooting a scene and the sun or other light
source is too intense. While you can move a light, the sun is a little harder to move; a scrim
can reduce its intensity. The reflective side provides a soft diffused glow, used to
supplement your lighting setup.
USE REFLECTORS TO COMPLEMENT FILM LIGHTING
Sometimes the light on the scene needs some assistance filling in the nooks and
crannies. That’s where a reflector comes in handy. By reflecting light off its surface, the
reflector fills in shadowy areas while controlling highlights.

This shiny or white flat accessory comes in various shapes and materials, but they all do
the same thing when you hold them opposite the light source: redirect light to open up
shadow areas in the scene. You can mount the reflector to a stand, clip it to whatever a
clip fits around, or have an assistant strategically hold it.
Basically, it takes on the function of a fill light without you needing to power it up.
Reflectors come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and reflective surfaces:

White: Provides a clean bounce to balance highlight areas and add exposure to the
shadow without affecting color balance.

Silver: Its reflective surface produces an increased reflection value.

Gold: Produces a warmer reflection. Excellent for capturing people, this provides a little
boost when ambient light is on the cool side of the color spectrum.
There are many uses for a reflector.
Use it just below the subject’s face.
This opens up the shadows and can provide more depth to facial area.

Move it evenly with the subject.

For those situations where the subject is moving through the scene, be sure the
assistant holding the reflector mirrors the subject’s movement.
There are two basic styles of lighting:
• High-key lighting is predominantly bright and allows few dark areas or shadows
within the scene.
This kind of lighting features strong illumination on the subject and often an equally
exposed
background.
• Low-key lighting enhances depth by using contrasting tones of highlights and
shadow. Only a few areas are lit at or above key, resulting in more shadow areas. This
ratio creates the low-key effect.
THE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
Any source of light can be described in terms of four unique and independently
respective properties:
• Intensity—Light can range from intense (sunlight) to subdued (match light). We
measure intensity in units called foot-candles, which define the amount of light
generated by a candle flame at a distance of one foot.
• Color—Light has a color balance which is dependent on the source (daylight,
tungsten, etc.).
• Quality—Hardness (directness) or softness (diffuseness) of the light is referred to as
quality.
• Angle—the angle of the source, relative to the reflective object or subject, affects
intensity and quality.
ADDITIVE AND SUBTRACTIVE LIGHT
In exterior daylight settings, we may have too much light filling our subject.
To compensate, we often use a technique called subtractive lighting.
We use negative fill, which is the removal of some of the quantity of light to control
shadows of varying densities.
Additive lighting is probably more familiar. When we add light, we often use electric lamps.
But we can also use reflectors, bounce boards, and other tools to redirect light so that it
falls on the subject. In so doing, we add light.
Cinematographers typically combine the techniques of additive and subtractive lighting in
order to control and manipulate a scene’s contrast.
CONTRAST AND LIGHTING RATIOS
Cinema is a two-dimensional representation of three-dimensional subjects.
In order to define space and suggest shape, we create different levels of contrast on each
subject.
When we introduce a level of contrast, we create the illusion of the third-dimension.
That illusion is called modeling.
The degree to which we execute that modeling is called the contrast ratio. We express that
ratio in terms of stops.
Lighting is personal.
Individuals are at their best when they can control the quality, color and quantity of
light to suit the types of activities they’re performing.
Lighting that changes as you do. As you work, as you play, as you create, as you live.
There are two basic lighting philosophies:

• Naturalism follows the logical positioning of light sources in a scene and is often
referred to as motivated lighting. For example, when two people are photographed
facing each other in an exterior daylight scene, and one person is backlit, the other
person should be in full sunlight.
• Pictorialism- allows the use of light angles that violate Naturalism’s logic for artistic
effect.
Though not realistic, both people might be backlit simply because it looks better.
Using colored light
Because video is usually in color, it seems reasonable to assume that a lot of
colored light is used.
However, colored lighting is really only needed when creating decorative effects such as
for a display, a dance or musical routine, firelight or moonlight, or to change the
appearance of backgrounds (such as to introduce some color on a plain neutral wall).
When colored lighting is needed, a sheet of colored plastic, called gelatin or a “gel,” is
clipped onto the front of a lighting instrument, making sure that the gel does not to.

Special plastic sheeting (of acetate, polyester, Mylar, or acrylic) is more expensive but will
last and can be reused.
If you are shooting under tungsten lighting and want to create an overall warmer look to
the image, use the “daylight” built-in color correction filter.
Conversely, a “tungsten” correction filter can be used when shooting in daylight to give
pictures a cold, blue, wintry appearance.
To obtain these color changes, the camera operator needs to white-balance under the
normal lighting conditions and then add the built-in color correction filter.
changing the color of light from one temperature to another, fixing light sources that
have too much green or too much magenta, and adding color to lights.
In nearly all cases, use gels to effect these changes.

