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Red Book

This document provides guidelines for academic writing for students in the Department of Quantity Surveying and Construction Management at the University of the Free State. It covers guidelines for writing thesis proposals, thesis structure, abstracts, research articles, and referencing using the Harvard referencing style. The document was compiled by Alna Beukes and provides essential information to support the development of research skills and a research culture within the department.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
48 views57 pages

Red Book

This document provides guidelines for academic writing for students in the Department of Quantity Surveying and Construction Management at the University of the Free State. It covers guidelines for writing thesis proposals, thesis structure, abstracts, research articles, and referencing using the Harvard referencing style. The document was compiled by Alna Beukes and provides essential information to support the development of research skills and a research culture within the department.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Academic

writing
Guidelines for proposals, thesis
structure, abstracts and articles
FOR STUDENTS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF QUANTITY
SURVEYING AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

UNIVERSITY OF THE FREE STATE


BLOEMFONTEIN

Compiled by
Alna Beukes

T: 051 401 3322 | E: [email protected] | www.ufs.ac.za


Guidelines for students of the
Department Quantity Surveying
and Construction Management
University of the Free State

Compiled by
Alna Beukes

11th edition
© 2019
Department of Quantity Surveying and
Construction Management
University of the Free State
Bloemfontein
South Africa

All rights reserved


CONTENTS PAGE

INTRODUCTION 1

PART 1: Guidelines for writing a thesis proposal 2

PART 2: Guidelines for writing a thesis 6

PART 3: Guidelines for writing abstracts 21

PART 4: Guidelines for writing research articles 25

PART 5: Referencing techniques: Harvard method 32

5.1 Printed material: in-text citations 33


5.2 Printed material: references list 38
5.3 Non-text material: in-text citations 46
5.4 Non-text material: references list 47
5.5 Electronic material: in-text citations 49
5.6 Electronic material: references list 49

BIBLIOGRAPHY 52
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this manual is to offer a basic set of guidelines or a quick
reference for students to follow in their preparation of various types of
academic writing assignments.

This manual provides guidance in:

 writing a thesis proposal;


 layout and compilation of a thesis;
 writing an abstract;
 writing an article; and
 the use of citations in the text and the compilation of a references list
according to the Harvard style of referencing.

The aim of this manual is to give support to the development of a research


culture at the Department of Quantity Surveying and Construction
Management, University of the Free State, and to encourage students and
future researchers to become well organised and interested in academic
writing.

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PART 1: Guidelines for writing a thesis proposal
1.1 Why are thesis proposals necessary?

First, it is to ensure that students are prepared to undertake the work that they
are proposing. Secondly the submission and review of thesis proposals is to
help guarantee the quality of the degree.

1.2 What is the role of the study leader and the student?

The role of the study leader is primarily to advice. A study leader should, guide
students to a specific, well-defined thesis topic and will also suggest some
background reading students should do. It is students responsibility to do the
necessary background reading. The proposal should be written by students
(with the study leader’s input if prefer).

1.3 What should be in your proposal?

1.3.1 A title page that includes the proposed thesis title, students name and
student number, the study leaders’ name, faculty, department and the date of
submission.

1.3.2 An abstract of the proposed work provides a concise summary of the


work students are proposing. (See PART 4 of this manual).

1.3.3 Statement of problem


In one to three sentences, describes specifically what the problem is that the
student intends to solve. This should be short and to the point.

1.3.4 Introduction
In the introduction the student needs to say why he/she is doing the proposed
work and what its significance is. It is in the introduction that one will typically
also define/explain most of the necessary terms and acronyms. Students also
need to provide a quick sketch of their proposed solution and briefly explain
how it differs from other work.

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1.3.5 Relevance to existing literature
Although a thesis must be an original contribution to knowledge, it must make
that contribution within an established field. What is the history of the research
problem? What information is already available? What information will add to
it? How will your perspective contribute to an overall understanding of the
problem? Explain and define the research terms.

1.3.6 Availability of material for study


A statement of the resources required to complete the research work and how
students will gain access to them. Give examples if possible. What kinds of
information will be collected?

1.3.7 Collecting and analysing information


A description of the results one expect to obtain and why they are of interest to
the research field. It is not enough to say "The researcher plan to use primary
sources." Students must indicate what kinds (e.g. books, journals, interviews
etc.) of information they will gather, how they will organise it and how it will be
analysed.

1.3.8 Timetable
A timeline for the completion of your thesis providing realistic dates for
finishing "milestone" events. Department regulations state that students
thesis proposal must be approved by their study leader at least six
months prior to your thesis deadline.

1.3.9 Chapter outline


Even though students will not have collected their information at the stage of
writing a proposal, they should have thought about the parts into which they
will ultimately divide it.

1.3.10 Summary
A brief (one to two paragraphs) summary of the proposal that highlights the
key points in the proposal and provides a list of contributions to the field that
students expect their work to provide. Be very specific when listing your
contributions and explain why they are of interest to the industry.

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1.3.11 Bibliography
A detailed, quality bibliography of work related to the proposed thesis research
must be according to the Harvard style of referencing. (See PART 5 of this
manual).

1.4 Common problems with proposals

1.4.1 Failure to identify and clearly state a specific problem


that you are addressing
A good rule is that students should be able to specify what it is
they are trying to do in a single sentence, perhaps with a couple
of sentences of clarification afterwards.

1.4.2 Failure to clearly describe the methodology you will use to


complete your work
While, writing the proposal, students will be unable to provide
complete details on how they will solve the research problem, but they must be
able to describe the techniques they plan on using and explain why these
techniques are appropriate for what one are trying to do.

1.4.3 Failure to properly organise your proposal


Most importantly, the thesis proposal itself, and each section within it, must
have good "flow". This means that each statement must logically follow the
one preceding it. It is also a good practice to look at each paragraph in each
section individually and ask your self the question: "Does this paragraph
correspond to the title of this section?" If your answer is "No." then you need to
consider moving or refocusing that paragraph.

1.4.4 Failure to make comparisons between related work


It is insufficient to simply summarise work related to the proposed thesis.
Students must logically organise and discuss the related work in such a way
that it is clear to the reader how the previous research efforts relate to each
other and, especially, how they
relate to what students are proposing.

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1.4.5 Grammatical and spelling errors
As a first step, students should always spell check their thesis proposal. Make
use of professional human proofreading as well.

1.4.6 Inadequate and/or dated citations


Whenever students refer to the work or ideas of others (including figures they
may have reproduced), to specific systems and/or when students make
specific claims that they do not justify explicitly by themselves they need to
provide a citation to the related work.

1.4.7 Incomplete and/or inappropriate references


Each reference provided in the text and source list should be as complete as
possible according to the Harvard style of referencing. (See PART 5 of this
manual).

1.4.8 Plagiarism
Plagiarism implies direct duplication of the formulation and insights of a source
text with the intention of presenting it as one’s own work. *The UFS Policy on
the Prevention of Plagiarism and Dealing with Academic Writing Misconduct
seen plagiarism and academic writing misconduct as serious
concerns and are subject to strict corrective actions.

* The policy can be viewed at <https://www.ufs.ac.za/docs/default-source/all-documents/plagiarism-


prevention-policy-364-eng.pdf?sfvrsn=5a2ae421_0>

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PART 2: Guidelines for writing a thesis
The purpose of a thesis is to show that students have done or discovered
something significant. The thesis contains three parts:

 the preliminaries,
 the text, and
 the references

2.1 THESIS STRUCTURE

2.1.1 The preliminaries


a. Title page (separate page in thesis): example
Effective quality management in the building industry

by

Ryan Brown

A thesis submitted for partially fulfilling in Module XXX the requirements for the

HONORS DEGREE IN QUANTITY SURVEYING


AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

UNIVERSITY OF THE FREE STATE


2019

b. Signature page (approval page) (separate page in thesis): example


The thesis of Ryan Brown is approved by

_______________________________
Prof. K Kajimo-Shakantu (Head of department)

_______________________________
Mr Pierre Oosthuizen (Study leader)

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c. Table of contents

d. List of symbols, tables, figures, illustrations, etc. (if applicable)

e. Acknowledgement or acknowledgements (optional)

f. Abstract (on separate page)

2.1.2 The text


Very important:
Each chapter starts with an introduction on the specific content of that chapter
and ends with a conclusion on the specific content of that chapter.

