Unit 3 (Syllabus)

Pre-processing of spatial datasets Different map projections, Spatial interpolation techniques, Different
types of resolutions Digital Elevation Model (DEM).
Preprocessing of spatial datasets
Data format, georeferencing system, map projection, data resolution, date of data acquisition, and spatial
data unit used for reporting attribute data are different among spatial data.
Preprocessing is a computational operation that helps us to use various spatial datasets together in our
analysis. It includes conversion of data format, conversion of georeferencing system, and spatial
interpolation.
If you are interested in a spatial phenomenon at a local scale, Cartesian coordinate systems are better than
longitude-latitude system. If the data are obtained only at sample points, you may have to interpolate
them. If you want to know the population in a small region and the data are aggregated by prefectures,
you have to estimate the population from the data.
If you use only one database, you may not be troubled with such problems. However, when you use
several datasets simultaneously, overlaying them and performing calculations among datasets, you will
face those intricate but important problems. Data preprocessing is essential in spatial data mining.
Spatial preprocessing types
1. Conversion of data format
2. Conversion of georeferencing system
3. Map transformation (including conversion of map projection)
4. Spatial interpolation
5. Spatial smoothing
6. Raster-vector conversion
7. Areal interpolation
8. Spatial data fusion
Map Projection
A map projection is a mathematical formula used to transfer all or part of the curved surface of the earth
onto the flat surface of a map.
Map projections enable the reshaping of the Earth by mathematically transforming spherical coordinates
(x, y, and z) to 2-dimensional (x and y) space.
The process of flattening the earth causes distortions in one or more of the following spatial properties:
 Distance
 Area
 Shape
 Direction
No projection can preserve all these properties; as a result, all flat maps are distorted to some degree.
Fortunately, you can choose from many different map projections. Each is distinguished by its suitability
for representing a particular portion and amount of the earth's surface and by its ability to preserve
distance, area, shape, or direction. Some map projections minimize distortion in one property at the
expense of another, while others strive to balance the overall distortion. As a mapmaker, you can decide
which properties are most important and choose a projection that suits your needs.

Classifications
Map projections can be generally classified according to what spatial attribute they preserve.
 Equal area projections preserve area. Many thematic maps use an equal area projection. Maps of
the United States commonly use the Albers Equal Area Conic projection.
 Conformal projections preserve shape and are useful for navigational charts and weather maps.
Shape is preserved for small areas, but the shape of a large area, such as a continent, will be
significantly distorted. The Lambert Conformal Conic and Mercator projections are common
conformal projections.
 Equidistant projections preserve distances, but no projection can preserve distances from all
points to all other points. Instead, distance can be held true from one point (or a few points) to all
other points or along all meridians or parallels. If you will be using your map to find features that
are within a certain distance of other features, you should use an equidistant map projection.
 Azimuthal projections preserve direction from one point to all other points. This quality can be
combined with equal area, conformal, and equidistant projections, as in the Lambert Equal Area
Azimuthal and the Azimuthal Equidistant projections.
 Other projections minimize overall distortion but don't preserve any of the four spatial properties
of area, shape, distance, and direction. The Robinson projection, for example, is neither equal
area nor conformal but is aesthetically pleasing and useful for general mapping.
Cartesian coordinates
Projected coordinate systems are any coordinate system designed for a flat surface, such as a printed map
or a computer screen.
2D and 3D Cartesian coordinate systems provide the mechanism for describing the geographic location
and shape of features using x and y values. The Cartesian coordinate system uses two axes: one horizontal
(x), representing east-west, and one vertical (y), representing north-south. The point at which the axes
intersect is called the origin. Locations of geographic objects are defined relative to the origin, using the
notation (x,y), where x refers to the distance along the horizontal axis, and y refers to the distance along
the vertical axis. The origin is defined as (0,0).
In the illustration below, the notation (4, 3) records a point that is four units over in x and three units up in
y from the origin.

The XY Cartesian Coordinate System is the basis for Map Projections.

3D coordinate systems
Increasingly, projected coordinate systems also use a Z value to measure elevation above or below mean
sea level.

In the illustration below, the notation (2, 3, 4) records a point that is two units over in x and three units in
y from the origin and whose elevation is 4 units above the earth's surface (such as 4 meters above mean
sea level).

GIS is increasingly using 3D coordinates -- XY plus Z for surface elevation.

Understanding distortions
Since the earth is spherical, a challenge faced by cartographers and GIS professionals is how to represent
the real world using a flat or planar coordinate system. To understand their dilemma, consider how you
would flatten half of a basketball; it can't be done without distorting its shape or creating areas of
discontinuity. The process of flattening the earth is called projection, hence the term map projection.

Projecting the earth's surface onto a plane

A projected coordinate system is defined on a flat, two dimensional surfaces. Projected coordinates can be
defined for both 2D (x,y) and 3D (x,y,z) in which the x,y measurements represent the location on the
earth's surface and z would represent height above or below mean sea level.
Below are some examples of various methods for deriving planar map projections.