Gels are sheets of polyester that have been dyed specific colors. They're called gels
from the early days of theater lighting, when they were made with colored gelatin
dried into thin sheets. The cheapest form of theatrical gels aren't appropriate for a
video or film shoot because the gels are usually mounted close to the light (and heat)
source, and inexpensive gels will fry pretty fast. For that reason, the type of gels used
in video and film are known as "tough" gels.
The three types of gels
Three basic categories of gels are used in video and film work: color-conversion gels,
color-correction gels, and color-effect gel
Three basic categories of gels are used in video and film work: color-conversion gels,
color-correction gels, and color-effect gels.
Color-conversion gels are carefully designed to convert one specific color temperature
of light into another temperature. Because the two basic designations for color
temperature in video and film are 3,200 K (incandescent, indoor) and 5,600 K (sunlight,
exterior), conversion gels are designed around those two temperatures. A gel that will
change a quartz incandescent instrument from yellowish-orange 3,200 K to bluish 5,600
K is known as a "Color Temperature Blue" gel, or CTB gel. Conversely, a gel that is meant
to convert sunlight to match a quartz light is known as a "Color Temperature Orange"
gel, or CTO gel. We live in a less-than-perfect world where actual color temperatures
vary a lot, so these gels are available in several densities or strengths, usually 1/4, 1/2,
and full.
It's important at this point to understand how gels work. Gels are optical filters that act
by absorbing certain wavelengths (colors) and transmitting others freely. A CTB gel
transmits blue frequencies but absorbs red, orange, and yellow frequencies. A gel works
by removing certain colors. It's a common misconception that gels add color to the
light. Gels can't add color. If the desired frequency isn't present in the light in the first
place, or is present in low amplitude, a gel won't add more of the color. The sodium
vapor lights used in parking lots, for example, emit only a narrow frequency of orangish
light. Placing a CTB gel over one of these will not produce blue light; it will absorb the
orange and pass almost no light.
Color conversion
A classic situation in which you would use color-conversion gels is when you're
interviewing a subject indoors in front of a large window. The blue sunlight streaming in
the window is pretty much a given, so you use a full CTB gel on your incandescent
instruments to make them match the color of the sunlight. The only problem with this
approach, of course, is that a full CTB gel eats up a lot of light--nearly two-thirds of the
light output! So an alternate solution would be to use a large sheet of CTO gel on the
window itself to convert the very bright sunlight to orange to match your incandescent
instruments. Rosco and others make large sheets for this purpose, known as window gels
Color-correction
Color-correction gels are designed to fix lights that have too much green, usually
fluorescent lights. Cheap fluorescent tubes, especially older ones, make people look very
sick on video because they have very little red and a huge spike of green on the color
spectrum. To fix this, you can put a minus-green (magenta) gel over the light to absorb the
excess green wavelengths. The gel, though it looks magenta, doesn't add magenta to the
light--it just removes green. The resulting light will still be a bit deficient in magenta tones,
so you'll need to boost the magenta either in the camera or in post. If you are using
incandescent instruments with the corrected "cool white" tubes in an office, however, this
may make the added incandescent lights look too magenta. Hence, the opposite number,
a plus-green gel, is used over the incandescent to suck some of the magenta out of its
light output. These gels are used less frequently now that many fluorescents have
improved color rendering characteristics.
With both color-conversion and color-correction gels, the ultimate goal is to create light
that the camera will see as white. Both types of gels are applied to the lights before the
manual white balance is set on the camera. If properly balanced, the on-camera image
won't look magenta, blue, orange, or green--the light will look uniformly white.
Color effects
What if you want to put some color in your pictures? That's where color-effect gels
come in. These are gels that are used to color the light intentionally, either subtly (a
touch of warm amber) or dramatically (strong primary red or blue). It's important to
apply these gels to the light after the white balance is set on the camera, otherwise the
camera will be struggling to make your color effect look white, too--which will just
botch up the lights that should look white.

Typical uses for color-effect gels would be setting mood, a la the original Star Trek
series, or for special effects, such as simulating fire or the green glow of a radar screen.
Strong primary and secondary colors are often referred to as "party color" gels by
gaffers.
It's common to use color-conversion gels for color effects--all you do is apply them after
the white balance is set. For example, it's common to use a 1/2 CTO gel to suggest
warm interior light, or to use 1/2 CTB to suggest light coming from a window. Often
lighting designers will use 1/4 CTO gels on lights just to give a bit of added warmth to
the lighting. Blue tints are used to suggest moonlight for night scenes.
Cinematic theory suggests that audience members experiencing a film lit in the
noir style will interpret the highly shadowed, dark, and contrasting images with feelings
of danger, suspense, depression, mystery, and evil.
Characters in this mode should be interpreted as having evil intentions, being manipulative
and untrustworthy.