Part 1: Introduction (5 – 10 pages)

Introduction: orientation to the study, stating the research problem and/or


hypothesis and placing it into theoretical and/or historical context. (Divide into
applicable chapters/headings).

Problem statement should address the following:

Motivation Questions Contribution Approach


for the study that needs to be study will make researcher
answered will follow

Part 2: Literature review (15-20 pages)

A comprehensive review of articles, books etc. relevant to the study, justifying,


the researcher’s own methodology. (Divide into applicable chapters/headings).

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Part 3: Research design - Sample choice, method(s) (5 pages)
Explanation of how research was accomplished: What the data consisted of,
how the data were collected, organised, and analysed.
Subjects: Who the subjects were, how they were selected, what steps were
taken to protect them from risks.
Nature of data: e.g., interviews, focus groups, videotapes, etc., and how data
were selected.
Description of research setting: Validity and reliability of the research data may
depend on the appropriateness of the setting selected. (Divide into applicable
chapters/headings).

Part 4: Results (5 pages)


 Test of the Hypotheses
 Findings refer to what the data actually are.
 Results offer interpretations and analyses of these data.
(Divide into applicable chapters/headings).

Part 5: Discussion (5 pages)


Interpretation of the Results (Divide into applicable chapters/headings).

Part 6: Conclusion (5 pages)


 Recommendations, Suggestions for Further Research and
 Limitations
(Divide into applicable chapters/headings).

2.1.3 References
 Bibliography/References
 Appendices (if applicable)
Unusual or supplementary materials, such as questionnaires or copies of
photographs, may be put into appendices. The appendices must be consecutively
paginated with the text. The paper quality and margins must conform to the
standards for the rest of the thesis.

*Very important: The Department of Quantity Surveying and Construction


Management uses the Harvard method of referencing. (See PART 5 of this
manual).
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2.2 THESIS REQUIREMENTS
2.2.1 Paper quality
A4
White

2.2.2 Font types


Use Arial.

2.2.3 Font sizes


Chapter headings: use font size 16.
Subheadings: use font size 14.
Text: use font size 12.
Tables and figure captions: use font size 9

2.2.4 Chapter head pages and page layout


Use Arial font size 16 for chapter headings. Begin each chapter on a new
page. Do the same with each element of the front matter (list of tables,
acknowledgments, etc.), the reference section, and each appendix. Try to
avoid typing a heading near the bottom of a page unless there is room for at
least two lines of text. Instead, you should simply leave a little extra space on
that page and begin the heading on the next page.

2.2.5 Line spacing


1.5 space the text except as noted below.
Single space: Block quotations; table/figure captions; table/figure notes but
double space between notes; entries in the reference list but double space
between entries; headings that are typed on more than one line; all listings in
the contents, list of tables, and list of figures that require more than one line,
but double space between subheadings and each table/figure caption;
itemised lists may be single spaced but double space between items.

2.2.6 Margins
The text begins 3cm from the top and left side of the paper. Bottom and right
side margins are 2,5 cm.

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2.2.7 Justification
Use full justified margins.

2.2.8 Typing specifications


Most important in typing a thesis is consistency of format and
adherence to the specific instructions given in this guide. It is
important to note that all theses must be one-and-a-half spaced and pages
must be numbered throughout. To avoid distracting
variations, changes in the font should be kept to a minimum.

2.2.9 Page headers


Please do not use page headers or decorative borders.

2.2.10 Indenting paragraphs


Do not indent paragraphs.

2.2.11 Block quotes


Quotations longer then 4 lines must be formatted as block quotes. Indent all
lines of block quotes from the left margin and type the entire quotation on the
indented margin. Do not indent the right margin for block quotes.

2.2.12 Tables and figures


Remember, table captions should be positioned above the table and captions
for figures should be positioned below the figure.

2.2.13 Graphics
Graphics (figures, photo’s, graphs etc.) must meet the same standards as the
rest of the thesis. Save photo’s or graphics as tif files with 300dpi. Do not use
pencil, ballpoint or felt tip in the final copy. Labels on photographs, charts, and
other figures must be permanent. Headings, keys, and all other identifying
information should be of the same quality of type as the text.

2.2.14 Footnotes
Footnotes may be single-spaced with an extra space between notes.
Footnotes for each chapter are usually numbered consecutively. Footnotes
must be at the bottom of the page.

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2.2.15 Proofread
Make sure to hand in a well proofread thesis. Spelling errors are unacceptable.

2.2.16 Page numbering


 Check your thesis to ensure that all pages are present and in numerical
order.
 All pages must be numbered with the exception of the title page and
advisor approval page.
 Preliminary pages (e.g. table of contents, dedication page,
acknowledgments, abstract, etc.) that precede the main text are
numbered with lower case Roman numerals beginning with numeral i.
The main text is numbered consecutively beginning with Arabic numeral
1, in the bottom centre.

2.2.17 Single-sided print


Print single sided on the right hand-side page. We suggest that you set both
right and left margins at 2.5 cm. Remember to place page numbers in the
bottom centre.

2.2.18 Print
 Print your thesis on a good quality printer. Common problems are
smudges, copy lines and specks, missing pages, margin shifts, slanting
of the printed image on the page, and poor paper quality.
 Black print.
 Colour maps, charts, etc. are acceptable.

2.2.19 Corrections
To ensure a clean final copy, correct and reprint pages. Do not make
handwritten corrections or use correction fluid in the final copy.

2.2.20 Reprints and use of copyrighted material


It is your responsibility to obtain and keep for your records written permission
to use copyrighted material in your thesis. You can usually get permission by
sending a letter of request to the copyright holder. Normally, your letter will be
returned with an approval stamp or signature. Some copyright holders require
a specific form of acknowledgement.

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2.3 PUNCTUATION
2.3.1 Semicolon
In addition to using a semicolon to join related independent clauses in
compound sentences, you can use a semicolon to separate items in a series if
the elements of the series already include commas.
e.g. Members of the team include Harold Rostein, architect; Tony
Aluppo, engineer; and Lee Jefferson, construction manager.

2.3.2 Colon
After a complete statement in order to introduce one or more directly related
ideas, such as a series of directions, a list, or a quotation or other comment
illustrating or explaining the statement.
e.g. The daily newspaper contains six sections: news, sports,
entertainment, business, youth and adverts.

2.3.3 Square brackets


Square brackets are occasionally and sparingly used to: add clarification, add
information, add missing words, add editorial or authorial words, modify a
direct quotation, and the use of the term [sic]. Square brackets always appear
in pairs.
e.g. Before arriving at the site, the crane [someone said it was a
very new model] caught fire.

Often, [sic] is used to indicate that a grammar error in the text was written by
the original author.
e.g. The manager believed that his statement was
“appropriate and did not undermine the moral [sic] of
the group.” (should be “morale” not “moral”)

2.3.4 Dash
Use a dash to emphasise a point or to set off an explanatory comment; but
don't overuse dashes, or they will lose their impact.
e.g. To some of you, my proposals may seem radical -
even revolutionary

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2.3.5 Quotation Marks

Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations. Use single quote marks
only for a quote that is within a quote run into the text. Do not use quote marks
in second and subsequent uses.
*Note that commas and periods go inside the closing quotation mark; colons
and semicolons go outside; and placement of question and exclamation marks
depends on the situation. The quote marks may be placed before or after
depending on the context of the sentence. Any grammar book or style manual
will have detailed explanations of this as well as examples.

e.g. He asked, “Will you be there?” “Yes,” I answered, “I'll


look for you in the foyer.”
Williams described the experiment as “a definitive step
forward”; other scientists disagreed.
Benedetto emphasizes three elements of what she calls her
“Olympic journey”: family support, personal commitment, and
great coaching.

Put a dash, question mark, or exclamation point within closing quotation


marks when the punctuation applies to the quotation itself and outside when it
applies to the whole sentence.

e.g. Philip asked, “Do you need this book?”


Does Dr. Lim always say to her students, “You must
work harder”?
Sharon shouted enthusiastically, “We won! We won!”
I can't believe you actually like that song, “If You
Wanna Be My Lover”!