Unlike a geographic coordinate system, a projected coordinate system has constant lengths, angles, and
areas across the two dimensions. However, all map projections representing the earth's surface as a flat
map, create distortions in some aspect of distance, area, shape, or direction.

Users cope with these limitations by using map projections that fit their intended uses, geographic
location, and extent. GIS software also can transform information between coordinate systems to support
integration and critical workflows.

Many map projections are designed for specific purposes. One map projection might be used for
preserving shape while another might be used for preserving the area (conformal versus equal area).

These properties—the map projection (along with Spheroid and Datum), become important parameters
Creation of a Map Projection
The creation of a map projection involves three steps in which information is lost in each step:
 1. selection of a model for the shape of the earth or round body (choosing between a sphere or
ellipsoid)
2. transform geographic coordinates (longitude and latitude) to plane coordinates (eastings and
northings).
3. reduce the scale (in manual cartography this step came second, in digital cartography it comes last)
Choosing a projection surface
A surface that can be unfolded or unrolled into a plane or sheet without stretching, tearing or shrinking is
called a developable surface. The cylinder, cone and the plane are all developable surfaces. The sphere
and ellipsoid do not have developable surfaces, so any projection of them onto a plane will have to distort
the image.
One way of describing a projection is first to project from the Earth's surface to a developable surface
such as a cylinder or cone, and then to unroll the surface into a plane. While the first step inevitably
distorts some properties of the globe, the developable surface can then be unfolded without further
distortion.

There are three main categories of map projection, those in which projection is directly onto a flat plane,
those onto a cone sitting on the sphere that can be unwrapped, and other onto a cylinder around the sphere
that can be unrolled. All three are shown in their normal aspects. The plane often is centered upon a pole.
The cone is typically aligned with the globe such that its line of contact (tangency) coincides with a
parallel in the mid-latitudes. Moreover, the cylinder is frequently positioned tangent to the equator (unless
it is rotated 90°, as it is in the Transverse Mercator projection). As you might imagine, the appearance of
the projected grid will change quite a lot depending on the type of surface it is projected onto, how that
surface is aligned with the globe, and where that imagined light is held. The following illustrations show
some of the projected graticules produced by projection equations in each category.

Aspect of the projection

Once a choice is made between projecting onto a cylinder, cone, or plane, the aspect of the shape must be
specified. The aspect describes how the developable surface is placed relative to the globe: It may be
normal.
Four categories of Map Projections
Cylindric projection equations yield projected graticules with straight meridians and parallels that
intersect at right angles. The example shown above is a Cylindrical Equidistant (also called Plate Carrée
or geographic) in its normal equatorial aspect.
Pseudocylindric projections are variants on cylindrics in which meridians are curved. The result of a
Sinusoidal projection is shown above.
Conic projections yield straight meridians that converge toward a single point at the poles, parallels that
form concentric arcs. The example shown above is the result of an Albers Conic Equal Area, which is
frequently used for thematic mapping of mid-latitude regions.
Planar projections also yield meridians that are straight and convergent, but parallels form concentric
circles rather than arcs. Planar projections are also called azimuthal because every planar projection
preserves the property of azimuthality, directions (azimuths) from one or two points to all other points on
the map. The projected graticule shown above is the result of an Azimuthal Equidistant projection in its
normal polar aspect.

MAP Projection Categories [ More Detailed – JUST READ]

Conical (conic) projection

In conical or conic projections, the reference spherical surface is projected onto a cone placed over the
globe. The cone is cut lengthwise and unwrapped to form a flat map.

Tangent vs. secant conical projection

 Conic projection - tangent and secant © USGS

The cone may be either tangent to the reference surface along a small circle (any circle on the globe with
a diameter less than the sphere’s diameter) or it may cut through the globe and be secant (intersect) at two
small circles.

For the polar or normal aspect, the cone is tangent along a parallel of latitude or is secant at two parallels.
These parallels are called standard parallels. This aspect produces a map with meridians radiating out as
straight lines from the cone’s apex, and parallels drawn as concentric arcs perpendicular to meridians.

Conical aspect – equatorial (normal), transverse, oblique

The polar aspect is the normal aspect of the conic projection. In this aspect the cone’s apex is situated
along the polar axis of the Earth, and the cone is tangent along a single parallel of latitude or secant at two
parallels. The cone can be situated over the North or South Pole. The polar conic projections are most
suitable for maps of mid-latitude (temperate zones) regions with an east-west orientation such as the
United States.

In transverse aspect of conical projections, the axis of the cone is along a line through the equatorial
plane (perpendicular to Earth’s polar axis). Oblique aspect has an orientation between transverse and
polar aspects. Transverse and oblique aspects are seldom used.

Examples of conic projections include Lambert Conformal Conic, Albers Equal Area Conic,
and Equidistant Conic projections.

Planar projection – Azimuthal or Zenithal

In planar (also known as azimuthal or zenithal) projections, the reference spherical surface is projected
onto a plane.