Cinematographers lighting a comedy use bright lighting set ups, less contrast, and a slick,
shiny look to trigger emotional responses of joy, enlightenment, honesty, and happiness.
In this lighting style, characters are interpreted as good hearted, funny, lovable, and
heroic.
The raw realistic lighting is intended to give the audience the feeling of reality and truth.

Cinematographers use these lighting approaches to enhance a movie’s plot, characters,

theme, style, and overall mood.
“Lighting creates the environment for storytelling.
Audio Control & Recording.

The importance of sound in video production is, well, pretty important.

When put to good use, language, sound effects, music, and even silence, can elevate
video dramatically.
Bad sound can ruin video.
And yet, audio is often left as an after-thought for post-production, which is crazy
because no amount of editing magic can fix bad sound.

Sound adds emotion and connects people to what they’re seeing. It supports each
visual and every cut, and defines the overall mood and tone of narrative.

IN REAL LIFE IMAGE AND SOUND ARE PERCEIVED AS "ONE"

IN MEDIA PRODUCTION IMAGE AND SOUND ARE SEPARATED

It is possible to re-associate image with modified or new sounds:

Sound waves
Sound starts with vibrations in the air, like those produced by guitar strings, vocal cords,
or speaker cones.
These vibrations push nearby air molecules together, raising the air pressure slightly.
The air molecules under pressure then push on the air molecules surrounding them,
which push on the next set of molecules, and so on. As high-pressure areas move
through the air, they leave low-pressure areas behind them.

When these waves of pressure changes reach us, they vibrate the receptors in our ears,
and we hear the vibrations as sound.

A visual waveform that represents audio, it reflects these waves of air pressure.
The zero line in the waveform is the pressure of air at rest.
When the line swings up to a peak, it represents higher pressure; when the line swings
down to a trough, it represents lower pressure
A sound wave represented as a visual waveform
A. Zero line
B. Low-pressure area
C. High-pressure area

Waveform measurements

Several measurements describe waveforms:

Amplitude
Reflects the change in pressure from the peak of the waveform to the trough.
High-amplitude waveforms are loud; low-amplitude waveforms are quiet.
Cycle
Describes a single, repeated sequence of pressure changes, from zero pressure, to high
pressure, to low pressure, and back to zero.
Frequency
Measured in hertz (Hz), describes the number of cycles per second.
(For example, a 1000-Hz waveform has 1000 cycles per second.) The higher the frequency,
the higher the musical pitch.
Phase
Measured in 360 degrees, indicates the position of a waveform in a cycle.
Zero degrees is the start point, followed by 90º at high pressure, 180º at the halfway point,
270º at low pressure, and 360º at the end point.
Wavelength
The speed of a sound pressure wave in air is 331.5+0.6Tc m/s , Tc temperature in Celsius
 a single cycle a complete, 20-Hz waveform

A. Wavelength
B. Degree of phase
C. Amplitude
D. One second
In human physiology and psychology, sound is the reception of waves and their
perception by the brain.
Humans can only hear sound waves as distinct pitches when the frequency lies between
about 20 Hz and 20 kHz.

Sound above 20 kHz is ultrasound and is not perceptible by humans.

Sound waves below 20 Hz are known as infrasound.

In physics, sound is a form of energy known as acoustical energy.

What is "Audio"?

Audio means "of sound" or "of the reproduction of sound".

it refers to the range of frequencies detectable by the human ear — approximately 20Hz
to 20kHz.
20Hz is the lowest-pitched sound we can hear, 20kHz is the highest pitch we can hear.
Characteristics of Sound-

a) Pitch-The position of a note on the musical scale

b) Loudness refers to the intensity of sound or the volume

c) Quality - Pitch and loudness define quality or timbre or tonal quality.

The note C played on an harmonium and a violin can be distinguished although they are of
the same pitch.

The human ear. Threshold of hearing lower limit 0 db.

There is no natural zero.
Absolute silence will be minus infinity decibels.
Threshold of pain -100 – 120 db.
Measuring the Intensity of Sound

The softest audible sound modulates the air pressure by around 10-6
Pascal (Pa).
The loudest (pain inflicting) audible sound does it
by 102 Pa.
Because of this wide range it is convenient to measure sound amplitude on a logarithmic
scale in Decibel [dB].
• Decibel is not a physical unit - it expresses only a ratio for intensity of two sounds
One can say e.g. a channel is amplifying the sound by 3 dB, meaning the output is 3 dB
louder than the input
 Examples for Sound Levels in Decibel

Threshold of hearing 0 dB
softest audible 1000 Hz sound 6 dB
quiet living room 20 dB
soft whispering 25 dB
refrigerator 40 dB
soft talking 50 dB
normal conversation 60 dB
busy city street noise 70 dB
passing motorcycle 90 dB
somebody shouting 100 dB
pneumatic drill 100 dB
helicopter 110 dB
loud rock concert 110 dB
air raid siren 130 dB
pain threshold 120 dB
gunshot 140 dB
rocket launch 180 dB
 Sound Waves Interact with Each Other
When different waves collide (sound from different sources) they interfere with each
other.
This is called, wave interference.

