Important quantities for this topic 

Constant with time for a given oscillating system  Vary with time for all oscillating systems 

⍵​ ​- angular velocity  x - displacement (from eq​m​) 

𝑓 - linear frequency  v - linear velocity 
A or X​0​ - Amplitude  a - linear acceleration 
T - the time period   
 
4.1 Oscillations 
Oscillations  ​are  repeating  vibrations.  ​Isochronous  oscillations  are  oscillations  that  have  the  same  time 
period throughout its motion 
Displacement (x)​ is the distance and direction from the equilibrium position (Measured in ​m)​  
Amplitude (A)​ is the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position (Measured in m ​ )​  
Period (T)​ is the time taken for one complete oscillation (Measured in ​s)​  
Frequency​ is the number of oscillations in one second (Measured in H ​ z​) 
The following equation links frequency and time period: 
 
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) 
To  perform  SHM,  an  object  must have a ​restoring force acting on it. 
A  restoring  force  is a force in the opposite direction to displacement. 
Given below are the conditions for SHM: 
● The  magnitude  of  the  force  (and  therefore  the  acceleration) 
is  proportional  to  the  displacement  of  a  body  from  a  fixed 
point 
○ a ∝ -x 
● The  minus  sign  before  ‘x’  shows  that  acceleration  always 
opposes the direction of displacement 
○ The  graph  shows  the  line a = -kx. This means it has a 
negative gradient 
● The direction of the force (and therefore the acceleration) is towards that fixed point 
 
Phase difference 
There  is  a  similarity  between  the  shapes  of  the  graphs  for  displacement,  velocity,  and  acceleration.  All 
three  graphs  are  sinusoidal,  but  all  the  graphs  start  at  different  points  on  the  sine  curve.  Looking  at 
graphs  starting  from  equilibrium,  the  difference  between  displacement  and  velocity  is  a  quarter  of  the 
time period or T/4. Similarly, the difference between displacement and acceleration is T/2 
Period T - 360° or 2𝜋 rads  Useful equation for Phase difference: 
T/2 = 180° or 𝜋 rads  Phase diff = (Shift/Period) x 360° 
T/4 = 90° or 𝜋/2 rads  Change to radians as appropriate 
Phase diff can also be calculated using the equation​ y = A sin (⍵t-2𝜋x/λ) 
 
 
9.1 Simple Harmonic Motion 
SHM graphs (​ Displacement-Time, Velocity-Time, Acceleration-Time) 
y-axis  Starting from equilibrium at t=0  Starting from a maximum point at t=0 

Displacement 

   
x = x​0​ sin ​⍵​t  x = x​0 ​cos ⍵
​ ​t 

Velocity 
(1st derivative of 
displacement)     
v=⍵
​ ​x0​ cos​
​ ⍵​t  v = -​⍵​x​0​ sin ⍵
​ ​t 

Acceleration 
(2nd derivative 
of     
displacement)  a = -​⍵​2​x​0 ​sin ​⍵​t  a = -​⍵2​​ x​0​ cos ⍵
​ ​t 
 
Equations of Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration 
x = x​0​ sin ⍵ ​ ​t 
Velocity is the 1st derivative of displacement, so v = ​⍵​x0​ cos​ ​ ⍵​t 
Acceleration is the 2nd derivative of displacement, so a = -​⍵2​​ x​0 sin ​ ​ ​t 
⍵
2​ 2​
a = -​⍵​ x​0 sin
​ ​ ​t = -​⍵​ (x​0 ​sin ⍵
⍵ ​ ​t) 
2​
x = x​0​ sin ⍵ ​ ​t, so ​a = -⍵​ x 
This  equation,  a  =  -⍵​2​x,  fits  the  definition  of  SHM:  ​motion  in  which  the acceleration is proportional to 
the displacement from a fixed point and is always directed towards that fixed point  
 
When  ​⍵  is  constant,  it  is  equal  to  θ/t.  One  complete  revolution  has 
an angle of 2𝜋, and the time taken to cover this is T. Therefore,  
 
The velocity equation 
From earlier, v = ​⍵​x​0 ​cos​ ⍵​t, and x = x​0​ sin ​⍵​t 
We start with a trigonometric identity: 
sin​2​Θ + cos​2​Θ = 1 
cos Θ = ±√(1 - sin​2​Θ) 
 
⍵​ = Θ/t, so Θ = ​⍵​t 
cos ​⍵​t = ±√(1 - sin​2​⍵​t), Therefore, v = ±​⍵​x0​​ √(1 - sin​2​⍵​t) 
 
x = x​0​sin ⍵ ​ ​t, so sin ⍵ ​ ​t = x/x​0​, and sin​2​ ⍵
​ ​t = (x/x​0​)​2 
Therefore, v = ±​⍵​x​0​√(1 - (x/x​0​)​ ) = ±​⍵​√(x​0​2​ - x​0​2​((x/x​0​)​2​) {Took the x​0 inside
2​
​ the bracket by squaring} 
2​ 2​
So, v = ±​⍵​√(x​0​ - x​ ) 
 
SHM Systems 
Simple Pendulum 
The  simple  pendulum  represents  a  straightforward  system  that  oscillates 
with  SHM  when  its  amplitude  is  small.  The  diagram  shows  the  forces 
acting  on  the  pendulum  bob.  The  bob  is  in  equilibrium  along  the  radius  of 
the  string  when  the force F​t equals the component of weight in line with the 
string  (mg  cos  Θ).  The  component  of  weight  normal  to  the  string  provides 
the restoring force (mg sin Θ). 
 