Tangent vs. secant planar projection

 Planar (azimuthal) projection - tangent and secant © USGS

The plane in planar projections may be tangent to the globe at a single point or may be secant. In the
secant case the plane intersects the globe along a small circle forming a standard parallel which has true
scale. The normal polar aspect yields parallels as concentric circles, and meridians projecting as straight
lines from the center of the map. The distortion is minimal around the point of tangency in the tangent
case, and close to the standard parallel in the secant case.

Planar aspect – polar (normal), transverse (equatorial), oblique

The polar aspect is the normal aspect of the planar projection. The plane is tangent to North or South Pole
at a single point or is secant along a parallel of latitude (standard parallel). The polar aspect yields
parallels of latitude as concentric circles around the center of the map, and meridians projecting as
straight lines from this center. Azimuthal projections are used often for mapping Polar Regions, the polar
aspect of these projections are also referred to as polar azimuthal projections.

In transverse aspect of planar projections, the plane is oriented perpendicular to the equatorial plane. And
for the oblique aspect, the plane surface has an orientation between polar and transverse aspects.

These projections are named azimuthal due to the fact that they preserve direction property from the
center point of the projection. Great circles passing through the center point are drawn as straight lines.

Examples of azimuthal projections include: Azimuthal Equidistant, Lambert Azimuthal Equal-

Area, Gnomonic, Stereographic, and Orthographic projections.

Azimuthal Perspective Projections

Some classic azimuthal projections are perspective projections and can be produced geometrically. They
can be visualized as projection of points on the sphere to the plane by shining rays of light from a light
source (or point of perspective). Three projections, namely gnomonic, stereographic and orthographic can
be defined based on the location of the perspective point or the light source.

Gnomonic Projection (also known as Central or Gnomic Projection)

 Gnomonic Projection © USGS

The point of perspective or the light source is located at the center of the globe in gnomonic projections. Great
circles are the shortest distance between two points on the surface of the sphere (known as great circle route).
Gnomonic projections map all great circles as straight lines, and such property makes these projections suitable for
use in navigation charts. Distance and shape distortion increase sharply by moving away from the center of the
projection.

Stereographic Projection

Stereographic projection © USGS

In stereographic projections, the perspective point is located on the surface of globe directly opposite
from the point of tangency of the plane. Points close to center point show great distortion on the map.
Stereographic projection is a conformal projection, that is over small areas angles and therefore shapes
are preserved. It is often used for mapping Polar Regions (with the source located at the opposite pole).

Orthographic Projection

Orthographic projection © USGS

In orthographic projections, the point of perspective is at infinite distance on the opposite direction from
the point of tangency. The light rays travel as parallel lines. The resulting map from this projection looks
like a globe (similar to seeing Earth from deep space). There is great distortion towards the borders of the
map.

Map projection types based on distortion characteristics

As stated above spherical bodies such as globes can represent size, shape, distance and directions of the
Earth features with reasonable accuracy. It is impossible to flatten any spherical surface (e.g. an orange
peel) onto a flat surface without some stretching, tearing, or shearing. Similarly, when trying to project a
spherical surface of the Earth onto a map plane, the curved surface will get deformed, causing distortions
in shape (angle), area, direction or distance of features. All projections cause distortions in varying
degrees; there is no one perfect projection preserving all of the above properties, rather each projection is
a compromise best suited for a particular purpose.

Different projections are developed for different purposes. Some projections minimize distortion or
preserve some properties at the expense of increasing distortion of others. The choice of a projection for a
map depends on such factors as the purpose for which the map will be used, the area being mapped, and
the map’s scale (distortion is more pronounced in small-scale mapping).

Measuring map scale distortion – scale factor & principal (nominal) scale

Scale factor is the ratio of actual scale at a location on map to the principal (nominal) map scale (SF =
actual scale / nominal scale). This can be alternatively stated as ratio of distance on the map to the
corresponding distance on the reference globe. A scale factor of 1 indicates actual scale is equal to
nominal scale, or no scale distortion at that point on the map. Scale factors of less than or greater than one
are indicative of scale distortion. The actual scale at a point on map can be obtained by multiplying the
nominal map scale by the scale factor.

As an example, the actual scale at a given point on map with scale factor of 0.99860 at the point and
nominal map scale of 1:50000 is equal to (1:50000 x 0.99860) = (0.99860 / 50000) = 1:50070 (which is a
smaller scale than the nominal map scale). Scale factor of 2 indicates that the actual map scale is twice the
nominal scale; if the nominal scale is 1:4million, then the map scale at the point would be (1:4million x 2)
= 1:2million. A scale factor of 0.99950 at a given location on the map indicates that 999.5 meters on the
map represents 1000 meters on the reference globe.