Phasing

• Sound waves which are exactly in phase add together to produce a stronger wave.
• Sound waves which are exactly inverted, or 180 degrees out of phase, cancel each
other out and produce silence. This is how many noise-cancellation devices work.
• Sound waves which have varying phase relationships produce differing sound effects.
In the world of professional audio-for-video and audio-for-film, the capture, recording,
and playback processes are usually handled by different pieces of equipment.
Second, there is an additional intermediate stage in which the audio is edited to
eliminate mistakes or fit a particular time constraint, processed to enhance sound quality,
and formatted to suit a particular distribution medium such as online video or hard drive.
Just make silence with audio recording history

Magnetic tape was invented for recording sound in 1928 in Germany, based on the
invention of magnetic wire recording by Valdemar Poulsen in 1898

In 1933, Eduard Schuller developed the ring shaped tape head. Previous head designs
were needle shaped and tended to shred the tape.

An important discovery made in this period was the technique of AC biasing which
improved the fidelity of the recorded audio signal by increasing the effective linearity of
the recording medium.

A wide variety of magnetic tape sound recording equipment and formats have developed
since, most significantly reel-to-reel audio tape recording and Compact Cassette.
Digital revolution
The most recent and revolutionary developments have been in digital recording, with the
development of various uncompressed and compressed digital audio file formats,
processors capable and fast enough to convert the digital data to sound in real time, and
inexpensive mass storage .
This generated new types of portable digital audio players.

Technological developments in recording, editing, and consuming have transformed the

video production.
Audio editing became practicable with the invention of magnetic tape recording, but
digital audio and cheap mass storage allows computers to edit audio files quickly, easily,
and cheaply.
The process of making a recording is separated into tracking, mixing and mastering.
Multitrack recording makes it possible to capture signals from several microphones, or
from different takes to tape, disc or mass storage, with maximized headroom and quality,
allowing previously unavailable flexibility in the mixing and mastering stages.
Sound recording and reproduction
Sound recording and reproduction is an electrical or mechanical inscription and re-
creation of sound waves, such as spoken voice, singing, instrumental music,
surrounding nature or sound effects.

Recording technology are analog recording and digital recording.

Acoustic analog recording is achieved by a small microphone diaphragm that can
detect changes in atmospheric pressure (acoustic sound waves) and record them as a
graphic representation of the sound waves on a medium such as a phonograph (in
which a stylus senses grooves on a record).

In magnetic tape recording, the sound waves vibrate the microphone diaphragm and
are converted into a varying electric current, which is then converted to a varying
magnetic field by an electromagnet, which makes a representation of the sound as
magnetized areas on a plastic tape with a magnetic coating on it.

Electronically generated sound waves may also be recorded directly from devices
such as an electric guitar pickup or a synthesizer.
Digital recording and reproduction converts the analog sound signal picked up by the
microphone to a digital form by a process of digitization, allowing it to be stored and
transmitted by a wider variety of media.
Digital recording stores audio as a series of binary numbers representing samples of
the amplitude of the audio signal at equal time intervals, at a sample rate high enough
to convey all sounds capable of being heard.
A digital audio signal must be reconverted to analog form during playback before it is
applied to a loudspeaker or earphones
 Audio file format

An audio format is a medium for digital sound recording and reproduction.

The term is applied to both the physical recording media and the recording formats of
the audio content—in computer science it is often limited to the audio file format, but
its wider use usually refers to the physical method used to store the data.

An audio file format is a file format for storing digital audio data on a computer system.

The bit layout of the audio data is called the audio coding format and can be
uncompressed, or compressed to reduce the file size, often using lossy compression.

The data can be a raw bit stream in an audio coding format, but it is usually embedded
in a container format or an audio data format with defined storage layer.
Groups of audio file formats:

Uncompressed audio formats, such as WAV, AIFF, PCM

WAV and AIFF are designed to store a wide variety of audio formats, lossless and lossy;
they just add a small, metadata-containing header before the audio data to declare the
format of the audio data, such as PCM with a particular sample rate, bit depth and
number of channels.
Since WAV and AIFF are widely supported, they are suitable file formats for storing and
archiving an original recording.

Advanced Lossless -MPEG-4

A lossless compressed format stores data in less space without losing any information.
The original, uncompressed data can be recreated from the compressed version

Formats with lossy compression,, MP3, AAC, and Windows Media Audio Lossy

Lossy compression enables even greater reductions in file size by removing some of the
audio information and simplifying the data.
The popular MP3 format is probably the best-known example.
AUDIO RECORDING SYSTEMS

Single-system: This is when the audio-recording device is plugged directly into camera.
The audio is automatically synced to the video.

