PART-A

1) Slew rate:

 Slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage. Its unit is
V/μs. Mathematically it is given by the relation.
 For 741 op-amps, the maximum slew rate is 0.5V/μs

SR=(dV0/dt)max

2) Diff b/w digital and analog IC

Digital IC Analog IC
digital ICs, typically microprocessors, DSPs, Analog ICs, such as sensors, power
and micro controllers work using binary management circuits, and operational
mathematics to process "one" and "zero" amplifiers, work by processing continuous
signals. signals. They perform functions like
amplification, active filtering,
demodulation, mixing, etc.
Digital circuits are non-linear because they Analog integrated circuits work on
work on binary or discontinuous signals. continuous varying (with respect to time)
The input and output voltages of digital signals. For analog integrated circuits,
circuits have two possible values (binary external components are required. They
high or low) there are no intermediate are used to construct electronic circuits
levels. such as amplifiers, voltage comparators,
etc.

3) Input impedance of an inverting amplifier

The Input Impedance of an amplifier defines its input characteristics with regards to
current and voltage looking into an amplifiers input terminals

4) Transfer function of first order IC

H(s)=V o(S) / Vi(S)

5) Function of non-inverting comparator configuration

  A fixed reference voltage is applied to (-) input and a time varying signal V i is applied to (+)
input.

 The output voltage is at –Vsatfor Vi<Vref , and v0 goes to + Vsat for Vi>Vref

 In a practical circuit Vr is obtained by using a 10 KΩ potentiometer which forms a voltage

divider with the supply voltages V+ and V- with the wiper connected to (-) input terminal.

6) Triangular wave is generated using an op-amp

 Triangular waveform is generated by alternatively charging and discharging the capacitor.

 This is achieved by connecting integrator circuit at the output of square wave generator.

7) Problems with switch type phase detector

8) Voltage to frequency conversion factor

 A parameter of importance for VCO is voltage to frequency conversion factor Kv and is
defined as
Kv = ∆𝑓0/ ∆𝑣𝐶
Here ∆vC is the modulation voltage required to produce the frequency shift ∆f0for a VCO

9) Monostable multivibrator

Monostablemultivibrator (or) time delay circuit (or) gating circuit

The monostable multivibrator is also called one-shot multivibrator. The circuit produces a
single pulse of specified duration in response to each external trigger signal

10) Advantages of IC voltage regulator

 It is conveniently used for local regulation.
 It has fast transient response.
 The power supply design becomes easy and quick.
 It is most efficient and reliable.
 The IC voltage regulator is versatile.
 It is very cheap due to mass production and easily available.
 It is compact in size, rugged and light in weight.
 It is easy to use.

PART-B

11) Common mode operation for differential amplifier

Differential amplifier
The differential amplifier amplifies the difference between the two input voltage signals. Also
called difference amplifier.
Modes of operation:
Differential Mode Operation
Common Mode Operation
Differential Mode Operation

Output voltage
V0=Ad(V1-V2)
Ad=Differntial gain
Vd=V1-V2
V0=Ad.Vd
Ad=V0/Vd

Vc=(V1+V2)/2
V0=Ac.Vc
 V0=Ad.Vd+Ac.Vc
CMRR:
CMRR= Ad/Ac
CMRR in db=20 log (Ad/Ac)

12) Operation and applications of log and antilog amplifiers

The fundamental log-amp circuit is shown in above Fig., where a grounded base transistor is
placed in the feedback path. Since the collector is held at virtual ground and the base is also
grounded, the transistor's voltage-current relationship becomes that of a diode and is given by,

Since, for a grounded base transistor,

Antilog amplifier
13) Schmitt trigger

The comparator circuit used to avoid such unwanted triggering is called regenerative comparator
or Schmitt trigger which basically uses positive feedback

Inverting Schmitt Trigger

s the input is applied to the inverting terminal, it is also called inverting Schmitt trigger circuit.
The inverting mode produces opposite polarity output. This is feedback to the non-inverting
input which is of same polarity as that of output. This ensures positive feedback
The hysteresis width is the difference between these two threshold voltages
VH=VUT-VLT
V 0=+ V sat , the voltage at + input terminal can be obtained by using superposition,
R 1 . Vref R2 . ( V sat )
V UT = +
R1 + R2 R 1 + R2
V 0=−V sat , the voltage at + input terminal is,
 R 1 . Vref R2 . ( V sat )
V ¿= −
R 1 + R2 R 1 + R2
If Vref is chosen as zero volt, then,
R2 . ( V sat )
V H=V UT −V ¿ =
R 1+ R 2
Non-Inverting Schmitt trigger

For the non-inverting Schmitt trigger, the voltage at point A is

V A =I ¿ R 2=V UT
V 0 +V sat
I ¿= =
R1 R1
 R2
V UT =I ¿ R 2=V sat .
R1
R2
V ¿ =−V sat .
R1
R2
V H=V UT −V ¿ =2 V sat .
R1
Schmitt Trigger Applications

The uses of the Schmitt trigger include the following.