The time period of a simple pendulum 
As per Newton’s second law, the restoring force must equal the mass multiplied by acceleration: 
mg  sin  Θ  =  ma.  ​Since  pendulums  only  work  for  small  angles,  and  sin  Θ  =  Θ  at  small  angles,  Θ  =  x/l ​(arc 
length from math) 
 
So ​-m (g/l) x = ma​ (minus sign is because displacement is in the opposite direction to acceleration) 
Cancelling m, -​ (g/l) x = a 
Comparing to a​ = -⍵​2​x, ⍵​2​ = (g/l), ⍵ = √(g/l) 
T = 2𝜋/⍵, so ​T = 2𝜋√(l/g) 
 
Mass-spring system 
 
We assume that the friction between the 
mass  and  the  base  is  negligible.  The 
mass  exchanges  elastic  PE  (when  it  is 
fully  extended  and compressed) with KE 
(as it passes through the equilibrium 
 
 
The time period for a mass-spring system 
The restoring force in this case will be F = -kx 
Using Newton’s 2nd Law, 
ma = -kx 
a = -⍵​2​x, so -m⍵​2​x = -kx 
m⍵​2​ = k 
⍵​2​ = k/m 
(2𝜋/T)​2​ = k/m 
(4𝜋​2​/T​2​) = k/m 
T​2​ = (4𝜋​2​m)/k 
T = 2𝜋 √(m/k) 
 
 
 
 
Energy in SHM systems 
In  a  pendulum,  there  is  an  energy  interchange  between  KE  and 
GPE.  In a mass-spring system, the same is between KE and Elastic 
PE. Knowing that E​k​ = 0.5mv​2​, where v = ±⍵√(x​0​2​ - x​2​) : 
E​k​ = 0.5m⍵​2​(x​0​2​ - x​2​) 
So E​kmax ​= ​ET​​ = 0.5m⍵​2​(x​0​2​)​ (if KE is at max, PE must equal 0) 
So E​P​ = E​T​ - E​K​ = 0.5m⍵​2​(x​0​2​) - 0.5m⍵​2​(x​0​2​ - x​2​) = ​0.5m⍵​2​x​2 
 
The graph shows the variation of E​T​ (green), E​K​ (blue), and E​P ​(red):  
 
Earlier  we  looked  at  the  variation  of  energy  with  displacement.  We  can  also  look  at  the  variation  of 
energy with time. Once again we start with E​K​ = 0.5mv​2​), where v = ⍵x​0 cos​ ​ ​ t : 
⍵
2​ 2​ 2​ 2​
E​K​ = 0.5m(⍵x​0 cos ​ ⍵t)​ = 0 ​ .5m⍵​ x​0​ cos​ ⍵t 
When  ‘cos  ⍵t’  equals  one,  this  gives the maximum kinetic energy, which is numerically equal to the total 
energy (because when KE is max, PE is 0, so TE = KE​MAX​) 
Therefore, E​kmax​ = E​T​ = ​0.5m⍵​2​x​0​2 
E​P​ = E​T​ - E​K​ = 0.5m⍵​2​x​0​2 ​- 0.5m⍵​2​x​0​2​cos​2​⍵t = 0.5m⍵​2​x​0​2​ (1 - cos​2​⍵t) = ​0.5m⍵​2​x​0​2​sin​2​⍵t 
 
These can also be represented graphically. TE is shown by the green line, PE by red, and KE by blue: 

 
4.2 - Traveling Waves 
Waves are of two fundamental types: 
● Mechanical waves -​ which require a medium of travel 
● Electromagnetic waves​ - which can travel through a vacuum 
Depending  on  the  nature  of  the  endpoint,  the  reflection  of  a  traveling  wave  can  vary.  This  can  be 
demonstrated using a slinky: 
 
If  the  end  is  fixed,  the  pulse  undergoes  a  phase  change  upon  reflection. 
What  was  once  an  upward  pulse  is  now  a  downward  pulse.  The  phase 
change is 𝜋. 
 
When  the  end  is  free  to  move,  reflection  occurs,  but  there  is  zero  phase 
change, so an upward pulse returns as an upward pulse 
There are two types of traveling waves: 
 ● Transverse  waves  are  waves  for  which  the  oscillation  of  particles  is  perpendicular  to  the 
direction of energy transfer 
● Longitudinal  waves  ​are  waves  for  which  the  oscillation  of  particles is parallel to the direction of 
the energy transfer 
 
Describing waves  
● Wavelength (λ)​ - shortest distance between two points that are in phase. Measured in m ​ eters (m)​. 
● Frequency (𝑓)​ - number of waves passing a fixed point in one second. Measured in ​Hertz (Hz). 
● Period (T) ​- time taken for one complete wavelength to pass a fixed point. Measured in s​ econds (s)​. 
● Amplitude (A) ​- maximum displacement of a wave from its rest position. Measured in m ​ eters (m) 
 
Displacement-distance graphs 
1) Transverse waves 
For transverse waves, the distance and displacement are perpendicular.  