Double-system: audio device( digital audio recorder) is plugged directly into a digital
audio recorder and/or sound mixer, circumventing the camera. This audio has to be
synced to the video in post-production

Field mixer: A field mixer takes all sound sources and mixes them through a pre-amp to
give high-quality audio with lots of control. It’s necessary if need more inputs than
camera allows, like if shooting a panel discussion, for instance.

Many field mixers plug in directly to the camera, but they also add weight.
Microphones

In the simplest terms, the job of a microphone is to convert sound energy into electric
energy, and to do so without changing the sound information in any important way.

There are three ways to define it.

1.From normal sound levels it must produce an electrical signal that is well above its
own electrical noise level.
Sensitivity

2.From normal sound levels the signal it produces must be substantially undistorted.
Dynamic Range

3.Together with its associated equipment, it should, for a particular sound source,
respond almost equally to all significant audio frequencies present.
Frequency Response
Microphone polar pattern
Every microphone has a certain polar pattern, a range where the microphone is more
sensitive to any signal. There are microphones with a fixed pattern and there are also
microphones with multiple patterns.

Cardioid Pattern
Cardioid microphones are sensitive on the front of the microphone. It's the best solution for
bad sounding rooms, since it suppresses diffuse sound on the back side of the microphone
this can find on almost every condenser microphones with one and fixed pattern
Omni-directional Pattern
On this pattern the sound is recorded equally from all sides, therefore the membrane is
sensitive on both the front and the back. With a specific circuit even laterally entering
sound is recorded, which makes the capsule sensitive all around. This pattern is widely
used for background vocal recordings or choirs by positioning all vocalists around the
microphone.
Figure-Eight
With this pattern the microphone is sensitive on the back and the front, whereby the
proximity effect (the nearer the source the louder the low-frequencies) is very strong. Low
frequencies spread out spherically wherefore they reach both sides of the membrane and
add up.
This effect is welcome if (for example) vocals do sound thin or your source needs more
fundament.
The figure-eight pattern is also often used for stereo-recordings (Mid-Side technique)
The Omni-directional gives full sound that includes all the background, unless it a
miniature, whose respective radius is approximately 5 ft. This limited range provides a
quite more intimate sound.

The uni-directional degree of isolation differs from microphone to microphone.

The ratio of background to wanted signal is also determined by use on or off axis to the
primary sound source. The aural image, therefore, maybe tailored to suit needs by
carefully listening to the effect of re positioning the directional microphone.

Bi-directional systems tend to perform well in a small space, giving adequate separation
of background to foreground, but they must be placed centrally to avoid complete
isolation of certain areas of the shot.
Microphone construction adds coloration to a given sound.
These characteristics are generally perceived as imparting a certain mood or tone to a
given sound in a given space.

Dynamic Microphones.
Also called as the moving coil microphone, for that’s how it works. When sound waves hit
the diaphragm, it in turn moves a coil within a magnet housing, producing corresponding
electric signals.

These mics have their own advantages

1.They do not need any polarizing voltage as in condenser mics.
2.Being of low sensitvity, (in other words requires high sound pressure levels to operate)
are most suitable for noisy surrounding.,this is because the mic functions best when close
to the source of sound. Extensively used by musicians and for stand up pieces to camera.
Condenser Microphones.
Here on end of the diaphragm forms the plate of a polarized capacitor, called the
condenser.
When sound waves strike the diaphragm it in turn varies capacitance within the
condenser thus producing a signal.
These mics are often used as built in mics in audio recorders etc.
They are extremely sensitive therefore pick a lot of noise.

The high end condenser mics work on a polarising voltage of approximately 48 volts. The
highly sensitive and have a very good frequency response.
These mics are used more in studio applications and for specific applications.

1.These mics are expensive of a very good frequency response.

2.Their pick up characteristics are switchable, meaning that one mic can work as an uni,
bi, or omni directional mic depending on how you switch it.
3.Owing to their nature they can come in small sizes, which are ideal for television, when
it comes to concealing microphones.
4.The main disadvantage is that these mics require a polrising voltage unlike the dynamic
mics.
Phantom Power
Condenser microphones require electrical power to operate (usually between 11
and 48 volts DC).
Phantom powering is a method of supplying that power through
the microphone cable from a remote supply.
This supply can be a stand-alone unit
or may be incorporated in the audio recorder, mixer, audio interface, or, in some
cases, the camera itself. It is called "phantom" power because it comes from
somewhere outside the microphone and is not supplied by a battery.
Both Condenser and Dynamic mics are available for various uses.
There are Lip mics used by commentators.
Lapel mics used widely in the television industry.
Hand held mics used by interviewers and musicians.
Gun mics used by the television and film industry.

