Primitive tools to cut and scrape go

back at least 150,000 yrs

Subtractive
Processes:
Machining
2.810
T. Gutowski

5 axis machining of aluminum

Machining tutorial:
http://electron.mit.edu/~gsteele/mirrors/www.nmis.org/EducationTraining/machineshop/mill/intro.html

1
 Ancient Tools & Structures

Stone work in Cuzco Peru - Sacsayhuaman

2
Modern Machining Practice

5 axis High speed

Complex parts New Configurations

3
4
Why machining is still
important

Kalpakjian & Schmid 5

Why machining is still
important

machining

Kalpakjian & Schmid 6

 Compared to Additive

Ref Lienke et al, U. Paderborn, Germany (DIN German Standard for part tolerance)

7
What prevents machining from
being a fully digital technology?
1. Large cutting forces require
• Secure fixturing

• Robust tools & tool holders

• Limiting geometrical access

• Requiring repeated fixturing

8
Basic Mechanics Issues
– Shear strain

– Power, plastic work

– Friction, forces

– Temperature rise

– Heat, Tool materials, Rate limits

9
Basic Machining Mechanism

Eugene Merchant’s model for orthogonal cutting

Video on plastic deformation in machining10

Basic Machining Mechanism
Shear takes place in
a narrow zone near
the tool tip at angle ,
the tool has rake angle ,
the resulting shears is 
From geometry,

= cot() + tan ( - )

 becomes large for small 

→small or negative 
11
Observation for Video

12
Basic Machining Mechanism

Kalpakjian & Schmid

13
 Basic Machining Mechanism

tc
Chip
Rake
angle V
- +

Tool Fc
t0 

Shear plane Shear angle

Workpiece

Friction? 14
 Basic Machining Mechanism
If friction work uf
is about 0.25 to 0.5 of up (Ref Cook)
Chip
tc
Then specific cutting work (the total)
Rake
angle V “us” is about 9/16 x Hardness “H”
- +

Tool Fc
t0  Approximate scaling:
Shear plane Shear angle us ~ H (Hardness)
Workpiece

We will use tabulated values for specific energy

See tables 21.2 for cutting and Table 26.2 for grinding

15
Cutting forces
Fc = cutting force
N = normal force
F = friction force
R = resultant force
Ft = thrust force
= friction coef
 = friction angle

16
 The Merchant Equation

17
Ref. Groover
 The Merchant Equation

18
Ref. Groover
 The Thrust Force

19
Ref. Kalpakjian & Schmid
 Specific energy, uS

For comparison see Table 26.2 for grinding 20

 Specific energy, uS
Cutting

Grinding

For comparison see Table 26.2 for grinding 21

See Kalpakjian & Schmid
Chapter 26: Abrasive Machining

Surface Grinding

22
 Approximations:
Hence we have the approximation;

Power ≈ us X MRR
MRR is the Material Removal Rate or d(Vol)/dt
Since Power is
P = Fc * V
and MRR can be written as,
d(Vol)/dt = A * V
Where A is the cross-sectional area of the undeformed chip, we can get
an estimate for the cutting force as,

Fc ≈ us  A
Note that this approximation is the cutting force in the cutting direction.

23
 Basic Machining Processes
* Grinding
Turning
Grinding
V
wheel
D
Grains

v Workpiece

Milling
*
Cutter Arbor Spindle
Shank
Spindle End mill

Arbor

Horizontal Slab milling Face milling End milling

24
* Source: Kalpakjian, “Manufacturing Engineering and Technology”
 Cutter Geometries

Form Tool
End Mills

Face
Mill

25
Cutting Force Directions in Milling
Fcn
Fp

Fc

Fc
Fp Fcn

Fp

Fcn
Fc ~ H  Ac
Fcn Fc
Fc (Tangential Cutting Force ~
Fp Chip Cross-section  Hardness) 26
Face Milling

27
 Feed per Tooth and MRR
W = rotational rate (rpm)

Top view of face milling

With 4 tooth cutter v (m/s) d

f = feed per tooth (m) Side view

w = width of cut (m)