 
2) Longitudinal waves 
For  longitudinal  waves,  the  distance  and  displacement  of  the  wave  are  parallel.  Therefore,  the 
displacement-distance  graph  of  longitudinal  waves  allows  us  to  identify  ​compressions  (areas  of  high 
pressure) and r​ arefactions​ (areas of low pressure)  

 
Displacement-time graph 

 
From this graph, it is easy to find out the time period and the amplitude of the wave 
 
The wave equation 
The velocity of a wave is given by the equation: v = 𝑓λ 
From  the  displacement-distance  and  the  distance-time  graphs,  you  can  determine  T  and  λ.  Using  v  = 
d/t, v = λ/T. Since T = 1/𝑓, v = 𝑓λ. 
 
Electromagnetic waves 
WAVE  PROPERTIES  Examples, Uses, and Effects 

RADIO WAVES    Radios, TV broadcasts, NMR spectroscopy 

MICROWAVES  Heating food in microwave ovens, 

satellites, telephones. Can heat body cells 

INFRARED  Radiant heaters and grills, TV remotes, 

RADIATION  security alarms, lamps. Emits heat 

VISIBLE LIGHT  Human sight  

(400-700nm) 

ULTRAVIOLET (UV  Causes tanning, skin cancer, and eye 

RAYS)  damage. Kills bacteria, Fluorescence. 
Sterilizing food and medical instruments 

X-RAYS  Used for X-ray photography, causes cancer 

but can also be used for cancer treatment 
 

GAMMA RAYS  Emitted by radioactive materials, uses and 

effects as for X-rays, used for sterilizing 
medical equipment and food 
Electromagnetic waves share similar features: 
❖ They can travel through a vacuum 
❖ Travel at a speed of 3.0 x 10​8​ m/s 
❖ They are transverse waves 
❖ They transfer energy 
 
4.3 - Wave characteristics 
Wavefronts vs rays 
- Aw ​ avefront ​is a line joining the points that are in the same phase 
- A r​ ay​ is a line that indicates the direction of propagation of the wave 
- Rays are perpendicular to wavefronts 
 
 
 
 
Wavefront and ray diagrams 
Reflection  Diffraction 

 
  The  bending  of  waves  around  an  obstacle  or,  the 
There  is  no  change  in  the  wavelength,  and  the  spreading  out  as  they  pass  through  a  gap  is 
angle  of  incidence  (i)  is  equal  to  the  angle  of  known  as  diffraction.  Diffraction  is  only 
reflection (r)  significant  if  the  size  of the gap is about the same 
as  the  wavelength.  Wider  gaps  produce  less 
diffraction 

Refraction 
 
Different  parts  of  the  wave  hit  the  boundary  before 
others, which causes the wave to change direction 
As  the  wavefronts  enter  the  denser  medium,  they  slow 
down,  and  the  wavelength  decreases  while  frequency 
remains constant (v = 𝑓λ). 
 

 
Wave intensity 
The  loudness  of  a  sound,  or  the  brightness  of  a  light depends on the energy that is being received by the 
observer.  Energy  is  found  to  be  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  amplitude.  If  we  picture  waves  being 
emitted from a point source, waves move in all directions. The diagram below illustrates this: 
 
Since  the  energy  transferred  per  second  is  ​power​,  the  intensity  at  a  point 
that is ‘r’ m away from the source can be written as: 
 
 
 
 
 
This  equation  shows  that  intensity  has  an  ​inverse-square  relationship  ​with  the distance from the point 
source, which can be written as: I​ ∝ x​-2​. P = E/t, E​T​ = 0.5kx​0​2​. As P∝E​T​, P∝A​2​, so ​I∝A​2 
 
Intensity​ is therefore the power being transmitted per unit area. It is measured in ​Wm​-2 
Superposition 
The  ​principle  of  superposition  states  that  when 2 or more waves meet, 
the  resultant  displacement  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  individual 
displacements. 
 
Constructive  interference  occurs  when  both  waves  have  the  same sign 
displacement. 
 
Destructive  interference  ​occurs  when  one  wave  has  +ve  displacement 
and the other has -ve displacement. 
 
Polarization 
Although  transverse  and  longitudinal  waves  have  common properties - 
they reflect, refract, diffract, and superpose - the difference between them can be seen by the property of 
polarization. 
 
Polarization  of  ​transverse  waves  restricts  the  direction  of  oscillation  to  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the 
direction of propagation:  

   

Longitudinal  waves  do  not  exhibit  polarization  because,  for  these  waves,  the  direction  of  oscillation  is 
parallel to the direction of propagation.  
 