Handheld – The most common kind of microphone for general use is the handheld type.
While it can be held by the user, mounted on a floor or desk stand, or attached to a flexible
“gooseneck” on a lectern, these options result in the mic being very visible, which is not
practical in all video productions. A good quality handheld mic should have an internal
shock-mount which will minimize handling noise (thumping sounds transmitted through
the handle and picked up by the microphone cartridge).
Distance Tip when Using a Handheld Mic:
Whether held in the hand or mounted on a stand, the microphone should be
positioned about 6”-12” from the talker’s mouth, pointing up at about a 45-
degree angle. With unidirectional microphones, holding the microphone very
close (3”-6”) will cause additional emphasis of the lower frequencies, resulting
in a “warmer”, bass-heavy sound
Lavalier – If you have only one microphone in your audio kit, it should be a lavalier
type, which attaches to the user’s clothing but can also be laid on a podium or clipped
to a mic stand in a pinch.
Lavalier microphones leave the talker’s hands free to gesture or demonstrate a
product, and because they are very small they tend to disappear on camera.
Also, using a lavalier will keep the distance from the microphone to the talker’s mouth
fairly constant, reducing the need for frequent adjustment once the levels have been
set.In situations where the microphone cannot be visible, it’s usually possible to
conceal a lavalier mic under a shirt collar or even underneath a thin layer of clothing.

Tips on Using Lavalier Mics: For best results, lavalier mics should be placed on the
outside of clothing, about six to eight inches below the chin.
They are generally clipped to a pocket, lapel, or necktie. If none of these options are
available, the mic can also be clipped to the collar of a shirt or blouse.
Headworn – In cases where freeing up the subject’s hands is more important than
low (or no) microphone visibility, consider using a headworn microphone.
Headworn microphones can be positioned closer to the talker’s mouth and maintain a
consistentdistance and sound quality when the talker moves his or her head.

Surface Mount – These microphones are designed to work on a flat or fixed surface.
Surface mount mics are usually physically contoured to look less intrusive on
a conference table or desktop.
The microphone element is located very close to (but not touching) the surface, so
that sound waves reflected from the surface arrive at the mic element at the same
time as the direct sound.
This effectively doubles the sensitivity of the microphone compared to a free-
standing handheld type at the same distance.
Shotgun – The shotgun microphone is so named because the long, slotted tube in front of
the microphone cartridge makes it resemble a shotgun. This “interference tube” makes
shotgun mics significantly less sensitive to sound coming from the side and rear than
other directional microphones.
A shotgun mic’s extremely directional pickup pattern (called a line/gradient pattern)
makes these popular for news gathering, outdoor sports coverage and TV/film production.
Camera-Mount Microphones
With the rising popularity of DSLR’s and compact video cameras, a new class of
compact microphones specifically designed for camera mounting has emerged.
These camera-mount microphones typically feature a supercardioid or hypercardioid
pickup pattern, foam windscreen, integrated shock mount, accessory shoe adapter, and
3.5mm output plug.
Some models can even record audio on an internal flash memory card. These
microphones offer a lightweight and convenient all-in-one solution for capturing audio
for video
Wireless Systems
Wireless microphones are a great alternative to their wired counterparts in situations
where the presence of a conventional mic cable puts constraints on the user’s actions.
Wireless Components In essence, a wireless microphone is a miniature
radio station.
A microphone cartridge (which may be a dynamic or condenser type, see earlier) converts
incoming sound waves to an audio signal. The signal is sent out by a low-power transmitter,
and then picked up by a receiver located nearby, which converts the radiofrequency signal
back into audio. The transmitter can be contained in the handle of the microphone, in a small
pack designed to be worn on the body, or in a block or tube that can plug directly into any
standard microphone with an XLR connector.
The receiver can be a tabletop unit, a rackmount unit, or a portable battery-operated type
that can mount on top or in the camera.

The combination
of the microphone,
transmitter, and receiver
is known as a wireless system.
Test, adjust, and monitor the sound.
If you don’t get a sound check, you’re doing it wrong. Have your subject say and spell
their first and last name, ask them an open-ended question, or just tell them to name
their favorite movies. While they’re talking, you can adjust the audio to the preferred
level of -20 to -12 db,.
ALWAYS monitor the sound with headphones.

VU meter
Meters which monitor audio levels are typically one of two varieties: VU (Volume Unit) or
PPM (Peak Program Meters). Though both perform the same function, they accomplish
the function in very different manners. A VU meter displays the average volume level of
an audio signal. A PPM displays the peak volume level of an audio signal

The VU meter closely corresponds to the level sensing mechanism of the human ear. It
provides a useful indication of the subjective loudness of different programs and is very
useful when matching levels between programs.
Recording levels:
Measuring Digital Audio Levels
 Understanding Digital sound