Use single quotation marks to indicate words used ironically, with


reservations, or in some unusual way; but don't overuse quotation marks in
this sense, or they will lose their impact.

e.g. History is stained with blood spilled in the name of


‘apartheid.’

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2.3.6 Quotation within a quotation

Use single quotation marks for a quotation enclosed inside another quotation.
e.g. The agricultural reporter for the newspaper explained, “When
I talked to the Allens last week, they said, ‘We refuse to use
that architect.’ ”
*Note: space between ’ and ”

2.3.7 Omitted words in a quotation

If you leave words out of a quotation, use an ellipsis mark to indicate the
omitted words. If you need to insert something within a quotation, use a pair of
brackets to enclose the addition.
e.g.

full quotation: The welfare agency representative said, “We are


unable to help every family that we'd like to help be
cause we don't have the funds to do so.”
omitted material with ellipsis: The welfare agency representative
said, “We are unable to help every family . . . because we
don't have the funds to do so.”
added material with brackets: The welfare agency representative
explained that they are “unable to help every family
that [they would] like to help.”

2.3.8 Block quotations

A quotation that extends more than four typed lines on a page should be
indented one inch from the left margin and in italics. Maintain line spacing as in
the main text, and do not use quotation marks for the block quotation.
e.g.

Furthermore, we are less and less clear about what it would mean to
preserve nature…In the best of circumstances, preservation is
applicable only to the limited portion of earth that has not already been
tampered with (Baldwin et al., 1994: 5).

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2.4 GENERAL ERRORS WITH THESIS WRITING
 Not reading and following the Department of Quantity Surveying’s
guidelines for Preparing a Thesis.
 Using another thesis/dissertation as your style guide rather than
consulting the QS department’s style and referencing manuals.
 Not being familiar with the word processing program being used.

2.4.1 Numerals versus Words


Never begin a sentence with a number written as a numeral. Spell it out or
reword the sentence so that a number does not begin a sentence. Numerals
are always used for the following: Dates; time; ages; sample, sub-sample, or
population size; exact sums of money; numbers that immediately precede a
unit of measurement; statistical or mathematical functions; fractional or
decimal quantities, percentages, ratios. Two digit numerals written as words
must be hyphenated (twenty-five not twenty five but not for one hundred, two
hundred and so forth).

2.4.2 Punctuation
 Be consistent with comma usage.
 Not typing hyphens and dashes correctly. Do not use a space before or
after a hyphen or a dash.
 5 - 23 is a minus; 5-23 is a range although the word "to" is now
preferred in some disciplines.

2.4.3 Latin abbreviations


Do not use italics for Latin abbreviations - these include et al., i.e., e.g., etc.,
cf., ibid. (the use of ibid. is now discouraged by most style guides), et al.
means “and others”; et is not an abbreviation, al., standing for alia, is an
abbreviation so the term is written as et al. without italics. Normally you can
use et al. when 4 or more authors wrote a source, but first time all authors
must be mentioned.

2.4.4 Font errors


Not having page numbers in the same font style and size as the text.
Putting headings or captions in a different size font than the text.
Not using the same font size and style as the text for footnotes.
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2.4.5 Page layout errors
 Incorrect pagination - can consist of page number being in the incorrect
location or counting errors.
 Incorrect margins.
 Not turning on widow and orphan control. This will prevent just one line
of a paragraph from appearing at the bottom or top of a page. There
must always be two lines of a paragraph at the bottom of the page or
carried over to the top of the following page.
 A heading at the bottom of the page must be followed by two lines of
text. If it won't fit then move the heading to the next page.
 Not filling all pages with text. If a table or figure will not fit below where it
is first mentioned, continue text to fill that page and place the table or
figure on the following page. A table begun on a page with text must be
complete on that page.

2.4.6 Documentation errors


 Omitting citations from the text or omitting references from the reference
list.
 Not checking for agreement between references cited in the text against
the same reference in the reference list.
 Not following the Harvard method of referencing manual for how to
arrange the reference list (an author who has works published as a
single author and works with co-authors, oldest publications listed first,
and so on).
 Not being consistent in the reference list (abbreviation of journal titles,
using vol. or Vol. or not using vol. at all, and so on).
 Not using the same font size and style as the text for footnotes.

2.4.7 Ellipses
Use ellipses to indicate omitted material from within a quote. Do not use
ellipses to denote omitted material at the beginning or end of a quote.
Type ellipses as three spaced periods: . . . not ... The fourth period in an
ellipsis represents the end of the sentence and indicates that the sentence
ended and then material was omitted . . . . or that part of the sentence was
omitted . . . . Note the spacing before the first period.

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2.4.8 Quotation marks
 Not typing quotation marks correctly - always place quotation marks
after periods and commas (commas," for example) and before colons
and semicolons (semicolons": for example). If you are using a single
quote mark the rule is the same.

2.4.9 Quotation marks with citations


 Quotation marks with reference citations take different forms.
 Run into the text - the last word of the quote" (Jones, 1995: 137).
 At the end of a block quote. (Jones, 1995: 137)

2.4.10 It's or Its


 Using "it's" for "its" is probably the most common error made in thesis
and dissertations.
 It's means it is. It's a contraction.
 Its is a pronoun. Its is already possessive and, therefore, never takes an
apostrophe.

2.4.10 Italics
 Use italics only for citing source names that was published.
 This include book titles, journal titles, conference proceeding titles etc.

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2.5 GENERAL ADVICE
For most writers, the thesis is the longest paper they've written, so its very
length is often the most overwhelming aspect of the task. Yet the task won't
overwhelm you if you adhere to the following advice.

2.5.1 Think of the thesis as a series of small related tasks.


Do not think of the whole task. You don't have to "write the thesis"; instead,
you have a series of tasks to perform, many of which you have probably
performed in the past:

 Do some research of the literature available on the chosen topic.


 Summarise and perhaps comment upon the literature that you have
examined.
 Perform some experiments or do some fieldwork.
 Write up the results of those experiments or fieldwork.
 Draw conclusions from what you have done.
 See how your results and conclusions fit in with the literature and work
in your field.
 Put all these pieces together into a coherent whole, following a format
that your department will give you.
 Edit your document carefully for format, spelling, grammar, and
mechanics.

2.5.2 Do not think "I have to write a whole thesis!"


Instead, think of writing several small pieces, each piece no longer than
papers you've written in the past. The only difference here is that you will be
stitching all those pieces together into a whole document at the end of the
writing process. One of the biggest mistakes thesis writers make is trying to
write the whole thesis rather than writing it a piece-at-a-time.

2.5.3 Do not put off writing the thesis until the end.
Another typical and costly mistake that thesis writers often make is trying to do
all the other (more familiar) tasks first (e.g., performing experiments,
conducting the literature search) before they write a word. This is not a
productive approach. Start writing now, even if it is only your random thoughts

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about what you'd like the thesis to prove. As you search through the literature,
for example, keep comprehensive notes. On a day when you can't get to the
library or when you've looked at all possible sources, start writing your
summaries of the literature.

2.5.4 Try to write 15 minutes every day.


This writing may be the extensive notes mentioned above, a description to
yourself of the experiment you performed today, or perhaps thoughts about the
project as a whole. By writing every day you accomplish at least two things:
first, you reduce anxiety about WRITING by proving to yourself that you can do
it every day; second, much of what you write will probably be, either directly or
indirectly, the source of material for your thesis.

2.5.5 You are not alone.


Almost every thesis writer, including many of the professors whose work you
admire and whose guidance you seek, has felt overwhelmed by the task.

2.5.6 Don't isolate yourself during the thesis process.


Although it may feel difficult at first to discuss your fears or doubts, talk to other
people in your department. Sharing your feelings will get rid of much of the
anxiety by showing that you are just like everyone else. Also, share
suggestions about how to overcome obstacles.

2.5.7 Build your reference list as you write.


When you give parts of your paper or thesis chapters to your study leader to
read, even early drafts, include the reference list.

2.5.8 Use plain English, not jargon.


Whenever possible avoid using terminology that only an 'expert' in the subject
would understand.