Polarized  light  ​is  light  for  which  the  electric  field  vector  vibrates in one plane. Most naturally occurring 
EM  waves  are  completely  ​unpolarized​.  This  means  that  the  electric  field  vectors  vibrate  in  ​random 
directions​.  
 
When  the  direction  of  vibration  stays  constant  over  time,  the  wave  is  said  to  be  ​plane-polarized  ​in  the 
direction  of  vibration.  ​Partial  polarization  is when there is some restriction to the direction of vibration 
but not 100%. The diagram below shows symbols used to represent polarized and unpolarized light. 

 
The  most  common  way  to  produce  polarized  light  in  the  modern day is using ​Polaroids​. ​Polarizers ​and 
Analyzers​ (both polaroids) can be used to do so.  
Malus’ Law 
The t​ ransmission axis​ is the direction of polarization that a polarizer allows through 

 
The  ​polarizer  ​allows  ​half  the  original  intensity  through  since  half  of  the  components  of  all  waves  are 
parallel  to  the  transmission  axis.  ​Analyzers  are  used  to  detect  polarised  light.  100%  light  must  pass 
through to ensure polarization. When the transmission axis of the analyzer is: 
● Parallel to the polarized light, Intensity is maximum 
● Perpendicular to polarized light, Intensity is minimum 
 
When the analyzer is neither perpendicular nor parallel, we use Malus’ Law which states that: 
 
Where 0 ​ ° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 90° 
 
𝜃 is the angle between the transmission axis of the analyzer and the polarized light 

 
Uses of analyzers 
Stress  analyzers  -  when  metals  are  placed  between  a  polarizer  and  an  analyzer,  the  regions  of  highest 
stress appear as white light.  
 
Working of a pair p ​ olaroid glasses ​on a reflected image: 
 
Light  is  ​horizontally  ​polarized  by  reflection  on  the 
surface.  The  sunglasses  have  a  transmission  axis  that  is 
perpendicular  to  the  reflected  ray.  This  means  that  the 
intensity  of  light  is  reduced.  Therefore,  the  glare  on 
objects is reduced while wearing polaroid glasses 
4.4 - Wave behavior 
Reflection and Refraction 
The laws of reflection and refraction can be summarised as follows: 
1) The reflected and refracted rays are on the same plane as the incident ray and normal 
2) The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection 
3) For waves of a particular frequency and for a chosen pair of media the ratio of 
the  sine  of  the  angle  of  incidence  to  the  sine  of  the  angle  of  refraction  is  the 
refractive index (​Snell’s Law​):  
 
 
The  diagram  on  the  right  shows  reflection  and  refraction  occurring.  Ray 
diagrams  as  such  do  not  show  what  is  happening  to  the wavelengths of the 
waves.  
 
 
 
Refractive index and Snell’s Law 
The a​ bsolute refractive index​ ​(n)​ of a medium is defined in terms of the speed of EM waves as: 

 
 
The critical angle and Total Internal Reflection (TIR) 
When  light  passes  from  a  ​more  optically  dense  medium  to  a  less  optically  dense  medium​,  it speeds up 
and  bends  away  from  the normal. Increasing the angle of incidence on this boundary results in a greater 
angle  of  refraction. ​The angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction is 90° 
is known as the critical angle.  

 
When the angle of incidence > critical angle, all light is TOTALLY INTERNALLY REFLECTED 
 
Calculating the critical angle 
 
Snell’s Law gives:   
 
 
To  obtain  a  critical  angle,  medium  1  must be more optically dense than medium 2. When Θ​1 = Θ​c then Θ​2 
= 90°, so sin Θ​2​ = 1. 
 
This gives : 
 
 
When the less dense medium is vacuum or air, n​2​ = 1. So: 
 
 
Diffraction 
Diffraction​ is the spreading of a wave when passing around an aperture (a gap) or an obstacle.  

 
Observations of diffraction patterns include: 
● The frequency, wavelength, and speed of the waves remains the same after diffraction 
● The direction of propagation and the pattern of the waves change 
● The  effect  of  the  diffraction  is  most  obvious when the aperture width is approximately the same 
as the wavelength of the waves  
● The  amplitude  of  the  diffracted  wave  is  less  than that of the incident wave because the energy is 
distributed over a larger area 
 
Huygens-Fresnel principle 
This principle gives a good insight into how the single-slit diffraction pattern comes about: 
 
 
Plane  waves  traveling  towards  the  slit  behave  as  if  they 
were  sources  of  secondary  wavelets.  The  orange  dots 
show  these  ‘secondary  sources’  within  the  slit.  These 
‘sources’  each  spread  out  as  circular  waves.  The  tangents 
to these waves will now become the new wavefront. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Double-slit interference 
When  two  or  more  waves  combine  to  produce  a  new  wave,  ​interference  ​has  occurred.  When  the 
resultant  wave  has  a  larger  amplitude,  than  the  individual  waves,  the  interference  is  said  to  be 
constructive​.  When  the  resultant  has  a  smaller  amplitude,  the  interference  is  ​destructive​. Interference 
can  be  achieved  by  using two similar sources of all types of waves. It is only observable if the two sources 
have  a  ​constant  phase  relationship​.  To  be  in  this  relationship  the  two  sources  must  be  ​coherent​. 
Coherent  sources  are  mandatory  for  observable  ​interference  patterns  because  the  rate  of  change  of 
phase  at  a  given  point  is  constant  for  both  the  ​sources  and  hence minima and maxima i.e. constructive 
and destructive i​ nterference​ can be seen simultaneously at different points on the screen 
 
When  two  diffracted beams cross, interference occurs. A pattern of 
equally  spaced  bright  and  dark  fringes  is  obtained  on  a  screen 
positioned  in  a  region  where  the  beams  overlap.  When  a  crest 
meets  a  crest  (or  trough  meets  trough),  constructive  interference 
occurs.  When  a  crest  meets  a  trough,  destructive  interference 
occurs.  
 