As mentioned above, there is no distortion along standard lines as evident in following figures. On a
tangent surface to the reference globe, there is no scale distortion at the point (or along the line) of
tangency and therefore scale factor is 1. Distortion increases with distance from the point (or line) of
tangency.
 Map scale distortion of a tangent cylindrical projection - SF = 1 along line of tangency

Scale distortion on a tangent surface to the globe

On a secant surface to the reference globe, there is no distortion along the standard lines (lines of
intersection) where SF = 1. Between the secant lines where the surface is inside the globe, features appear
smaller than in reality and scale factor is less than 1. At places on map where the surface is outside the
globe, features appear larger than in reality and scale factor is greater than 1. A map derived from a secant
projection surface has less overall distortion than a map from a tangent surface.

Map scale distortion of a secant cylindrical projection - SF = 1 along secant lines

Scale distortion on a secant surface to the globe

Tissot's indicatrix – visualizing map distortion pattern

A common method of classification of map projections is according to distortion characteristics -

identifying properties that are preserved or distorted by a projection. The distortion pattern of a projection
can be visualized by distortion ellipses, which are known as Tissot's indicatrices. Each indicatrix
(ellipse) represents the distortion at the point it is centered on. The two axes of the ellipse indicate the
directions along which the scale is maximal and minimal at that point on the map. Since scale distortion
varies across the map, distortion ellipses are drawn on the projected map in an array of regular intervals to
show the spatial distortion pattern across the map. The ellipses are usually centered at the intersection of
meridians and parallels. Their shape represents the distortion of an imaginary circle on the spherical
surface after being projected on the map plane. The size, shape and orientation of the ellipses are changed
as the result of projection. Circular shapes of the same size indicate preservation of properties with no
distortion occurring.

Equal Area Projection – Equivalent or Authalic

Equal area projections are useful where relative size and area accuracy of map features is important (such
as displaying countries / continents in world maps), as well as for showing spatial distributions and
general thematic mapping such as population, soil and geological maps.

So-called equal-area projections maintain correct proportions in the sizes of areas on the globe and
corresponding areas on the projected grid (allowing for differences in scale, of course). Notice that the
shapes of the ellipses in the Cylindrical Equal Area projection above are distorted, but the areas each one
occupies are equivalent. Equal-area projections are preferred for small-scale thematic mapping (discussed
in the next chapter), especially when map viewers are expected to compare sizes of area features like
countries and continents.

Conformal Projection – Orthomorphic or Autogonal

In conformal map projections (also known as orthomorphic or autogonal projection) local angles are
preserved; that is angles about every point on the projected map are the same as the angles around the
point on the curved reference surface. Similarly constant local scale is maintained in every direction
around a point. Therefore shapes are represented accurately and without distortion for small areas.
However shapes of large areas do get distorted. Meridians and parallels intersect at right angles. As a
result of preserving angles and shapes, area or size of features are distorted in these maps. No map can be
both conformal and equal area.

Tissot’s indicatrices are all circular (shape preserved) in this world map Mercator projection, however
they vary in size (area distorted). Here the area distortion is more pronounced as we move towards the
poles. A classic example of area exaggeration is the comparison of land masses on the map, where for
example Greenland appears bigger than South America and comparable in size to Africa, while in reality
it is about one-eight the size of S. America and one-fourteenth the size of Africa.

Preservation of angles makes conformal map projections suitable for navigation charts, weather maps,
topographic mapping, and large scale surveying. Examples of common conformal projections
include Lambert Conformal Conic, Mercator, Transverse Mercator, and Stereographic projection.

Equidistant Projection
Equidistant projections are used in air and sea navigation charts, as well as radio and seismic mapping. They are also
used in atlases and thematic mapping. Examples of equidistant projections are azimuthal equidistant, equidistant
conic, and equirectangular projections.

Equidistant map projections allow distances to be measured accurately along straight lines radiating from one or, at
most, two points or they can have correct distance (thus maintain scale) along one or more lines. In the example
below (also sometimes called an "equirectangular" projection because the parallels and meridians are both equally
spaced). Notice that ellipses plotted on the Cylindrical Equidistant (Plate Carrée) projection shown above vary in
both shape and size. The north-south axis of every ellipse is the same length, however. This shows that distances are
true-to-scale along every meridian; in other words, the property of equidistance on this map projection is preserved
from the two poles.

True-Direction Projection – Azimuthal or Zenithal

Directions from a central point to all other points are maintained accurately in azimuthal projections (also
known as zenithal or true-direction projections). These projections can also be equal area, conformal or
equidistant.
The gnomonic map projection in the image is centered on the North Pole with meridians radiating out as
straight lines. In gnomonic maps great circles are displayed as straight lines. Directions are true from the
center point (North Pole).

True-direction projections are used in applications where maintaining directional relationships are
important, such as aeronautical and sea navigation charts. Examples include Lambert Azimuthal Equal-
Area, Gnomonic, and azimuthal equidistant projections.

Compromise Projections

Some projections do not preserve any of the properties of the reference surface of the Earth; however they
try to balance out distortions in area, shape, distant, and direction (thus the name compromise), so that no
property is grossly distorted throughout the map and the overall view is improved. They are used in
thematic mapping. Examples include Robinson projection and Winkel Tripel projection.