Understanding the difference between Analog and Digital Audio

Audio recordings come in two basic types; analog and digital.
Analog refers to audio recorded using methods that replicate the original sound waves.
Vinyl records and cassette tapes are examples of analog mediums.
Digital audio is recorded by taking samples of the original sound wave at a specified rate.
CDs and Mp3 files are examples of digital mediums.
The analog sound wave replicates the original sound wave, whereas the digital sound
wave only replicates the sampled sections of the original sound wave.
The potential of an analog recording depends on the sensitivity of the equipment
and medium used to record and playback the recording.
Digital audio depends on the rate at which the recording equipment sampled the original
sound wave over a specified increment of time
Bit depth
The bit depth of a digital recording describes how many digits are used to store each
sample of the analogue signal.
The standard bit depth for CD audio is 16, with a sampling rate of 44.1kHz – this means
that 44,100 samples per second are taken and each sample stores 16 bits of information.
In general, a higher bit depth means greater sound quality but also a larger file size
Hi-Res Audio has a bit depth of at least 24 bits, with a sampling rate of 96kHz or above.
 When capturing audio, through a microphone, the pressure differences in the air that
make up sound, are converted to an electrical signal by the microphone. The voltage
of the captured signal accurately represents the differences in air pressure at the
membrane of the microphone and - using an amplifier and loudspeaker - could be
converted back into pressure waves and thus sound.
But often recording sound through a digital device to process or record sound, need to
convert the analog electrical audio signal into a list of (binary) numbers.
Each number represents the voltage in the captured audio signal at a specific moment.
The numerical representation of the audio signal at any one of these specific moments is
called a sample.
Between each sampled moment, there is a very short but fixed amount of time. The
shorter this amount of time, the higher the frequency at which the analog audio signal is
sampled into a list of binary numbers and the more precise our digital representation will
be. This frequency is also called the sample rate. A typical sample rate would be for
instance 44.1 kHz. This means the exact voltage of the analog electrical audio signal was
measured and digitized at a rate of 44.1 thousand per second.
44,100 Hz- Audio CD, mp3
48,000 Hz - The standard audio sampling rate used by professional
digital video equipment such as tape recorders,
video servers, vision mixers and so on.
96,000 Hz -DVD-Audio, some LPCM DVD tracks, BD-ROM (Blu-ray Disc) audio tracks,
HD DVD (High-Definition DVD) audio tracks.
Bitrate
Bitrate refers to the number of bits—or the amount of data—that are processed over
a certain amount of time. In audio, this usually means kilobits per second.
For example, the music you download on iTunes is 256 kilobits per second, meaning
there are 256 kilobits of data stored in every second of a song.

Bit Rate - How much data per second is required to transmit the file, which can
then be translated into how big the file is.
The higher the bitrate of a track, the more space it will take up on audio file.
Bit Depth - 24 Bit - If you record in 24 bit opposed to 16 bit, you're giving
your audio more room to breathe in the numeric realm of digital audio.
In digital audio, a value describes the resolution of the sound data that is captured and
stored in an audio file. This attribute is called bit depth. A higher audio bit depth indicates
a more detailed sound recording.
Bit depth is often confused with bit rate, but they are different. Bit rate, which is
measured in kilobits per second (Kbps), is the data throughput per second when sound
is played back and is not the resolution of each discrete sample that makes up the audio
waveform.
Bit Depth and Sound Quality
The unit of measure for bit depth is binary digits (bits) and for every 1-bit increase, the
accuracy doubles. The bit range is an important integer that determines how good a
recording sounds.
Elements of sound track
• Narration and Voice-Over
• Music
• Sound Effects
• Dialogue
• Ambience sound
 • Are these sounds heard only by the audience, or also by the characters
• Diegetic: originating from within the scene, either visible or implied. Such as
from a “practical” radio, loudspeaker, or on-screen host.
• Non-Diegetic: only for the audience. Exists as part of the media experience,
but not for the characters in the scene.
• Sometimes creatively overlapped… beginning as one type and then
transforming into the other.

Narration and Voice-Over

The Story Teller • Provides explanation to audience • Could be recorded “live
commentary”, sync to picture. • Or, recorded “wild” from script, section by section,
and then edited to picture.
Voice over- narration is the process of using an off-camera voice to explain
something to the audience.
While voice-over narrators typically remain unseen and are not part of the action
you may be witnessing, they do provide important commentary pertinent to
what’s happening on the screen. Voice over narration falls into a different category
than commercial voice overs used for advertising or broadcast, but it can still be
used to sell, market and promote. It can likewise be used to explain, instruct, teach
or otherwise provide information.
 DIALOGUE/SPOKEN WORD
narration; while the camera can act as a narrator as equally as any other film concept
or technique, oftentimes, a film will use a traditional narrator, usually a character
involved in the action of the narrative.
Voice/over (v/o) is a term reserved specifically for dialogue that is presented without
the person speaking visible.