Consider the workpiece moving into the cutter at rate “v”. In travel time t’ the
feed is v t’. The time for one rotation is t’ = 1/W. The travel for one tooth is
1/4W. Hence the feed per tooth is f = v/4W. In general, a cutter may have “N”
teeth, so the feed per tooth is
f = v / NW
The material removal rate (MRR) is, Force ≈ f d us
MRR = v w d = f d x wNW
where “d” is the depth of the tool into the workpiece. 28
 Ex) Face milling of Al Alloy
N = 4 (number of teeth)
vw
D = 2” (cutter diameter)
Let w = 1” (width of cut), d=0.1” (depth of cut)
f = 0.007” (feed per tooth),
d =D
vs = 2500 ft/min (surface speed; depends on
cutting tool material; here, we must have a
w coated tool such as TiN or PCD)

The rotational rate for the spindle is

W = vs / pD = 4775 rpm
Now, we can calculate vw, workpiece velocity,
f = vw / N W => vw= 134 [in/min]

Material removal rate, MRR = vw*w*d = 13.4 [in3/min]

Power requirement, P = us*MRR = 5.36 [hp]
Cutting force / tooth, F ~ us*d*f = 111 [lbf]
us from Table 21.2 (20.2 ed 4); Note 1 [hp min/in3] = 3.96*105 [psi]
29
30
Ex) Turning a stainless steel bar
Recommended feed = 0.006” (Table 23.4 (22.4))
Recommended surface speed = 1000 ft/min
f
D=1”
W= 1000 ft/min = 3820 rpm
p*1” * 1ft/12”
d

Tool Let d = 0.1”

Material removal rate, MRR = 0.1*0.006*(p*1*3820) = 7.2 [in3/min]

Power requirement, P = us*MRR = 1.9*7.2 = 13.7 [hp]
Cutting force / tooth, F ~ us*d*f = (1.9*3.96*105)*(0.1*0.006)
= 450 [lbf]

us from Table 21.2 (20.2 ed 4); Note 1 [hp min/in3] = 3.96*105 [psi]

31
Consequences of large forces
• Secure fixturing

• Robust tools & tool holders

• Limiting geometrical access

• Requiring repeated fixturing

• Heat Rise, Cutting tool requirements

32
 Temperature Rise in Cutting
*

Adiabatic Temperature Rise:

r c DT = uS

Note : uS ~ H, Hardness
DTadiabatic ≈ ½ Tmelt (Al & Steel)

Interface Temperature:
Typical temperature distribution
in the cutting zone
DT = 0.4 (H / r c)(v f / )0.33

v = cutting speed
f = feed
 = thermal diffusivity of workpiece
Note v f /  = Pé = convection/conduction
* Reference: N. Cook, “Material Removal Processes” 33
* Source: Kalpakjian, and Schmidt 5th ed
Effect of temperature on
Hardness

34
Tool Life
Frederick Winslow Taylor
-1856 to 1915
•Tool life
•Scientific management

Note C = V for T = 1 min.

range for n is 0.08 to 0.7
See text Ch 21 35
Optimum cutting speed range

36
New Tooling Materials and
their effect on Productivity

100 to 0.5 in 110 years → ~ 5%/yr

37
 Limits to MRR in Machining
 Spindle Power – for rigid, well supported parts
 Cutting Force – may distort part, break delicate
tools
 Vibration and Chatter – lack of sufficient rigidity in
the machine, workpiece and cutting tool may result
in self-excited vibration
 Heat – heat build-up may produce poor surface
finish, excessive work hardening, “welding”; can be
reduced with cutting fluid
 Economics - tool changes

See Video on Rate Limits In Machining

38
High speed Machining and Assembly
• High Speed Machined aluminum parts are replacing built-up
parts made by forming and assembly (riveting) in the aerospace
industry. The part below was machined on a 5-axis Makino
(A77) at Boeing using a 8-15k rpm spindle speed, and a feed of
240 ipm vs 60 ipm conventional machining. This part replaces a
build up of 25 parts. A similar example exists for the F/A-18
bulkhead (Boeing, St. Louis) going from 90 pieces (sheetmetal
build-up) to 1 piece. High speed machining is able to cut walls to
0.020” (0.51mm) without distortion. Part can be fixtured using
“window frame” type fixture.