2.5.9 You, not the data, make suggestions.


Do not write "The data suggests that ...", or "Our results suggest that … ".
Data does not suggest anything; it is people that make suggestions based on
an interpretation of data. Use something like these instead: "These
measurements are consistent with the hypothesis that . . .", or, "Based on
measurements of A and B, the author(s) suggest/propose/argue that ... ".
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2.5.10 Use passive voice sparingly.
Some students think that constant use of the passive voice makes them sound
scientific and objective. This is a mistake. In practice, passive voice frequently
makes sentences longer and less clear. And, when you over-use the passive
voice, your writing becomes boring. Example of passive-voice phrases include:
it is believed ... ; it has been thought that ... ; some have found ... ; the field site
is located ... ; the sample was first ground ... . AVOID such phrases. If you are
unsure of what 'passive voice' is (and its opposite, 'active voice'), read the
following:

2.5.11 Controlling the passive voice.


Use the "search" ability of your word-processing programme to find commonly
used passive-voice verbs: was, were, had, have, get, got, be, been, deal with,
show. Rewrite each sentence with an active verb. Passive sentences typically
place the true subject at the end. Thus, you may need to turn the sentence
backwards to destroy passive voice.

2.5.12 Why active verbs?


Writers often make lazy choices. We use generic all-purpose verbs such as
been, be, had, have, were, was, and is. Yet these "passive" words convey
little. Even worse are the catch all "deal with" choices. It is frustrated every
time a study leader read another: "it has been thought by Schuckitelly that ..."
Of course, you will have to use passive voice in places in your writing.
However, varying the sentence structure you use keeps your reader
interested. If in doubt, use active verbs.

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PART 3: Guidelines for writing abstracts
3.1 What is an abstract?
An abstract is a condensed version of a longer piece of writing that highlights the
major points covered, concisely describes the content and scope of the writing,
and reviews the writing's contents in abbreviated form.

3.2 What types of abstracts are typically used?


Two types of abstracts are typically used:

3.2.1 Descriptive abstracts:


 Tell readers what information the report, article, or paper contains.
 Include the purpose, methods, and scope of the report, article, or
paper.
 Do not provide results, conclusions, or recommendations.
 Are always very short, usually under 100 words.
 Introduce the subject to readers, who must then read the report,
article, or paper to find out the author's results, conclusions, or
recommendations.

3.2.2 Informative abstracts - mostly used for academic writing e.g.


articles
 Communicate specific information from the report, article, or paper.
 Include the purpose, methods, and scope of the report, article, or
paper.
 Provide the report, article, or paper's results, conclusions, and
recommendations.
 Are short -- from a paragraph to a page or two, depending upon the
length of the original work being abstracted. Usually informative
abstracts are 10% or less of the length of the original piece.
 Allow readers to decide whether they want to read the report,
article, or paper.

3.3 Parts of an abstract


The following are the basic components of an abstract in any
discipline:

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Purpose/motivation/problem statement: Why do we care about the problem
and the results? If the problem isn't obviously "interesting" it might be better to
put motivation first; but if your work is incremental progress on a problem that
is widely recognised as important, then it is probably better to put the problem
statement first to indicate which piece of the larger problem you are breaking
off to work on. This section should include the importance of your work, the
difficulty of the area, and the impact it might have if successful. If your paper
is a review paper, carefully state the extent of the coverage.

Example:
Purpose – The Control of Vibration at Work Regulations (CVWR)
became law in 2005. They are of particular relevance to construction –
which by nature of its activities – presents abundant whole-body, and
hand-arm, vibration hazards. The principal aim of this research was to
assess perceptions among a sample of UK construction professionals;
regarding workplace vibration hazards generally and the CVWR
specifically.

Methods/procedure/approach/design: What did you actually do to get your


results? Did you use simulation, analytic models, prototype construction, or
analysis of field data for an actual product? What was the extent of your work
(e.g. analysed 3 books, interviewed 17 QS firms, compare types of building
materials). What important variables did you control, ignore, or measure?

Example:
Design/methodology/approach – A structured questionnaire survey
was carried out among a small but carefully targeted sample of
professionals drawn from construction. These included health and
safety managers, production managers and designers. A total of 88
useable responses were received. Data were analysed principally
using the mean index technique.

Results/findings/product/trends: What's the answer? As a result of


completing the above procedure, what did you learn/invent/create? Put the
result there, in numbers. Avoid vague, hand-waving results such as "very",
"small", or "significant". Describe how these differ from results or conclusions
of previous work on the same or similar subjects.
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Example:
Findings – Generally, a realistic view of hazards was observed;
although some significant misperceptions were noted. Self-confessed
levels of knowledge regarding the subject were typically “low”. This
appeared something of a paradox, in that “training workers” was cited
as the most commonly used risk control method for both whole-body,
and hand-arm vibration risks, respectively.

Conclusion/implications/value: What are the larger implications of your


findings, especially for the problem/gap identified in step 1? What are the
implications of your answer? Are your results general, potentially
generalisable, or specific to a particular case?

Example:
Value/Originality/Practical implications – Disparity was observed
between what respondents knew about the subject and the purported
(extensive) use of training as a risk control method. This indicates that
a degree of introspection may be beneficial on the part of employers,
regarding their training design and delivery mechanisms. Differences
in perceived degrees of vibration risk, exist between health and safety
professionals and construction managers; implying that there is a
need for improved communication between those responsible for
planning vibration management controls, and those charged with
implementing them at the workplace.

It's important to note that the weight accorded to the different components can
vary. For models/examples, try to find abstracts of research that is similar to
your research.

Tip: Use Google scholar: https://scholar.google.co.za/

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3.4 The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

 lengthy background information;


 references to other literature;
 incomplete sentences; and
 abbreviations or terms that may be confusing to readers, illustrations,
figures, or tables, or references to them.

3.5 Other considerations


Some points to consider include:
 Meet the word count limitation. An abstract word limit of 150 to 200 words
is common.
 Any major restrictions or limitations on the results should be stated, if only
by using "weasel-words" such as "might", "could", "may", and "seem".
 Register an ORCID (your unique researcher ID) and use it when you
publish.
 Comply with “instructions to authors” before submitting manuscripts to
journal editors.

Some publications request "keywords". These have two purposes. They are
used to facilitate keyword index searches and they are also used to assign
papers to review committees or editors.

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PART 4: Guidelines for writing a research paper
4.1. GETTING STARTED

Because the article will be divided into sections, students need to know what
information will go into each.

 Writing should be in complete sentences and easily understood.


 It is important to write clearly and concisely. Write briefly and to the
point. Say what you mean clearly and avoid unnecessary words or
phrases.
 Precise word use is critical: Academic terminology carries specific
meaning - learn to use it appropriately and use it consistently.

4.1.1 Some things to avoid

Do not use colloquial speech, slang, or ‘childish’ words or phrases.


Abbreviations: Do not use abbreviations in the text except for units of
measure. Always abbreviate these when using them with data (2 mm; 10
min.). Except for temperature units (F, C, K) never abbreviate units of measure
when using them in a non-data context (e.g., "we measured length in
millimetres"; "time was recorded in minutes"; "temperature was measured in F
(or C)".
Use past tense: Research articles reflect work that has been completed
therefore use the past tense throughout your article (including the
Introduction). Use the past tense, as well, when
referring to the work of others that you may cite.
First vs. Third person: Limit your use of first person construction (i.e., I (or
we) undertook this study . . . .): usually it is most acceptable in the Introduction
and Discussion sections, and then only to a limited extent. Use first person in
the methods sparingly if at all, and avoid its use in the results.
Use active verbs: Use active verbs whenever possible; writing that overly
uses passive verbs (is, was, has, have, had) is deadly to read and almost
always results in more words than necessary.
ACTIVE: "the construction manager saw the fault."
PASSIVE: "the fault was seen by the construction manager."

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4.1.2 References

Very important: The UFS Department of Quantity Surveying uses the


Harvard method of referencing (every student should download these
guidelines from Blackboard). Ideas or other information that are not
your own must be substantiated by a reference that is cited in the text.
(See PART 5 of this manual).

4.1.3 Plagiarism*

Use of others words, ideas, images, etc. without citation is not to be tolerated
and can be easily avoided by adequately referencing any and all information
you use from other sources. In the strictest sense, plagiarism is representation
of the work of others as being your work. Paraphrasing other's words too
closely may be construed as plagiarism in some circumstances.
* See page 5 of this manual.

4.2. THE LAYOUT AND CONTENT OF A RESEARCH ARTICLE/


PAPER

4.2.1 Title, Authors' Names, and Institutional Affiliations


Your article should begin with a Title that best describes the
contents of the article. Use descriptive words that you would associate strongly
with the content of your article. Followed by your name and surname as well
as the institution of study.

4.2.2 Abstract
See PART 3 of this manual.

4.2.3 Section headings


Main Section Headings:
Each main section of the article begins with a heading (capitalise first letter) on
the left hand side at the beginning of the section, bold and double spaced from
the lines above and below. Do not underline the section heading OR put a
colon at the end.

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Example of a main section heading:
1. Introduction

Subheadings: When your article reports on more than one element, use
subheadings to help organise the presentation. Subheadings should be
capitalised (first letter), left justified, and bold.

Example of a subheading:
2.1 Framework for facilities management

4.2.4 The sections of the article

Most research articles/papers are subdivided into the following


sections: Title, Author(s) and Affiliation, Abstract, Introduction,
Research methods, Results, Discussion, Acknowledgments, and References
list.

This is the framework students of the Department of Quantity Surveying and


Construction Management will use. The sections appear in an academic article
in the following prescribed order:

Study process Sections of a research paper


Abstract
What is the problem? Introduction
How did I solve the problem? Research methods
What did I find out? Results
What does it mean? Discussion
Recommendation
Who helped me out? Acknowledgments (optional)
Whose work did I refer to? References list
Extra information Appendices (optional)

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4.2.4.i Introduction

Begin your Introduction by clearly identifying the subject area of interest. Do


this by using key words from your Title in the first few sentences of the
Introduction to get it focused directly on topic at the appropriate level. This
insures that you get to the primary subject matter quickly without losing focus,
or discussing information that is too general. Establish the context by providing
a brief and balanced review of the pertinent published literature that is
available on the subject. The key is to summarise (for the reader) what we
knew about the specific problem. Provide a clear statement of the rationale for
your approach to the problem studied. For example: State briefly how you
approached the problem. This will usually follow your statement of purpose in
the last paragraph of the Introduction. Do not discuss here the actual
techniques or protocols used in your study (this will be done in the Research
methods section).

4.2.4.ii Research methods

In this section you explain clearly how you carried out your study in the
following general structure and organisation (details follow below):

 the subjects used (i.e. steel, cement, building techniques etc.) and their
pre-experiment handling and care, and when and where the study was
carried out;
 if a field study, a description of the study site, including the physical and
precise location;
 the experimental OR sampling design (i.e., how the study was
structured. For example, controls, treatments, the variable's) measured,
etc.);
 the protocol for collecting data, i.e., how the study procedures were
carried out, and
 how the data were analysed (statistical procedures used).

Organise your presentation so your reader will understand the logical flow of
the study; subheadings work well for this purpose. Each study should be
presented as a unit, even if it was broken up over time. In general, provide
enough quantitative detail (how much, how long, when, etc.).
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4.2.4.iii Results

The function of the Results section is to objectively present your key results,
without interpretation. Summaries of the statistical analyses may appear either
in the text (usually parenthetically) or in the relevant Tables or Figures. The
Results section should be organised around a series of Tables and/or Figures
sequenced to present your key findings in a logical order. The text of the
Results section follows this sequence and highlights the answers to the
questions/hypotheses you investigated. Important negative results should be
reported, too.

4.2.4.iv Discussion

The Discussion section is to interpret your results in light of what was already
known about the subject of the investigation, and to explain our new
understanding of the problem after taking your results into consideration. The
Discussion will always connect to the Introduction by way of the question(s) or
hypotheses you posed and the literature you cited, but it does not simply
repeat or rearrange the Introduction. Instead, it tells how your study has
moved forward from the place you left at the end of the Introduction.

Fundamental questions to answer here include:

 Do your results provide answers to your testable hypotheses? If


so, how do you interpret your findings?
 Do your findings agree with what others have shown? If not, do
they suggest an alternative explanation?
 Given your conclusions, what is our new understanding of the
problem you investigated and outlined in the Introduction?
 If warranted, what would be the next step in your study, e.g., what study
would you do next?

Do not introduce new results in the Discussion. Although you might


occasionally include in this section tables and figures which help explain
something you are discussing, they must not contain new data (from your
study) that should have been presented earlier.

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4.2.4.v Acknowledgments (included as needed)

If, in your study, you received any significant help in thinking up, designing, or
carrying out the work, or received materials from someone who did you a favor
by supplying them, you must acknowledge their assistance and the service or
material provided. Place the Acknowledgments between the Discussion and
the Literature Cited. Do not number heading.

4.2.4.vi References list

The Reference list section gives an alphabetical listing (by first author's last
name) of the references that you actually cited in the body of your paper. The
UFS department of Quantity Surveying use the Harvard method of referencing
(every student get download these guidelines from Blackboard). References to
the research findings of others are an integral component of any research
article. The usual practice is to summarise the finding or other information in
your own words and then cite the source. Any ideas or other information that
are not your own must be substantiated by a reference that is cited in the text.

4.2.4.vii Appendices

An Appendix contains information that is non-essential to understanding of the


article, but may present information that further clarifies a point without
burdening the body of the presentation. An appendix is an optional part of the
article, and is only rarely found in published articles.
Headings: Each Appendix should be identified by a Roman numeral in
sequence, e.g., Appendix I, Appendix II, etc. Each appendix should contain
different material.

Some examples of material that might be put in an appendix:

 raw data
 maps (foldout type especially)
 extra photographs
 explanation of formulas, either already known ones, or especially if you
have ‘invented’ some statistical or other mathematical procedures for data
analysis
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 specialised computer programs for a particular procedure
 full generic names of chemicals or compounds that you have referred to in
somewhat abbreviated fashion or by some common name in the text of
your article
 diagrams of specialised apparatus used

4.3 What not to do:

DO NOT USE FOOTNOTES: Footnoting, although commonly done in books


and other literary writing, is only rarely done in journal style papers.
DO NOT USE DIRECT QUOTES from published material: In 99.99% of the
cases, the information you want from a research article is an objective result or
interpretation. How the author stated this information, i.e., their written
language, is of little importance compared to the results or interpretations
themselves. Take the information and put it into your own words; avoid
paraphrasing since this can potentially lead to plagiarism. Plagiarism (use of
others words, ideas, images, etc. without citation)
DO NOT DIVIDE SOURCES INTO SORTS: For example, books separately.
List all sources alphabetically according to the authors.

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PART 5: Referencing techniques: Harvard method
References form an integral part of any research report/article/thesis etc. The
aim is to grant recognition to the author whose particulars or information are
used.

References should be made when:

 A specific person, viewpoint or conclusion is referred to;


 Copy (use figures, tables or structure);
 Paraphrase (convert someone else’s ideas into your own words);
 Summarise (use a brief account of someone else’s ideas);
 Information such as statistics, etc. is used;
 Quote (use someone else’s exact words), and
 To enable the reader to consult the specified source to gather more
information, or to verify the information.

WARNING
Consider the under mentioned reference
methods to be a guideline only.

The Harvard method of referencing

According to this author - date method, references are made in the text and
the source is fully recorded in the bibliography/reference list. Only those
sources which are referred to in the text must be included in the bibliography
(source reference list).

In text the Harvard system uses:

 author’s surname;
 year of publication; and
 page reference

The order is:


bracket Author’s surname comma space Year colon space page/s bracket
e.g. (Smith, 1989: 45-54).

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5.1 PRINTED MATERIAL: in-text citations
Referencing or citation is to be used within the text
of research projects:

 for direct quotations;


 to validate ideas and opinions; and
 for paraphrasing or indirect quotations.

Examples of in-text citations

5.1.1 Citing book resources

1. The initials or first names of the authors are not used in the
text, except where there is more than one author with the same
surname.
e.g. can occur in various instances (Huskisson, 2010: 89).

2. When the author’s name makes up part of the sentence,


only the year of publication and the page number are placed
in round brackets.
e.g. according to Huskisson (2010: 90) diabetes appears in …

3. Summarising an author’s opinion no page references,


you refer to the entire source.
e.g. 1st reference: David Birdson (2009) made a strong plea …
OR 2nd reference: Birdson (2009) made a strong plea …

4. If a book has been written by two authors, both are mentioned.


e.g. Redelinghuys and Steyn (2007: 112) saw the policy as

5. If sources by two authors with the same surname are used,


their initials are also included.
e.g. J. Husk (2009: 10) and D. Husk (2008: 34) allege …
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6. In the case of three authors, all three are mentioned.

e.g. … variables can be discreet or continuous (Redelinghuys, Steyn &


Benade, 2009: 200).

7. In the case of sources with more than three up to six authors, a


researcher can choose one of two citation methods:

Method 1: The title of the source is given as the author.

e.g. (Teaching and Learning, 1998: 39).

Method 2: All the authors are mentioned in the first reference, and thereafter
only the first author, followed by et al., is mentioned.

e.g. 1st reference: … materials may change (Wilson, Loeb, Walsh,


Labouvie, Petkova & Luit, 1999: 451).
2nd reference: Use of different materials may be
suggested (Wilson et al., 1999: 455).

8. In the case of sources with more than six authors, give the first six
authors and abbreviate the remaining authors to et al. in the first
reference, and thereafter only the first author, followed by et al. is
mentioned.

e.g. 1st reference: … projects may fail (Davis, Charles, Curry, Shanti,
Prasad, Hewings et al. 2003 : 46).
2nd reference: Project life cycles are effected (Davis et al., 2003: 35).

9. The works of authors who have written more than one book
in the same year are differentiated from each other by placing a
small letter in the text after the date. This letter is repeated in the date
in the source reference list.

e.g. … many builders and construction managers use slate and ceramic
tiles in combination in kitchens (Huskisson, 2018a: 45; Huskisson,
2018b: 30).

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9. In the case of an editor, the name of the editor and year of
publication are placed in round brackets in the text.

e.g. (Codagen, 2011: 67).


*Note that the ‛(Ed.)’ is not included in the text reference.

10. When a quote is from a secondary source, both sources must be


cited in your text.

e.g. The atmospheric temperature does seem to be rising,


according to trends discovered by Kuhn (cited in
Harvey, 1999: 16) or (Kuhn cited in Harvey, 1999: 16).

11. When you reference different material from the same author,
arrange them in chronological order.

e.g. Dwyer (1997: 19-20; 1999: 43) claimed that …

12. When referring to more than one source to proof the same
fact, all the sources are mentioned in the same reference in
chronological order.

e.g. (Laonde, 1998: 65; Fisher, 1999: 2; Krikbush, 2004: 10).

13. When referring to sources where the date cannot be determined,


use the abbreviation [n.d.] (no date) in square brackets.

e.g. (Van Biljon, [n.d.]: 45).

14. When referring to sources written or published by institutions etc. The


author is a corporate author(s).

e.g. (HSRC, 2007: 35)


(HSRC is the abbreviation for Human Sciences Research Council)

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5.1.2 Citing government publications
Departments
(Country. Department name, Year: Page/s)

If a reference is made to material from a government department and the author is


known, treat the document like a book. If the author is not known, the department
is assumed to be the author.

e.g. (South Africa. Department of Education, 2000: 13).

Acts
(Country. Act name Date: page/s)

e.g. (South Africa. Labour Relations Act 1995: 14).

Reference to an article in an act:

e.g. (South Africa. Labour Relations Act 1995, art. 38).

Government Gazettes
(Country. Government Gazette, Date of publication: page/s)

e.g. (South Africa. Government Gazette, 2002: 8).

White papers
(Country. White paper’s name, Date: page/s)

e.g. (South Africa. White Paper on Safety and Security,


1998: 15).

Bills
(Country. Bill name, Date: page/s)

e.g. (South Africa. Anti-terrorism Bill, 2002: 5).

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5.2 PRINTED MATERIAL: references list
In the references list complete bibliographic particulars of the sources are
given. Do not divide sources into sorts For example, books separately. These
sources are listed alphabetically according to the author. The title is in italics.
Consistency in the choice of this format is very important. Under no
circumstances may a source be recorded in the references list if it has
not been referred to in the text.

Examples of referencing in the reference list

BOOKS
Determining authorship
Entries in the bibliography / reference list are made as follows:

1. One author: Huskisson, J.M. 1999.


2. Two authors: Steyn, B.L. & Benade, F.C. 2005.
3. Three authors: Peters, E., Plow, E. & Tric, J.M. 2008.
4. Four up to six authors: Choose one of two methods:
Method 1: Written under the title of the source.
e.g. Teaching and Learning, 1999. 2nd edition. South Africa: Lexikon printers.
OR
Method 2: All the authors of the source must be mentioned.
e.g. Broglia, R., Schelpe, E., Hall, A. & Mair, J., Drewes, S. & Hough, C.F.
2002. Project management. London: Routledge.
5. More than six authors: give the first six authors and abbreviate the
remaining authors to et al.
e.g. Davis, M., Charles, L., Curry, M.J., Shanti, P., Prasad, S.,
Hewings, A. et al. 2003. Challenging spatial norms, London: Routledge.
6. Editors: Use the abbreviation Ed. for editor or Eds for editors, after the
initials of the editor in round brackets.
e.g. Louw, W.J. (Ed.). 1993.
7. Corporate authors:
e.g. Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC). 2007. Housing policy.
8. No author: the source is entered under its title.

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Date of publication
This is the date of publication as it appears on the title page, on the reverse
side of the title page, or in any other place in the publication. If a date cannot
be determined, use the abbreviation [n.d.] (no date) in square brackets.

e.g. Kotler, [n.d.]. Organisational behaviour. Cape Town: Kagiso.

If more than one publication from an author are published in different


years, then the references should be cited in chronological order (earliest first)

e.g. Smith, C.J. 1992. Building law. Cape Town: Juta.


Smith, C.J. 2001. Building practice. Cape Town: Juta.
Smith, C.J. 2005. Construction law. Cape Town: Juta.
Title
The full title, as it appears on the title page, is provided and is in italics in the
bibliography.

e.g. History of architecture.

A subtitle is separated from the title by means of a colon.

e.g. Media ethics: An introduction and overview.


*Note the first letter after the colon is capitalised.

Edition or print
Print and first editions of sources are not mentioned, only 2nd, 3rd, etc. No
abbreviation is used, write out 2nd edition.

e.g. Connolly, T.M. Database systems: a practical approach to


design, implementation and management. 2nd edition.

Place of publication
If there is more than one place of publication, only the first one is mentioned.

e.g. Greenstein, M. 2000. Electronic commerce: security, risk


management and control. Boston:

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If the place of publication cannot be established, the abbreviation [n.p.] (no
place of publication) in square brackets is used.

e.g. Greenstein, M. 2000. Electronic commerce: security, risk


management and control. [n.p.]:

Publisher
The initials of the publisher are not included.

e.g. Kotler, C. 1978. Organisational behaviour. London: Taylor &


Francis.
If the publisher and the author are the same person, the publisher is not
included.
If the publisher of a source cannot be determined, the abbreviation [n.p.]
(no publisher) in square brackets is used.

e.g. Kotler, K. 2011. Consumer behaviour. Britain: [n.p.].

Series
If the source being used is one of a series of sources, the entry is written
between round brackets and is placed at the end of the description.

e.g. Rosandich, R. G. 1997. Intelligent visual inspection: using


artificial neural networks. London: Chapman & Hall.
(Intelligent engineering series no. 1).

CONTRIBUTION IN A BOOK
Elements to cite:

Contributing author's surname, INITIALS. Year of publication. Title of


contribution. Followed by In: surname, INITIALS. of author or editor of
publication followed by Ed. or Eds if relevant. Title of book. Place of
publication: Publisher, Page number(s) of contribution.

e.g. Bantz, C.R. 1995. Software development. In: Anderson, J.A.


(Ed.). Annual review of software management and
development. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, pp. 502-510.
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EDITORIAL WORK
Elements to cite:

The surname of the person who wrote the chapter in the book, INITIALS. Year
of publication. Title of the chapter in the book that was used. Followed by In:
surname, INITIALS. of author of editorial work. Title of the book that was used.
Place of publication: Publisher, Page number(s) of contribution.

e.g. Morton, J.A. 2002. The state of the art in linguistic research
and standardisation. In: Marais, J. (Ed.). Quebec’s aboriginal
languages: history, planning and development. England:
Clevedon, pp. 129-158.

JOURNAL ARTICLE
Author’s surname, INITIALS. Year of publication. Title of article. Title of
journal, volume number and (part number), page numbers of contribution,
Month of publication, DOI number.

e.g. Zulch, B.G. 2016. A model for construction project


communication. Acta Structilia, 23(1), pp. 1-35. DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.18820/1023-0564/as23i1.1

NEWSPAPER ARTICLE

Elements to cite:

Author’s surname, INITIALS. Year of publication. Title of article. Title of


newspaper, Day & Month of publication, Page number of contribution.

e.g. Mitchell, J.A. 2017. Changes to citation formats shake the


research world. The Mendeley Telegraph (Weekend edition),
6 July, pp. 9-12.

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CONFERENCE PAPER
Elements to cite:

Contributing author's Surname, INITIALS. Year of publication. Title of


contribution. Followed by In: Surname, INITIALS. of editor of conference
proceedings (if applicable) followed by Ed. or Eds Title of conference
proceedings including date and place of conference. Place of publication:
Publisher, Page numbers of contribution.

e.g. Jenkins, K. 2011. Green building: Future trends. In:


Raitt, D.I. (Ed.). Proceedings of the international conference
on sustainability, London 3-5 December 2011. Oxford:
Learned Information, pp. 323-330.

THESIS

Elements to cite:

Author's Surname, INITIALS. Year of publication. Title of thesis. Designation


(and type). Place of publication: Name of institution to which it was submitted.

e.g. Agutter, A.J. 1995. The linguistic significance of current British


slang. Thesis (PhD). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University.

*UNPUBLISHED WORK

Elements to cite:

Author’s surname, INITIALS. Year of publication. Title of source. Followed by


Unpublished thesis/book/poem etc. Place of publication: Publisher.

e.g. Brown, S.E. 2018. Different management styles. Unpublished


thesis (MBA). Bloemfontein: University of the Free State.

*Note: The title is not in italics.

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PUBLICATION FROM A CORPORATE BODY
Elements to cite:

NAME OF ISSUING BODY. Year of publication. Title of publication. Place of


publication: Publisher, Report Number (where relevant).
e.g. UNESCO. 1993. General information programme and
UNISIST. Paris: Unesco, (PGI-93/WS/22).

DICTIONARY
Elements to cite:

Title of dictionary. Year of publication. Edition. Place of publishing: publisher.


e.g. Shorter Oxford dictionary. 1993. Oxford: OUP.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA
Elements to cite:

Author surname, INITIALS. Year of publication. Article title. In: Title of


encyclopaedia, vol., page numbers.
e.g. Lessing, B.P. 1985. Nuclear energy. In: McGraw-Hill
encyclopaedia of science and technology, 12., pp. 346-347.
*Note: It is unnecessary to cite the place of publication and publisher of a well
known encyclopaedia.

PATENT
Elements to cite:

*ORIGINATOR, Year of publication. Title of patent. Series designation.


e.g. PHILIP MORRIS INC., 1981. Optical perforating apparatus
and system. European patent application 0021165 A1.
*Note: the originator’s details must be in capital letters

UFS Page 42 Department of Quantity Surveying and


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DRAWING, FIGURE, PICTURE, PHOTO, IMAGE
Elements to cite:

Artist/Photographer’s name, Initials. Date. Title. Material designation.


Collection details as available (Collection, Document number, Place: Name of
library/archive/repository).

e.g. Beaton, C., 1944. China 1944: A mother resting her


head on her sick child's pillow in the Canadian Mission
Hospital in Chengtu. Photograph (London, Imperial War
Museum Collection).

MAP
Elements to cite:

Map maker, Year of issue. Title of map. Map series, Sheet number, scale.
Place of publication: Publisher.

e.g. Ordnance Survey, 2006. Chester and North Wales.


Landranger series, Sheet 106, 1:50000. Southampton:
Ordnance Survey.

LAW REPORTS

Elements to cite:

Name of the parties involved in the law case, [Year of publication/reporting]


Volume number (if available) Abbreviation for the law reporting series Page
number (court).

BP Southern Africa v Mahmood Investments [2010] 2 All SA 295 (SCA)

UFS Page 43 Department of Quantity Surveying and


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GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS
Departments

Elements to cite:

Official name of country. Name of department. Date of publication. Title of


document. Place of publication: Publisher.

e.g. South Africa. Department of Home Affairs. 1980. Guidelines


for chairmen of publications committees. Pretoria:
Government Printer.
Acts

Elements to cite:

Official name of country. Date of publication. Title of act, number and year of
act. Place of publication: Publisher.

e.g. South Africa. 2000. Quantity Surveying Profession Act, Act 49


of 2000. Pretoria: Government Printer.

Government Gazettes

Elements to cite:

Official name of country. Date of publication. Title of government gazette.


(Proclamation number). Government Gazette, number(volume), month day.
(Regulation gazette number). Place of publication: Publisher.

e.g. South Africa. 2001. Local government: Municipal planning and


performance management regulations. (Proclamation No. R,
796). Government Gazette, 22605(434), August 24.
(Regulation gazette No. 7146). Pretoria: Government
Printer.

UFS Page 44 Department of Quantity Surveying and


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Green papers

Elements to cite:

Official name of country. Department. Date of publication. Title of green paper.


Place of publication: Publisher.

e.g. South Africa. Department of Labour. 1997. Skills development


strategy for economic and employment growth in South
Africa. Pretoria: Government Printer.

White papers
a) Published separately b) In the Government Gazette

Elements to cite: Elements to cite:

Official name of country. Depart- Official name of country. Department.


ment. Date of publication. Title of Date of publication. Title of white paper.
white paper. Place of publication: Government Gazette: no, month day.
Publisher. Place of publication: Publisher.

e.g. South Africa. Department of e.g. South Africa. Department of


Home Affairs. 1999. White Paper on Transport. 2002. White Paper on Nation-
International Migration. Pretoria: al Ports Policy. Government Gazette:
Government Printer. 23715, August 8. Pretoria: Government
Printer.
Bills

Elements to cite:

Official name of country. Department. Date of publication. Title of bill. Place of


publication: Publisher.

e.g. South Africa. Department of Public Works. 2000. Quantity


Surveying Profession Bill. Pretoria: Government Printer.

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5.3 NON-TEXT MATERIAL: in-text citations
Electronic/internet sources
(Author, date: online)

e.g. (Smith, 2002: online).

Personal communication
If there is a need to cite unpublished information gained from a private letter,
conversation or interview. Seek permission before using as a reference.
(Surname and Initials of person with whom the communication was, year:
personal communication)

e.g. (Endeman, 2003: personal communication).

Interview or Correspondence
Surname and Initials of person with whom the interview or correspondence
was, year: interview or correspondence)

e.g. (Schaie, 1993: interview).

Video, Film, DVD or CD-ROM


(Author [if available] or Title, date: video or film or DVD or CD-ROM)
e.g. (Jones, 1995: video) or (Macbeth, 1948: film).

Broadcast and Programmes


(Title, date: broadcast)

e.g. (News at ten, 1996: broadcast).

* Maps, Drawings, Figures, Pictures, Photo’s, Images


(Originator’s Surname, date: own map or own picture or own drawing)
e.g. (Calditz, 2006: own map).

* From primary source: (Author, date: page number)


e.g. Source: (Calditz, 2006: 35).

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5.4 NON-TEXT MATERIAL: references list

INTERVIEW OR CORRESPONDENCE
Elements to cite:

Name of person interviewed, Date. (Professional capacity of person). Description


of interview. Place, day and month.
e.g. Schaie, K.W. 1993. (Quantity Surveyor: De Leeuw). Personal
interview about quantity surveying statistics. Pretoria, 27 July .
Preller, J.F. 2000. (Quantity Surveyor: Preller and Partners).
Correspondence on JBCC applications. Pretoria, 15 November.

PERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Elements to cite:

Surname, Initials of person with whom the communication was. Year.


(Professional capacity of person). Description of personal communication. Place
where communication took place, date.
e.g. Endeman, L.C.P. 2018. (Director of Endeman Construction).
Personal communication on the use of slate tiles for outdoor
spaces. Cape Town,15 July.

VIDEO, FILM, DVD OR CD-ROM


Elements to cite:

Title, Year. (For films the preferred date is the year of release in the country of
production). Material designation. Subsidiary originator. (optional, but director is
preferred.) Surname. Production details - place: organisation.
e.g. Macbeth, 1948. Film. Directed by Orson Wellus. USA: Republic
Pictures.
Birds in the Garden, 1998. Video. London: X Videos.

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BROADCAST AND PROGRAMMES
The number and title of the episode should normally be given, as well as the
series title, the transmitting organisation and channel, and the full date and time of
transmission.

e.g. Yes, Prime Minister, Episode 1, The Ministerial Broad


cast, 1986. TV, BBC2. 1986 Jan 16.
News at Ten, 1996. Jan 27. 2200 hrs.
*Note: time of program are cited without a colon between 22 and 00
Individual items within a programme should be cited as contributions.
Blair, Tony, 1997. Interview. In: Six O’clock News. TV,
BBC1. 1997 Feb 29. 1823 hrs.

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5.5 ELECTRONIC MATERIAL: in-text citations
No standard method for citing electronic sources of information has yet been
agreed upon. The recommendations in this document follow the practices
most likely to be adopted on the basis of the Harvard method of referencing,
and are intended as a guide for those needing to cite electronic sources of
information.

Follow the “author - date” procedure as prescribed by the Harvard method for
use during normal citing of information sources.

e.g. (Smith, 2002: online)

*Note that the date in the reference is the date published rather than the date
retrieved and you only need to provide the year.

5.6 ELECTRONIC MATERIAL: the references list

Referencing individual works or normal www pages

Elements to cite:

Author/Editor.
Year.
Title.
[online].
Edition.
Place of publication:
Publisher (if ascertainable).
Available at: <URL> [Accessed date].

e.g. Holland, M. 2018. Citing references. [online]. Poole:


Bournemouth University. Available from:
<http:www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library/citing_references/docs/
Citing_Refs.pdf> [Accessed 17 August 2018].

UFS Page 49 Department of Quantity Surveying and


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E-journals

Elements to cite:

Author. Year. Title. Journal Title [online], volume (issue), location within host.
Available from: <URL> [Accessed Date].

e.g. Korb, K.B. 1995. Persons and things: book review of


Bringsjord on Robot-Consciousness. Psycoloquy [online], 6
(15). Available at: <http://psycprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk/
archive/000462/> [Accessed 20 May 2018].

E-books freely available

Elements to cite:

Author, Initials., Year. Title of book. [e-book] Place of


publication (if known): Publisher. Followed by Available from: e-book source
and web address or URL for the e-book [Accessed date].

e.g. Cookson, J. & Church, S. (eds.). 2007. Leisure and the


tourist. [e-book] Wallingford: ABS Publishers. Available from:
Google Books <books google.com> [Accessed 9 June 2018].

E-books from specific e-readers such as Kindle

Elements to cite:

Author, Initials., Year, Title of book. [e-book type] Place of publication (if
known): Publisher. Followed by Available at: e-book source and web address
[Accessed date].

e.g. Patterson, M. 2012. Lost places in dreams. [Kindle DX


version] Transworld Media. Available from: Amazon.co.uk
<http:// www.amazon.co.uk> [Accessed 9 June 2018].

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Electronic mail (e-mail)

Elements to cite:

Sender (Sender's e-mail address). Day Month Year. Subject of Message. E-


mail to Recipient (Recipient's e-mail address).

e.g. Lowman, D. ([email protected]). 4 Apr 2016.


RE: ProCite and Internet Refere. E-mail to P. Cross
([email protected]).

Notes on Blackboard

Elements to cite:

Author. Year. Lecture title from module code (capitalise) title of module.
Teaching organisation, location and date of presentation. Available from:
Blackboard [Accessed Date].

e.g. Beukes, A.E. 2018. Harvard method of referencing, from


BKI404 Research methodology. University of the Free State,
Bloemfontein on 6th June 2012. Available at: Blackboard
[Accessed 17 June 2018].

Pdf documents

*Note: For a pdf file, it is acceptable to reference this as you would


reference a print document.

Elements to cite:

Authorship, Year. Title of documents. [type of medium] Place of publication (if


known): Publisher. Followed by Available at: include web address or URL for
the actual pdf, where available [Accessed date].
e.g. Bank of England, 2018. Inflation Report. [pdf]. Bank of England.
Available at: <http://www.Bankofengland.co.uk/publications/
inflationreport/ir08nov.pdf> [Accessed 20 April 2018].

UFS Page 51 Department of Quantity Surveying and


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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anglia Ruskin University Library. 2011. Guide to the Harvard style of


referencing. 3rd edition. Cambridge & Chelmsford: Anglia Ruskin University.

Berry, R. 1994. The research project: How to write it. 3rd edition. London:
Routledge.

Burger, M. 1992. Reference techniques. 8th revised edition. Pretoria: University


of South Africa.

De Montford University. Library Services.1999. The Harvard method of


referencing. Leicester: De Montford University.

Department of Computer Science. 2004. Guidelines for writing a successful


thesis proposal. [online]. University of Manitoba. Available from: <http://
www.cs.umanitoba.ca/newsite/docs/ProposalGuidelines.pdf> [Accessed 16
November 2005].

Graduate School. 2005. Guidelines for preparing a thesis or dissertation.


[online]. New Mexiko State University. Available from: <http://
gradschool.nmsu.edu/Guidelines/msformat.html> [Accessed 16 November
2005].

Holland, M. 2006. Citing references. [online]. Poole: Bournemouth University.


Available from: <http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library/citing_references/docs/
Citing_Refs.pdf> [Accessed 17 August, 2006].

How to write an abstract: Links and tips. [online]. Available from: <http://
research.berkeley.edu/ucday/abstract.html> [Accessed: 10 August 2007].

Koopman, P. 1997. How to write an abstract. [online]. Carnegie Mellon


University. Availble from: <http://www.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/essays/
abstract.html> [Accessed: 10 August 2007].

Lategan, O.K. & Lues, L. (Eds). 2005. Doing research: A general overwiew of
the research process. Bloemfontein: Tekskor.

UFS Page 52 Department of Quantity Surveying and


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LEO: Literacy Education. 1998. Online writing abstracts. [online]. Write Place,
St. Cloud State University, St. Cloud, Minnesota. Available from: <http://
leo.stcloudstate.edu/bizwrite/abstracts.html> [Accessed: 10 August 2007].

Mirowsky, J. 2007. Writing an informative abstract. [online]. American


Sociological Association. Available from: <http://www.asanet.org/cs/root/
leftnav/publications/journals/writing_an_informative_abstract> [Accessed: 10
August 2007].

MIT Online Writing and Community Centre. 1999. Writing a thesis. [online].
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Available from: <http://web.mit.edu/
writing/Writing_Types/writingthesis.html> [Accessed 16 November 2005].

OWL Online Writing Lab. 2004. Quotation marks. [online]. West Lafayette
Indiana: Purdue University. Available from: <http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
handouts/print/grammar/g_quote.html>[Accessed 10 May 2005].

PU vir CHO (Potchefstroomse Universiteit vir Christelike Hoër Onderwys).


1998. Handleiding vir bibliografiese styl. Potchefstroom: PU vir CHO
(D225/97).

University of the Free State (UFS). 2010. The Policy on the Prevention of
Plagiarism and Dealing with Academic Writing Misconduct. Bloemfontein:
UFS.

Washington State University. [n.d.]. Guidelines for writing the thesis. [online].
Honors College. Available from: <http://www.wsu.edu/~honors/thesis/
Writing_paper.html> [Accessed 16 November 2005].

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