 Schmitt triggers are mainly used for changing a sine wave to square wave.
 They must be utilized in the switch de-bouncer circuit for a noisy otherwise slow input
requirements like to be cleaned up or speed up
 These are normally utilized in applications like signal conditioning for removing signals
noise in digital circuits.
 These are used to implement relaxation oscillators for closed loop negative response
designs
 These are used in switching power supplies as well as function generators

14) Working of PLL and usage in FM demodulation

 The phase locked loop (PLL) is an important building block of linear systems.

 Electronic phase locked loop (PLL) came into vogue in the 1930s when it was used for radar
synchronisation and communication applications. The high cost of realizing PLL in discrete
form limited its use earlier.

 Now with the advanced IC technology PLLs are available as inexpensive monolithic ICs.

 This technique for electronic frequency control is used today in satellite communication
systems, air borne navigational systems, FM communication systems, computers etc.

Block Diagram of PLL

  The basic block schematic of the PLL is shown in Fig. This feedback system consists of:
◦ Phase detector/comparator
◦ A low pass filter
◦ An error amplifier
◦ A Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
 The VCO is a free running multivibrator and operates at a set frequency f 0 called free running
frequency. This frequency is determined by an external timing capacitor and an external
resistor. It can also be shifted to either side by applying a dc control voltage to an appropriate
terminal of the IC. The frequency deviation is directly proportional to the dc control voltage
and hence it is called a "Voltage Controlled Oscillator" or, in short, VCO.
 If an input signal vs of frequency f0 is applied to the PLL, the phase detector compares the
phase and frequency of the incoming signal to that of the output v 0 of the VCO.
 If the two signals differ in frequency and/or phase, an error voltage V e is generated. The
phase detector is basically a multiplier and produces the sum (fs+ f0) and difference (fs – fo )
components at its output.
 The high frequency component (fs + fo) is removed by the low pass filter and the difference
frequency component is amplified and then applied as control voltage o t to VCO.
 The signal vc shifts the VCO frequency in a direction to reduce the frequency difference
between fs and f0. Once this action starts, we say that the signal is in the capture range.
 The VCO continues to change frequency till its output frequency is exactly the same as the
input signal frequency. The circuit is then said to be locked. Once locked, the output
frequency f0 of VCO is identical to fs except for a finite phase difference ɸ. This phase
difference ɸ generates a corrective control voltage vc, to shift the VCO frequency from f0 to
fs and thereby maintain the lock. Once locked, PLL tracks the frequency changes of the input
signal.
 Thus, a PLL goes through three stages (i) free running, (ii) capture and (iii) locked or tracking.

PLL is also useful for demodulating FM signals in presence of large noise and low signal power.
This means that, PLL is most suitable for use in space vehicle-to-earth data links or where the loss
along the transmission line or path is quite large.

15) Fixed and adjustable voltage regulator

 78XX series are three terminal, positive fixed voltage regulators.

 There are seven output voltage options available such as 5, 6, 8, 12, 15, 18 and 24 V.
 In 78XX, the last two numbers (XX) indicate the output voltage. Thus 7815 represents a 15 V
regulator.
 There are also available 79XX series of fixed output, negative voltage regulators which are
complements to the 78XX series devices.
 There are two extra voltage options of -2 V and -5.2 V available in 79XX series.
 These regulators are available in two types of packages.
1. Metal package (TO — 3 type)
2. Plastic package (TO — 220 type)

Fixed regulator used as adjustable regulator

 PART-C

16) Differential amplifier:

The differential amplifier amplifies the difference between the two input
voltage signals. Also called difference amplifier
1 Features of Differential Amplifier:
The various features of a differential amplifier are:
1. High differential voltage gain
2. Low common mode gain
3. High CMRR
4. Two input terminals
5. High input impedance
6. Large bandwidth
7. Low offset voltages and currents
8. Low output impedance
Types of Differential Amplifiers
i) Dual input, balanced output differential amplifier.
ii)Dual input, unbalanced output differential amplifier.
iii)Single input, balanced output differential amplifier.
iv) Single input, unbalanced output differential amplifier