Path difference and the double-slit equation 

 
The  diagram shows two apertures A​1 and A​2 distance d apart. The double-slit is distance D from a screen. 
O  is  the  position  of  the  central  bright  fringe  and  B  is  the  next  bright  fringe above O. The distance OB is 
the  fringe  spacing  s.  Angle  A​1​A​2​P  is  equal  to  angle  BCO,  as  the  yellow  and  shaded  triangle  can  be 
considered to be similar because of how small the angles are. Let A​1​A​2​P = BCO = Θ.  
 
tan Θ = s/D 
Θ = s/D {tan Θ = Θ due to small angle approx} 
sin Θ = λ/d 
Θ = λ/d 
 
s/D = λ/d 
s = λD/d 
In general, for two coherent beams starting in phase: 
  
Constructive interference occurs ​If the path difference is a whole number of wavelengths 
Path difference = nλ {n = 0,1,2…} 
Destructive interference occurs​ if the path difference is an odd number of half wavelengths 
Path difference = (n+0.5)λ {n = 0,1,2…} 
 
‘n’ is the order of the fringe 
 
9.2 - Single-slit diffraction 
Graph of intensity against angle 
 
● Central maximum is twice as wide as the other fringes 
● Central  maximum  is  at  least  5  times  brighter  than  the 
other fringes 
● The  pattern  becomes  more  spread  out  if  the difference 
between  the  size  of  the  wavelength  and  the  slit  width 
decreases 
 
 
 
The single slit equation 
The given equation gives the angle to the first minima from the central maximum: 
 
 
Waves  coming  in 
from  the  edges  have  a  path 
difference of a sin Θ 
 
Waves  from  the point halfway along 
the  slit  will  have a path difference of 
0.5a sin Θ. 
 
 
 
When  0.5a  sin  Θ  is  equal  to  half  a  wavelength  (Phase  diff  between  central  max  and  first  min)  sin  Θ  is 
equal  to  λ/a.  Because  we  are  dealing  with  small  angles,  we  can  approximate  sin  Θ  to  Θ.  Therefore,  we 
arrive  at  the  equation  Θ  =  λ/a.  Greater  wavelength  gives  a  greater  angle,  Greater  slit  length  gives  a 
smaller angle 
 
 
 
 
 
Single-slit with monochromatic and white light 
 
The  upper  image  is  obtained  from  green  light.  The  lower  image  is 
obtained  from  white  light.  Both  the  angular  width  of  the  central  max 
and  the  angular  separation of successive secondary maxima depend on 
the  wavelength of the light. For the white light, for the second maxima, 
the  violet  light  is  less  deviated  than  the  other  colors  as  it  has  the 
shortest λ 
 
The  edges  of  the  principle  maximum  are  colored  rather  than  pure  white.  This  is  because  the  principal 
maxima  for  the  colors  at  the  blue  end  of  the  visible  spectrum  are  less  spread  than  the  colors  at  the  red 
end; the edges are therefore a combination of red, orange, and yellow.  
 
9.3 - Interference  
For two sources of waves to interfere then these conditions must be met: 
● Similar amplitude 
● Same wavelength 
● Constant phase difference 
 
We  know  that  a  single  slit  produces  a  diffraction  pattern  with  a  very  intense  principal  maximum  and 
much  less  intense  secondary  maxima.  A  double-slit  is  two  single  slits,  so  each  of  the  slits  produces  a 
diffraction pattern, and the waves from the two slits interfere.  
 
Figure  (a)  shows  how  the relative intensity would vary for a double-slit pattern without any modification 
due  to  diffraction (ideal situation). By using relative intensity we avoid the need to think about the actual 
intensity  values.  Figure  (b)  shows the variation of the relative intensity with angle for a single slit. Figure 
(c)  shows  the  superposition  of  the  two  effects  so  that  the  single-slit  diffraction behaves as the envelope 
of the interference pattern. Shaping a pattern in this way is known as m ​ odulation​.       
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
We know from earlier that the fringe spacing is given by the equation:  
 
s = fringe width 
D = distance between slits and screen 
d = distance between slits 
 
 
Multiple-slit interference 
If there are more than two slits: 
● The  sharpness  of  the  fringes  increases  (fringes 
are narrower) 
● There  are  faint  secondary  maxima  between 
primary maxima 
○ The  n0.  of  secondary  maxima  is  given 
by  the  equation  (N-2),  where  N  is  the 
n0.of slits 
● The  intensity  of  the  central  maximum  is 
increased  
 
Diffraction grating 
Diffraction  gratings  are  used  to  produce  ​optical  spectra​.  A  grating  contains  a  large  number  of parallel, 
equally  spaced  slits  or  “lines”.  Different  wavelengths  are  diffracted  at  different  angles,  producing 
interference maxima at an angle Θ given by: 
nλ = d sin Θ  
n  is  any  +ve  integer  that  represents  the  order  of  the  maximum.  n  =  0  gives  the  angle  at  the  central 
maximum  (which  is  0°).  n  =  1  gives  the  angle  to  the  first  maximum  on either side of the central, and so. 
‘d’ is the distance between the slits in the grate. 
 
One  use  of  diffraction  grating  is  to  disperse  white  light  into  its  component  colors.  This  is  because 
different  wavelengths  of  light  in  the  visible  spectrum  produce  maxima  at  different  angles.  Each 
successive  visible  spectrum  repeats  the  order  of  the  colors  of  the  previous  one  but becomes less intense 
and  more  spread  out.  It  is  usual  for  the  “number  of  lines  per  mm  (N)”  to  be  quoted  for  a  diffraction 
grating.  This  needs  to  be  converted  to  the  distance  between  the  lines.  To  do  so,  use  the  following 
equation: d ​ = 1/N. 
 
Thin-film interference  
Thin-film interference is based on the following properties: 
● When a wave hits the boundary going from a denser to less dense medium, it reflects IN PHASE 
● When  a  wave  hits  the  boundary  going  from  a  less  dense  to  more  dense  medium, it reflects OUT OF 
PHASE 
● In any case, the wave is always transmitted through the boundary IN PHASE with the original pulse 
 This  diagram  shows  a  wave  incident  at  angle Θ to the surface 
of  a  film  of  transparent  material  (eg:  oil)  having  a  refractive 
index  n.  Θ  and  the  thickness  of  the  film,  t,  are  very  small,  so 
the  incident  wave  is  effectively  normal  to  the  surface.  The 
incident  wave  partially  reflects  at  the  top  of  the  surface  and 
partially  refracts  into  the  film.  The  refracted  wave  reaching 
the  lower  surface  of  the  film  is  reflected  and  refracted 
partially. This can occur several times. 
 
When  A  is  reflected  from  the  top  surface of the film, there is a phase change of π rads (equivalent to half 
a  λ),  because  the  reflection  is  at  an  optically  denser  medium.  Wave  B  travels  an  optical  distance  of  2tn 
before  refracting  back  into the air. Thus the optical path difference between wave A and B is 2tn. If there 
had  been  no  phase  change  then  this  optical  distance  would  equal  mλ  for  constructive  interference. 
However,  because  of  A’s  phase  change  at  the  top  surface,  the  overall  effect  will  be  destructive 
interference.  
 
Thus, for the light reflecting from the film when 
2tn = mλ 
there will be destructive interference and when 
2tn = (m + 0.5)λ 
there will be constructive interference 
 
These equations flip when the air below the thin film is replaced with an even denser medium 
 
4.5 Standing Waves 
Standing  waves  are  formed  due  to  the  ​reflection  and  superposition  of 
two identical waves moving in opposite directions 
 
A  ​node  is  a  region  of  a  point  on  a  standing wave where displacement is 
0.  ​The  distance  between  two  successive  nodes  is  λ/2.  ​An  ​antinode  is  a 
region or a point on a standing wave where displacement is maximum. 
 
The  diagram  below  shows  two  traveling  waves  (blue and green) moving 
towards  each  other  at  times  t​1​,  t​2​,  t​3​,  t​4​.  The  green  and  blue  waves 
superpose to give the red standing wave. 
 
 
Over  a  complete  time  period  of  an  oscillation,  the  standing  wave will 
occupy a variety of positions as shown on the right:  
 
 
 
 
Melde’s String 
This apparatus, developed by Franz Melde, is useful in demonstrating standing waves on a string 
 
A  string  is  strung  between  a  vibration  generator  and  a  fixed  end. 
When  the  vibration  generator  is  attached  to  an  audio  frequency 
generator,  the  end  of  the string attached to the vibration generator 
oscillates vertically 
A  wave  travels  down  the  string  before  undergoing  a  phase  change 
of  180° when it reflects at the fixed end. This reflected wave superposes with the incident wave (at certain 
frequencies)  to  form  a  standing  wave.  The  frequency  is  raised  from  zero  until  eventually  a  frequency is 
reached  where  the  string  vibrates  with  large  amplitude  in  the form of a single loop - ​the first harmonic​. 
If  the  frequency  is  increased  further,  the  amplitude  dies  down  until  twice  the  frequency  of  the  first 
harmonic is reached - in this case, we get two loops - ​the second harmonic​.  
 
Boundary conditions on a string 
● Both ends of the string are fixed ends 
● This means there are only nodes at the ends 
○ Upon  plucking  the  string,  traveling  waves  move  towards 
the  fixed  ends  and  are reflected with a phase difference of 
𝜋.  The  reflected  waves  return  to  interfere  with  the 
incident  waves  at  specific  frequencies  to  form  a  standing 
wave 
 
The frequencies of the string can be calculated: 
𝑓​1​ = v/λ   
Length  (L)  of  the  string  is  equal  to  λ/2  (distance  between 
nodes). Therefore, λ = 2L 
The first harmonic frequency on a string is 𝑓​ 1​​ = v/2L 

𝑓​2​ = v/λ   
Length (L) of the string is equal to λ (2 x dist between nodes) 
Therefore, λ = L 
The second harmonic frequency on a string is 𝑓​ ​1​ = v/L 

𝑓​3​ = v/λ   
Length  (L)  of  the  string  is  equal  to  3λ/2  (3  x  dist  between 
nodes), Therefore, λ = 2L/3 
The third harmonic frequency on a string is ​𝑓​1​ = 3v/2L 

Similarly, equations for 4th harmonic, 5th harmonic, and so on can be calculated 
String series have odd and even harmonics 
 
 
Boundary conditions for a closed pipe (one end closed, one open) 
In  pipes,  longitudinal  waves  are  created  (rather  than  transverse  waves).  Sound  waves  are  reflected  at 
both  ends  of  a  pipe,  irrespective  of  whether  they  are  open  or  closed.  There  is  an  ​antinode  at open ends 
(no  phase  change  upon reflection, so the incident wave isn’t canceled) and there are ​nodes at closed ends 
(fixed end causes phase change upon reflection, so the incident wave is canceled out). 
𝑓​1​ = v/λ   
Length (L) of the pipe is equal to λ/4 (½ dist between nodes) 
Therefore, λ = 4L 
Therefore, the first harmonic frequency on a string is ​𝑓​1​ = v/4L 

𝑓​1​ = v/λ   
Length (L) of the pipe is equal to 3λ/4 (1.5 x dist between nodes) 
Therefore, λ = 4L/3 
Therefore, the third harmonic frequency on a string is 𝑓​ ​1​ = 3v/4L 

𝑓​1​ = v/λ   
Length (L) of the pipe is equal to 5λ/4 (2.5 x dist between nodes) 
Therefore, λ = 4L/5 
Therefore, the fifth harmonic frequency on a string is ​𝑓​1​ = 5v/4L 

In one side closed tubes, even harmonics are missing 

 
Boundary conditions for an open pipe (both ends open) 
𝑓​1​ = v/λ   
Length (L) of the pipe is equal to λ/2 ( distinguish between nodes) 
Therefore, λ = 2L 
Therefore, the first harmonic frequency on a string is ​𝑓1​​ = v/2L 

𝑓​1​ = v/λ   
Length (L) of the pipe is equal to λ (2 x dist between nodes) 
Therefore, λ = L 
Therefore, the first harmonic frequency on a string is ​𝑓​1​ = v/L 

𝑓​1​ = v/λ   
Length (L) of the pipe is equal to 3λ/2 (3 x dist between nodes) 
Therefore, λ = 2L/3 
Therefore, the first harmonic frequency on a string is ​𝑓​1​ = 3v/2L 

String series and open pipes have both odd and even harmonics 
 
 
Comparison of traveling waves and stationary waves 
Property  Traveling-wave  Standing wave 

Energy  Energy is transferred in  No energy is transferred by the wave although there is an 
transfer  the direction of  interchange of kinetic and potential energy within the 
propagation  standing wave 

Amplitude  All particles have the  Amplitude varies within a loop - maximum occurs at an 
same amplitude  antinode and zero at a node 

Phase  Within a wavelength,  Particles within a “loop” are in phase and antiphase [180° 
the phase is different for  out of phase] with the particles in adjacent “loops” 
each particle 

Wavelength   The distance between  Twice the distance between adjacent nodes (or adjacent 
adjacent particles which  antinodes) 
are in phase 

Frequency  All particles vibrate with  All particles vibrate with the same frequency except at 
the same frequency  nodes (which are stationary) 

 
9.4 - Resolution 
Resolution  is  the  ability  of  an  imaging  system  to  be  able  to  produce  two  distinguishable  images  of  two 
separate  objects.  When  there  are  two  sources  of  light,  two  diffraction  patterns  will  be  formed  by  the 
system. Two objects observed through an aperture produce two diffracted images that may overlap.  
 
The  ​Rayleigh  criterion  states  that  two  sources  are  said  to  be  ​just  resolved  if  the  first  min  of  the 
diffraction pattern of one source falls on the central max of the diffraction pattern of another source 

     
The  principal  maximum  of  one  The  principal  maximum  of  one  The  principal  maximum  of each 
diffraction  pattern  lies  closer  to  diffraction  pattern  is  at  the  diffraction  pattern  lies  further 
the  second  pattern  than  its  first  same  position  as  the  first  from  the  other  than  the 
minimum  minimum of the second pattern  principal maximum 
 
 
 
Resolution equation 
For  single  slits, we saw that the first minimum occurs when the angle with the straight-through position 
is given by Θ = λ/b. With a circular aperture, the equation is modified with a factor of 1.22. So:  
 
 
a here is the diameter of the aperture. 
 