MUSIC
consider formal and theoretical properties of music as music (tempo, rhythm/pace, tenor,
key, pitch, volume).
lyrics that are part of the music can work like dialogue.
ambient music generally refers to the types of music we would expect given the tone and
context of the scene. Romantic music makes sense in a French restaurant, even if we do
not see the band or orchestra performing.
instrumentation often can provide symbolic meanings based on the types of sounds and
the arrangments.
often music can supplement the meanings of the action provided by the visual
informationcounterpoint to the meanings provided by visual information.
 Consider music that coincides perfectly in synch with action; cartoons do this in a playful
sort of way with a technique called mickey-mousing.
Consider also music that slightly foreshadows or slightly shadows an action revealed
through the visual information.
Between and among scenes in sequences and among intercut scenes in parallel editing,
music can “bridge” the theme of the narrative from one part to the next. A recurring
musical piece, in fact, is called a motif.
Pay special attention to how the apparent meanings from music can actually work in
ironic
The function of music in the video is a very wide field.
Music can serve several purposes that are either important on the emotional side of the
programme or help/enhance the storytelling.

Role of music in video-

Music can put a judgement on certain video scenes, it can state that a certain battle scene
is heroic, a certain dialogue is sad etc.
Illustrating Movement
Accenting with the music every movement seen on screen is so-called mickey-mousing
(coming from a scoring technique that was often used in Mickey Mouse cartoons).
Hearing xylophone “plings” when someone raises his eyebrow etc. feels very cartoony
however it can be great in slapstick moments and when done well even in dramatic
situations.

Creating Plot Relationships

Giving certain characters/situations/places thematic identities helps to connect certain
plot points together.

Create Atmosphere
This is one of the strongest function of music in the movies. It can set the tone of the movie.
Just by the way the score comes in for the first time in the movie makes it possible to know
the genre and the “level of drama” of the movie
Portray Emotions
Music can serve the movie by getting into the emotions of the characters. A face with a
neutral expression can be pushed into “feeling” many different things just by what kind of
music is used. In the same way it works of course very well to evoke certain emotions with
the audience.
 Time/Period References
Music can also work very well to establish a certain time or period.
Flashbacks over a few decades for for example can be very well supported by the
musical style which adapts to the time portrayed in the movie and therefore makes the
flashbacks more understandable.
Connect Scenes/Montages
Music helps very well to glue scenes together. Rather harsh scene changes can be
softened by adding music over the scene change. One of the extremes of these forms
are montages which work beautiful with music. Even though we might have a lot of
jumps in time/places or even periods, when the montage is covered under one score
cue it will at the same time be glued together and understood as a whole.

.
 SOUND EFFECTS
Noise.
All those sound elements that do not fit in either category of music or dialogue fit into
this catch all category.
Sound effects are more specific and patterned than music, but less specific and patterned
than dialogue.
Sound effects can have a musical quality, and so can carry the strengths of music.
A sound other than speech or music made artificially for use in a play, film, or other
broadcast production

Sound effects are pre-recorded sound cues that help us tell a story.
Their use dates as far back as the 1700s when theatres would incorporate sound making
devices such as thunder sheets.
The silence or absence of a certain sound seems to become a loud ringing vacancy in the
audience’s ears.
This is because our ears are used to hearing the world around us. Not only does sound give
us a sense of direction, but it also gives us a sort of equilibrium and depth to our
environment.
Even in a quiet room there is still some sound – be it distant traffic, an air conditioning unit
or the refrigerator. We always expect to hear something.
 Categories sound effects :
Hard Effects
Hard effects are sounds that are associated with an action or event but are not
dependent on the performance of the sound such as car horns, gunshots and
punches.
Background Effects
These are ambiences that give an immediate ‘sound picture’ to the location of a scene.
When layered under a dialog track, these sounds can help fill in dead spots that can occur
when cutting different takes together.
Electronic Effects
These are synthetic sounds, like those produced by a keyboard or sounds that are heavily
processed with audio plug-ins.
They can be abstract or literal and can be used to give sonic character to titles and graphics.
Laser blasts, spaceship hums and other science fiction sound effects would also fall in to
this category.
Sound Design Effects
Sound design effects are sounds that are artificially created, typically by a sound designer.
They help give sound to unreal objects, such as werewolves or electrical bolts shooting out
of the hand of an evil sorcerer. They are often used to give a heightened sense of realism
to a sound. These effects can also be necessary to create when the real sound is
unavailable.
Ambient sound (ambient audio, ambience, atmosphere, background noise) means the
background sounds which are present in a scene or location.
Common ambient sounds include wind, water, birds, crowds, office noises, traffic, etc.
Ambient sound is very important in video work.

• Providing audio continuity between shots.

• Preventing an unnatural silence when no other sound is present.
• Establishing or reinforcing the mood.

There are several types of ambient sound used in film production.

Matching ambient sound: Any ambient sound recorded to match the ambient sound of a
scene.
Wild sound: Background noise with distinct sounds, i.e. more than ambient sound, which
is not synchronised with the main vision. Example: Children playing in a playground.
Buzz track: A general term for ambient sound.
Room tone: The sound of an empty room, or a room in which all the actors are standing
silently