Modes of operation:
Differential Mode Operation
Common Mode Operation
Differential Mode Operation

Output voltage
V0=Ad(V1-V2)
Ad=Differntial gain
Vd=V1-V2
V0=Ad.Vd
Ad=V0/Vd

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

Differential amplifiers have a ability to cancel out or reject certain types of undesired signals.
Such undesired signals are called noise. The important point is that these signals are not to be
amplified. Noise signals appear equally at both inputs of the op-amp. It means that any
undesired (noise) signals that appears in polarity or common to both the input terminals, will be
largely rejected , or cancelled out at the differential amplifier output. A measure of this rejection
of signals is given by the ratio of differential voltage gain Ad to the common mode gain Acm and
is given as
CMRR=Ad / Acm
17) Non inverting comparator:

If the signal is applied to the non-inverting input terminal, the circuit amplifies without inverting the input signal. Such a circuit is

called non-inverting amplifier.

As the differential voltage Vd at the input terminal of op-amp is zero, the

voltage at node 'a' in Fig. 2.7 (a) is Vi, same as the input voltage applied to
non-inverting input terminal.
V a−0 V a−V 0
+ =0
R1 Rf
V i V i −V 0
+ + =0
R 1 Rf R f
 
Vi Vi V0
+ =
R 1 Rf Rf
Rf R f
V i ( + )=V 0
R1 R f
V0 R
=1+ f
Vi R1

V 0= 1+( )Rf
V
R1 i
V0 Rf
ACL= =1+
Vi R1
the closed loop gain of the Non-inverting amplifier is,
 V0 Rf
ACL= =1+
Vi R1
In this configuration, the input voltage is applied to non-inverting terminals and inverting
terminal is ground . v1 = +vin
v2 = 0
vo = +Ad vin

This means that the input voltage is amplified by Ad and there is no phase reversal at the output.
In all there configurations any input signal slightly greater than zero drive the output to
saturation level. This is because of very high gain. Thus when operated in open-loop, the output
of the OPAMP is either negative or positive saturation or switches between positive and negative
saturation levels. Therefore open loop op-amp is not used in linear applications

18) Astable multivibrator:

astable multivibrator (or) free running oscillator (or) square wave
generator

 Also called as free running oscillator

 The principle of generation of square wave output is to force an op amp
to operate in the saturation region.
R2
 The fraction of output β❑= is fed back to the + input terminal.The
R 1+ R 2
output is also fed back to the –ve input terminal after integrating by
means of RC combination. whenever input at –ve terminal just exceeds
Vref switching takes place resulting in a square wave output.
 Both states are quasi stable.
The voltage across the capacitor as a function of time is
19) R-2R ladder type DAC

Wide range of resistors are required in binary weighted resistor type DAC. This can be avoided by
using R-2R ladder type DAC where only two values of resistors are required.
It is well suited for integrated circuit realization. The typical value of R ranges from 2.5 kΩ to 10
kΩ.
 For simplicity, consider a 3-bit DAC as shown in Fig. 10.5 (a), where the switch position d1 d, d3
corresponds to the binary word 100.
The circuit can be simplified to the equivalent form of Fig. 10.5 (b) and finally to Fig10.5(c). Then,
voltage at node C can be easily calculated by the set procedure of network analysis as

−V R ( 23 R )= −V R
2 4
2 R+ R
3

V 0=
R 4( )
−2 R −V R V R V FS
= =
2 2

20) IC LM317 voltage regulator:

 Besides fixed voltage regulators, IC voltage regulators arc available which allow the
adjustment of the output voltage. The output voltage can be adjusted from 1.2 V to as high
as 57 V with the help of such regulators.
 In such regulator ICs the common terminal plays the role of control input and hence called as
ADJUSTMENT (ADJ terminal. The LM 317 series is the most commonly used three terminal
adjustable regulators.
 These devices are available in a variety of packages which can be easily mounted and
handled. The power rating of such regulators is 1.5 A. The maximum input, voltage of LM317
is 40V.
 The Table 5.4 shows the various types of adjustable regulators and the corresponding output
voltage range and maximum output current rating.


Dual voltage supply