 
Ways in which to increase the resolution of a device: 
● Increase the diameter 
● Decrease the wavelength 
● Increase the frequency (which decreases the wavelength) 
 
Resolvance of diffraction gratings 
From  diffraction  grating,  we  know  that  increasing  the  number  of  slits  improves  the  sharpness  of  the 
maxima  formed.  The  diagrams  show  that  when  the  light  of  the  same  wavelength  is  viewed  from  the 
same  distance  x, the angular dispersion Θ​D for the principal maximum with the double-slit is larger than 
the  angular  dispersion  Θ​G  for  the  grating.  A  sharper  principal  maximum  is  one  with  less  angular 
dispersion.  With  wider  maxima,  there  is  more  overlap  of  images  from  different  sources  and  lower 
resolution. 

 
Using  this  argument,  we  see  that  when  light  is  incident  on  a  grating,  a  wider beam (which covers more 
lines) will produce sharper images and better resolution.  
 
The  resolvance  (R)  for  a  diffraction  grating  is  defined  as  the  ratio  of  the  average  wavelength  (λ)  of  2 
wavelengths  to  the  difference  in  wavelengths  (λ/2).  The  resolvance  is  also  equal  to ‘Nm’, where ‘N’ is the 
total number of slits illuminated by the incident beam and ‘m’ is the order of the diffraction     
 
 
 
 
 
 
9.5 - Doppler effect 
Doppler  effect  is  the  apparent  change  in  the  frequency  of  a  wave  motion  when  there  is  relative  motion 
between the source of the wave and the observer. Doppler effect can occur for both light and sound. 
 
Doppler effect for moving sources 
When  the  source  of  the  light  or  sound  is  moving,  and the observer is stationary, the ​speed of the source 
wave is always constant 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Source moves towards a stationary observer  Source moves away from a stationary observer 
λ’ = λ - s   λ’ = λ + s  
λ’ = λ - u​s​t {s = u​s​t} {u​s​ is the speed of the source}  λ’  =  λ  +  u​s​t  {s  =  u​s​t}  {u​s  is  the  speed  of  the 
λ’ = λ - (u​s​/f) {t = 1/f}  source} 
λ’ = (v/f) - (u​s​/f) {v = fλ}  Similar steps to previous case lead to: 
λ’ = (v-u​s​)/f  λ’ = (v+u​s​)/f 
v/f’ = (v-u​s​)/f {v = fλ}  v/f’ = (v+u​s​)/f   
f’ = vf/(v-u​s​)  f’ = vf/(v+u​s​) 
 

 
 

 
 
 
Combining the equations in cases 1 and 2, we get the data booklet equation: 
 
f’ = apparent frequency 
f = frequency of the source 
v = wave speed in a vacuum (sound or light) 
u​s​ = velocity of the source 
 
Doppler effect for moving observer 
When  the  observer  is  moving,  and  the  source  of  light  or  sound  is  stationary,  the  ​wavelength  of  the 
source wave is always constant 
Observer moving towards a stationary source  Observer moving away from a stationary source  
The  velocity  of  the  sound  relative  to  the  observer  The  velocity  of  the  sound  relative  to  the  observer 
is: v + u​0  is: v - u​o  
f’ = v/λ  f’ = v/λ 
f’ = (v + u​o​ )/λ  f’ = (v - u​o​ )/λ 
λ = (v + u​o​ )/f’  λ = (v - u​o​ )/f’ 
v/f = (v + u​o​ )/f’  v/f = (v - u​o​ )/f’ 
f’ = f(v + u​o​ )/v  f’ = f(v - u​o​ )/v 
Combining the equations in cases 1 and 2, we get the data booklet equation: 
 
f’ = apparent frequency 
f = frequency of the source 
v = wave speed in a vacuum (sound or light) 
u​s​ = velocity of the observer 
 
Doppler shift (​Case for source moving towards the observer) 
The  apparent  change  in  the  frequency  experienced  as  a  result  of  the  doppler  effect  is  known  as  the 
doppler shift​. This value increases as the relative velocity between the source and the observer increases. 
 
Δf = f’ - f 
Δf = {vf/(v-u​s​)} - f 
Δf = f[{v/(v-u​s​)} - 1] 
Δf/f = {v/(v-u​s​)} - 1 
Δf/f = u​s​/(v - u​s​) 
 
If u​s​ is far less than c, then Δ​ f/f = u​s​/v ​{as v - u​s​ ≈ v} 
 
Furthermore,  (Don’t need to know why Δf/f = Δλ/λ) 
 
 
Applications of Doppler effect 
❖ Medicinal 
➢ Ultrasonic  waves  reflected  from  red  blood  cells  are  used  to  determine  the  velocity  of 
blood flow 
➢ Reflection  of  ultrasonic  waves  can  be  used  to  detect  the  movement  of  the  chest  of  a 
young fetus and to monitor the heartbeat 
❖ Radar speed traps 
➢ Police monitor the speeds of vehicles with a radar gun