Spatial Interpolation
Interpolation predicts values for cells in a raster from a limited number of sample data points. It can be
used to predict unknown values for any geographic point data: elevation, rainfall, chemical
concentrations, noise levels, and so on.
Interpolation is based on the assumption that spatially distributed objects are spatially correlated; in other
words, things that are close together tend to have similar characteristics. For instance, if it is raining on
one side of the street, you can predict with a high level of confidence that it is also raining on the other
side of the street. You would be less sure if it was raining across town and less confident still about the
state of the weather in the neighbouring province.

Spatial Analysis

Interpolations are always a raster-based GIS

These interpolations utilize a raster-based GIS (cells) and there are a variety of techniques to derive a
prediction for each location. Each of these techniques are underpinned by different assumption (e.g.
whether the data fits a normal distribution).

Nature of a continuous surface model [Just Read for understanding purpose]

A surface is a continuous field of values that may vary over an infinite number of points. For example,
points in an area on the earth's surface may vary in elevation, proximity to a feature, or concentration of a
particular chemical. Any of these values may be represented on the z-axis in a three-dimensional x,y,z
coordinate system, so they are often called z-values.
Because a surface contains an infinite number of points, it is impossible to measure and record the z-value
at every point. Surface models allow you to store surface information in a GIS. A surface model
approximates a surface by taking a sample of the values at different points on the surface and then
interpolating the values between these points.
Raster surfaces
Raster surfaces are usually stored in grid format. A grid consists of a rectangular array of uniformly
spaced cells with z-values. The smaller the cells, the greater the locational precision of the grid.
TIN surfaces
TINs consist of nodes that store z-values, connected by edges to form contiguous, non-overlapping
triangular facets. The edges in TINs can be used to capture the position of linear features that play an
important role in the surface such as ridgelines or stream courses.
TINs are more efficient at representing three-dimensional surfaces
Because the nodes can be placed irregularly over the surface, TINs can have a higher resolution in areas
where a surface is highly variable or where more detail is desired and a lower resolution in areas that are
less variable or of less interest.
The input features used to create a TIN remain in the same position as nodes or edges in the TIN. This
allows a TIN to preserve all of the precision of the input data while simultaneously modeling the values
between known points. You can include precisely located features on a surface - such as mountain peaks,
roads, and streams - by using them as input features to the TIN.
TIN models are less widely available than raster surface models and tend to be more expensive to build
and process. The cost of obtaining good source data can be high, and processing TINs tends to be less
efficient than processing raster data because of their complex data structure.
Why interpolate? (Important)
Visiting every location in a study area to measure the height, magnitude, or concentration of a
phenomenon is usually difficult or expensive. Instead, dispersed sample input point locations can be
selected and a predicted value can be assigned to all other locations. Input points can be either randomly,
strategically, or regularly spaced points containing height, concentration, or magnitude measurements.
A typical use for point interpolation is to create an elevation surface from a set of sample measurements.
Each point represents a location where the elevation has been measured. The values between these input
points are predicted by interpolation.

The resulting grid is a prediction of what the elevation is at any location on the actual surface.
Deterministic Models
Deterministic Models use a mathematical function to predict unknown values and result in hard
classification of the value of features.
Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW)
The Inverse Distance Weighting interpolator assumes that each input point has a local influence that
reduces with distance. A specified number of points, or all points within a specified radius can be used to
determine the output value of each location. The Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) algorithm effectively
is a moving average interpolator that is usually applied to highly variable data. For certain data types it is
possible to return to the collection site and record a new value that is statistically different from the
original reading but within the general trend for the area. Examples of this type of data include soil
chemistry results, environmental monitoring data, and consumer behaviour observations. It is not
desirable to honour local high/low values but rather to look at a moving average of nearby data points and
estimate the local trends.
 The interpolated surface, estimated using a moving average technique, is less than the local maximum
value and greater than the local minimum value.
The IDW technique calculates a value for each grid node by examining surrounding data points that lie
within a user-defined search radius. Some or all of the data points can be used in the interpolation process.
The node value is calculated by averaging the weighted sum of all the points. Data points that lie
progressively farther from the node influence the computed value far less than those lying closer to the
node

Natural Neighbourhood Interpolation

The Natural Neighbour method is a geometric estimation technique that uses natural neighbourhood
regions generated around each point in the data set.
Like IDW, this interpolation method is a weighted-average interpolation method. However, instead of
finding an interpolated point's value using all of the input points weighted by their distance, Natural
Neighbors interpolation creates a Delauney Triangulation of the input points and selects the closest nodes
that form a convex hull around the interpolation point, then weights their values by proportionate area.
This method is most appropriate where sample data points are distributed with uneven density. It is a
good general-purpose interpolation technique and has the advantage that you do not have to specify
parameters such as radius, number of neighbours or weights.
This technique is designed to honour local minimum and maximum values in the point file and can be set
to limit overshoots of local high values and undershoots of local low values. The method thereby allows
the creation of accurate surface models from data sets that are very sparsely distributed or very linear in
spatial distribution.