MRR = f d * N W w

39
 High Speed Machining

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3YzAl29Ag78 40
Machine tool configurations
• Machine tool
number of axes, spindles, serial and parallel
configurations
• Cutter geometry
Form tool, cutter radius, inserts, tool changers
• Software
flexibility, geometrical compensation, “look ahead”
dynamics compensation

41
 Various Machine Tool Configurations
*
Head

Table
Column

Saddle

Knee

Base

42
* Source: Kalpakjian, “Manufacturing Engineering and Technology”
 Various Machine Tool Configurations

43
* Source: Kalpakjian, “Manufacturing Engineering and Technology”
44
 Some Machining
Developments
• 5 Axis machining

• Diamond turning

• Micro-machining

• Fast tool server

• Cryogenic cooling
45
 5 Axis Machining
• David Kim

46
 5 axis machining demos

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yU_RHiHudag&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0u2xC60-oMI&NR=1 47
 Diamond Turning

Bob Donaldson ?
LLNL

Optical surfaces (400-700nm) surface finish ~1nm, temp control ±0.01F

48
 Diamond Turning

Empire Precision

Davies et al 49
 Micro machining

Diamond turning
& micro-milling
50
Micro machining

51
 Micro Machines & Factories
Micro machines

Micro Factory developed at Mech Eng Lab AIST Japan

52
 53
MS Thesis Thilo Grove Part available on Alibaba
 Hexapod Milling Machines
*

Stewart
Platform

Linear actuator

Tool

Hexapod machining center Schematics

(Ingersoll, USA)

54
* Source: http://macea.snu.ac.kr/eclipse/background/background.html
Institut für Werkzeugmaschinen und Fertigung
Hexaglide from Zurich (ETH)

www.iwf.mavt.ethz.ch/ 55
 Fast Tool Servo
http://web.mit.edu/pmc/www/index.html

Ref D. Trumper 56
Rotary Fast Tool Servo Machine for Eyeglass Lenses

57
D. Trumper & students
Tool at end of arm rotates about vertical axis

58
 Asymmetric Turning Operation
• Spectacle lenses
• Contact lenses
• Human lens implants
• Elements for laser vision
correction surgery
• Camera lenses
• Image train elements in
semiconductor processing
• Camshafts
• Not-round pistons
59
Fast Tool Servo State of the Art

Lu/Trumper

Bandwidth 23 kHz

Stroke 30 m

RMS tracking error:

1.7 nm

Peak acceleration:
500g

60
Diamond Turning Machine Cross Section

61
 Satisloh

http://www.satisloh.com/usa-canada/ophthalmic/generating/vft-orbit/
62
 Cryogenic Machining
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GFOXbb7P2jc

63
 Cryogenic Cutting Tools
CYCLO CUT ® Brand
•Cryogen to the cutting edge MAG
Cryogenic
•Solid carbide end mills
Vented,
and drills Heat-sink
•Index end mills, application
face mills, turning
and boring tools
CHIP
FLOW

-321°F

64
64
 Cryogenic Cutting Tools
CYCLO CUT ® Brand
•Cryogen to the cutting edge
•Solid carbide end mills
and drills
LN2 through tool
77K (-321 °F)
•Index end mills,
face mills, turning $0.06/liter
and boring tools
Claims:
30% - 50% higher feed rate
CHIP
(up to 2X)
FLOW
60% tool life
No cleaning of part
Easy disposal

65
65
Historical Development of
Machine Tools

Henry Maudslay, and screw cutting lathe circa 1797

66
Early paper on
cutting
mechanics

Prof Milt Shaw Prof Nate Cook

M.I.T., LMP

67
 NC machine tool developed at MIT mid 1950’s

68
* Source: Reintjes, “Numerical Control 1991”
69
 Readings
 Kalpakjian & Schmid Machining chapters
are extensive: Ch 21-27
 Design for Machining handout
 AM tolerances paper available but not
required (i.e. Lienke et al U. Paderborn)

70