In the natural neighbourhood the interpolated surface is tightly controlled by the original data
points

How Natural Neighbourhood Interpolation Works?

Very simply, the Natural Neighbour method makes use of an area-stealing, or area-weighting, technique
to determine a new value for every grid node. As shown below natural neighbourhood region is first
generated for each data point. Then, at every node in the new grid, a new natural neighbourhood region is
generated that effectively overlies various portions of the surrounding natural neighbour regions defining
each point. The new grid value is calculated as the average of the surrounding point values proportionally
weighted according the intersecting area of each point.

A display of the natural neighbourhood regions around the point file as well as the created around a grid
node.

Spline Interpolation

Spline estimates values using a mathematical function that minimizes overall surface curvature, resulting in a smooth
surface that passes exactly through the input points.

Conceptually, it is analogous to bending a sheet of rubber to pass through known points while minimizing the total
curvature of the surface. It fits a mathematical function to a specified number of nearest input points while passing through
the sample points. This method is best for gently varying surfaces, such as elevation, water table heights, or pollution
concentrations. There are two spline methods

Spline the Regularized Method

The regularized method creates a smooth, gradually changing surface with values that may lie outside the
sample data range.

Applying the regularized Spline methods allows a surface to over- and under-shoot the sample data
range

Using a regularized spline the higher the weights, the smoother the surface. Weights between 0 to 5 are
the most suitable with typical values of 0, 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, and 0.5.

Spline the Tension Method

The Tension method tunes the stiffness of the surface according to the character of the modelled
phenomenon.

It creates a less-smooth surface with values more closely constrained by the sample data range. For
Tension, the higher the weight the coarser the generated surface. The values entered have to equal or
greater than zero. The typical values are 0, 1, 5, and 10.

Both the Regularized and Tension spline methods can be further refined by defining the number of points
used in the calculation of each interpolated cell. The more input points you specify, the more each cell is
influenced by distant points and the smoother the resulting surface.

Rectangular Interpolation (not available in ArcGIS extensions)

The Rectangular Interpolation technique is most commonly applied to data that is very regularly and very
closely spaced, such as points generated from another gridding application.

The technique creates an interpolation surface that passes through all points without overshooting the
maximum values or undershooting the minimum values.
Rectangular Interpolation passes through all points without overshooting or undershooting the
lsample maximum and minimum values respectively

Rectangular Interpolation How it Works

The Rectangular Interpolator locates the four nearest data points lying within a circular search zone, one
from each quadrant, and connects them with a double linear "rectangular" framework (see below).

An appropriate value is calculated for each node using the slopes of connecting sides of the rectangle.
However, in the absence of additional smoothing, linear artefacts are often generated across the surface
when working with an irregular data point distribution. For this reason, the rectangular interpolator is
most appropriate for interpolating data that is already arrayed in a closely spaced, regular grid format.

Polynomial Interpolations

Visualizing global polynomial interpolation

There are other solutions for predicting the values for unmeasured locations. Another proposed site for the
observation area is on the face of a gently sloping hill.
The face of the hill is a sloping plane. However, the locations of the samples are in slight depressions or
on small mounds (local variation). Using the local neighbors to predict a location may over or
underestimate because of the influence of depressions and mounds. Further, you may pick up the local
variation and may not capture the overall sloping plane (referred to as the trend). The ability to identify
and model local structures and surface trends can increase the accuracy of your predicted surface.

The Essence of Polynomial Interpolations

To base your prediction on the overriding trend, you can fit a plane between the sample points. A plane is
a special case of a family of mathematical formulas called polynomials. You then determine the unknown
height from the value on the plane for the prediction location. The plane may be above certain points and

The goal for interpolation is to minimize error. You can measure the error by subtracting each measured
point from its predicted value on the plane, squaring it, and adding the results together. This sum is
referred to as a least-squares fit. This process is the theoretical basis for the first-order global polynomial
interpolation.

Statistical InterpolationTechniques
Effectiveness of Kriging

The effectiveness of Kriging depends on the correct specification of several parameters that describe the
semivariogram and the model of the drift (i.e., how does the mean value change over distance). Because
Kriging is a robust interpolator, even a naïve selection of parameters will provide an estimate comparable
to many other grid estimation procedures. The trade-off for estimating the optimal solution for each point
by Kriging is computation time. Given the additional trial and error time necessary to select appropriate
parameters, Kriging should be applied where best estimates are required, data quality is good, and error
estimates are essential.

Three different methods of Kriging interpolation exist; Ordinary Kriging, Simple Kriging, and Universal
Kriging.

How Kriging Works?

Kriging is a weighted moving average technique, similar in some ways to Inverse Distance Weighting
(IDW) interpolation. Comparing the two techniques provides insight to the benefits of Kriging. With
IDW each grid node is estimated using sample points which fall within a circular radius. The degree of
influence each of these points will have on the calculated value is based upon the weighted distance of
each of sample point from the grid node being estimated. In other words, points that are closer to the node
will have a greater degree of influence on the calculated value than those that are farther away. The
general relationship between the amount of influence a sample point has with respect to its distance is
determined by IDW's power (or exponent) setting, graphically represented below.
Kriging Works Similarly to Inverse Distance Weighting

Kriging is similar to IDW in that it weights the surrounding measured values to derive a prediction for an
unmeasured location. The general formula for both interpolators is formed as a weighted sum of the data:

where

Z(si) is the measured value at the i th location;

?iis an unknown weight for the measured value at the i th location;

s0 is the prediction location;

N is the number of measured values.

In IDW, the weight depends solely on the distance to the prediction location. However, in Kriging, the
weights are based not only on the distance between the measured points and the prediction location but
also on the overall spatial arrangement among the measured points. To use the spatial arrangement in the
weights, the spatial autocorrelation must be quantified. Thus, in Ordinary Kriging, the weight depends on
a fitted model to the measured points, the distance to the prediction location, and the spatial relationships
among the measured values around the prediction location.

To make a prediction with Kriging, two tasks are necessary:

(1) to uncover the dependency rules and

(2) to make the predictions.

To realize these two tasks, Kriging goes through a two-step process:

(1) the creation of variograms and covariance functions to estimate the statistical dependence (called
spatial autocorrelation) values, which depends on our model of autocorrelation (fitting a model), and

(2) actually predicting the unknown values (making a prediction). It is because of these two distinct tasks
that it has been said that Kriging uses the data twice: the first time to estimate the spatial autocorrelation
of the data and the second time to make the predictions.

Understanding Semivariance

Kriging uses a property called the semivariance to express the degree of relationship between points on a
surface. The semivariance is simply half the variance of the differences between all possible points spaced
a constant distance apart.

The semivariance at a distance d = 0 will be zero, because there are no differences between points that are
compared to themselves. However, as points are compared to increasingly distant points, the semivariance
increases. At some distance, called the Range, the semivariance will become approximately equal to the
variance of the whole surface itself. This is the greatest distance over which the value at a point on the
surface is related to the value at another point. The range defines the maximum neighbourhood over
which control points should be selected to estimate a grid node, to take advantage of the statistical
correlation among the observations.

Semivariance illustrated

The image below shows the pairing of one point (the red point) with all other measured locations. This
process continues for each measured point.
Often each pair of locations has a unique distance, and there are often many pairs of points. To plot all
pairs quickly becomes unmanageable. Instead of plotting each pair, the pairs are grouped into lag bins.
For example, compute the average semivariance for all pairs of points that are greater than 40 meters
apart but less than 50 meters. The empirical semivariogram is a graph of the averaged semivariogram
values on the y-axis and thedistance (or lag) on the x-axis (see diagram below).

Relationship between Variance among measure points and distance showing that the more point you use
and hence the further away they are the greater the variance in data that will result. This graph is called a
semivariogram.

Spatial autocorrelation
Spatial autocorrelation quantifies a basic principle of geography; things that are closer are more alike than
things farther apart.

Thus, pairs of locations that are closer (far left on the x-axis of the semivariogram cloud) should have
more similar values (low on the y-axis of the semivariogram cloud). As pairs of locations become farther
apart (moving to the right on the x-axis of the semivariogram cloud), they should become more dissimilar
and have a higher squared difference (move up on the y-axis of the semivariogram cloud).

Other Kriging Techniques

Ordinary Kriging

This method assumes that the data set has a stationary variance but also a non-stationary mean value
within the search radius. Ordinary Kriging is highly reliable and is recommended for most data sets

Simple Kriging

This method assumes that the data set has a stationary variance and a stationary mean value and requires
the user to enter the mean value.\

Universal Kriging

This method represents a true geostatistical approach to interpolating a trend surface of an area. The
method involves a two-stage process where the surface representing the drift of the data is built in the first
stage and the residuals for this surface are calculated in the second stage. With Universal Kriging the user
can set the polynomial expression used to represent the drift surface. The most general form of this
expression is:

F(x, y) = a20 * x2 + a11 * xy + a02 * y2 + a10 * x + a01 * y + a00

where a00 is always present but rarely set to zero in advance of the calculation. However, any of the other
coefficients can be set to zero. The recommended setting is a first degree polynomial which will avoid
unpredictable behaviour at the outer margins of the data set.

Block Kriging

Any one of the three Kriging interpolation methods can be applied in one of two forms Punctual or Block.
Punctual Kriging (the default) estimates the value at a given point and is most commonly used. Block
Kriging uses the estimate of the average expected value in a given location (such as a "block") around a
point. Block Kriging provides better variance estimation and has the effect of smoothing interpolated
results.
Resolution
The resolution of an image refers to the potential detail provided by the imagery. In remote sensing we
refer to three types of resolution: spatial, spectral and temporal.

Spatial Resolution refers to the size of the smallest feature that can be detected by a satellite sensor or
displayed in a satellite image. It is usually presented as a single value representing the length of one side
of a square. For example, a spatial resolution of 250m means that one pixel represents an area 250 by 250
meters on the ground.

The spatial resolution specifies the pixel size of a satellite image. The higher the spatial resolution, the
more detail it will contain. Fine details can be seen in the very high and high resolution images, whilst a
low resolution image will only show coarse features.

Spectral Resolution refers to the ability of a satellite sensor to measure specific wavlengths of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The finer the spectral resolution, the narrower the wavelength range for a
particular channel or band.

A sensor's spectral resolution specifies the number of spectral bands in which the sensor can collect
reflected radiance. The choice or number of spectral bands required will depend upon the application of
use. The spectral reflectance curves, or spectral signatures of different types of ground targets provide the
knowledge base for information extraction. Reflectance measurements can help reveal the mineral content
of rocks, the moisture of soil, the health of vegetation, the physical composition of buildings, and
thousands of other invisible details.

Temporal resolution refers to the time between images. The capability for satellites to provide images of
the same geographical area more frequently has increased dramatically since the dawn of the space age.

Temporal resolution is defined as the amount of time needed to revisit and acquire data for the exact same
location. When applied to remote sensing, this amount of time depends on the orbital characteristics of the
sensor platform as well as sensor characteristics. The temporal resolution is high when the revisiting delay
is low and vice-versa. Temporal resolution is usually expressed in days.

The temporal resolution of a satellite sensor may vary from hours to days. It depends on if the platform
orbit is geostationary or not. Moreover, a sun‐synchronous orbit follows sun illumination and allows
image acquisition at the same time of the day for a location. This characteristic is particularly important
for visible‐infrared sensors as it makes every image usable (i. e. avoiding image acquisitions during the
night) and it, therefore, maximizes the temporal resolution of the se
A digital elevation model (DEM) is a 3D representation of a terrain's surface – commonly of a planet (e.g.
Earth), moon, or asteroid – created from a terrain's elevation data. igital elevation models (DEMs) are
arrays of regularly spaced elevation values referenced horizontally either to a Universal Transverse
Mercator (UTM) projection or to a geographic coordinate system. The grid cells are spaced at regular
intervals along south to north profiles that are ordered from west to east. A "global DEM" refers to a
discrete global grid.

Digital Elevation Model

DEMs are used often in geographic information systems, and are the most common basis for digitally
produced relief maps. While a digital surface model (DSM) may be useful for landscape modeling, city
modeling and visualization applications, a digital terrain model (DTM) is often required for flood or
drainage modeling, land-use studies, geological applications, and other applications, and in planetary
science.

Types

A DEM can be represented as a raster (a grid of squares, also known as a heightmap when representing
elevation) or as a vector-based triangular irregular network (TIN). The TIN DEM dataset is also referred
to as a primary (measured) DEM, whereas the Raster DEM is referred to as a secondary (computed)
DEM.

Rendering

The digital elevation model itself consists of a matrix of numbers, but the data from a DEM is often
rendered in visual form to make it understandable to humans. This visualization may be in the form of a
contoured topographic map, or could use shading and false color assignment (or "pseudo-color") to render
elevations as colors.

Production

Mappers may prepare digital elevation models in a number of ways, but they frequently use remote
sensing rather than direct survey data.

There are different methods for obtaining elevation data used to create DEMs such as Lidar, radar,
topographic maps, Doppler radar etc.

A free DEM of the whole world called GTOPO30 (30 arcsecond resolution, c. 1 km along the equator) is
available, but its quality is variable and in some areas it is very poor.

Accuracy
The quality of a DEM is a measure of how accurate elevation is at each pixel (absolute accuracy) and how
accurately is the morphology presented (relative accuracy). Following several factors play an important
role for quality of DEM-derived products:

 terrain roughness;
 sampling density (elevation data collection method);
 grid resolution or pixel size;
 interpolation algorithm;
 vertical resolution;
 terrain analysis algorithm;
 Reference 3D products include quality masks that give information on the coastline, lake, snow,
clouds, correlation etc.
Common uses of DEMs include:
o Extracting terrain parameters for geomorphology
o Modeling water flow for hydrology or mass movement (for example avalanches and
landslides)
o Modeling soils wetness with Cartographic Depth to Water Indexes (DTW-index)[22]
o Creation of relief maps
o Rendering of 3D visualizations.
o 3D flight planning and TERCOM
o Creation of physical models (including raised relief maps)
o Rectification of aerial photography or satellite imagery
o Reduction (terrain correction) of gravity measurements (gravimetry, physical geodesy)
o Terrain analysis in geomorphology and physical geography
o Geographic information systems (GIS)
o Engineering and infrastructure design
o Satellite navigation (for example GPS and GLONASS)
o Line-of-sight analysis
o Base mapping
o Flight simulation
o Precision farming and forestry[24]
o Surface analysis
o Intelligent transportation systems (ITS)
o Auto safety / advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS)