Department of Electromechanical Engineering

Course Title: Fundamentals of Electrical circuits

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UNIT 3: DC Circuit Analysis
1 Introduction
2 Kirchhoff’s Laws
3 Circuits Simplifications
4 Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Nodal Analysis
Mesh Analysis
5 Linearity
6 Superposition Theorem
7 Source Transformation
8 Star-Delta Transformation
9 Thevenin’s Theorems
10 Norton’s Theorems
11 Maximum Power Transfer
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 Introduction

Introduction

Circuit analysis is the process of determining voltages across (or the

currents through) the elements of the circuit.

Node is a junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements

are connected together.

Branch is that part of a network which lies between two junctions.

Loop is a close path in a circuit in which no element or node is

encountered more than once.

Mesh is a loop that contains no other loop within it.

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Introduction

For example, the circuit of Fig. a has 6 branches, five nodes, three
loops and two meshes whereas the circuit of Fig. b has four branches,
two nodes, six loops and three meshes.

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Introduction

There are two general approaches to network analysis:

Direct Method
The network is left in its original form while determining its
different voltages and currents.

Such methods are usually restricted to fairly simple circuits

and include Kirchhoff’s laws, Loop analysis, Nodal analysis
and superposition theorem etc.

Reduction Method
The original network is converted into a much simpler
equivalent circuit for rapid calculation of different quantities.

This method can be applied to simple and complicated

networks. Examples of this method are: Delta/Star and
Star/Delta conversions, Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem etc.
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 Kirchhoff’s Laws

Kirchhoff’s Laws

Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits.

However, when it is coupled with Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a

sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing a large variety of electric
circuits.

Kirchhoff’s laws were first introduced in 1847 by the German physi-

cist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887).

These laws are formally known as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting
at a point (or junction) is zero.

(i.e. the total current leaving a junction is equal to the total current
entering that junction.)
XN
in = 0
n=1

i1 + i3 + i4 = i2 + i5

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

KVL states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed
path (or loop) is zero.
M
X
vm = 0
m=1
−v1 + v2 + v3 − v4 + v5 = 0

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Kirchhoff’s Laws

Example: For the circuit shown in the Fig., find voltages v1 and v2 .

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Kirchhoff’s Laws

Example: For the circuit shown in the Fig., find voltages v1 and v2 .

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Kirchhoff’s Laws

Example: Determine vo and i in the Fig. shown below.

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Kirchhoff’s Laws

Example: Find current io and voltage vo in the circuit shown below.

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Kirchhoff’s Laws

Example: Find current io and voltage vo in the circuit shown below.

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 Circuits Simplifications

Series Resistors and Voltage Division

The process of combining the resistors is facilitated by combining
two of them at a time.

With this in mind, consider the single-loop circuit shown in the fig.
below. The two resistors are in series, since the same current i flows
in both of them. Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors, we
obtain

v1 = iR1 , v2 = iR2

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Circuits Simplifications

If we apply KVL to the loop (moving in the clockwise direction), we

have
−v + v1 + v2 = 0
combining the two equations, we get

v = v1 + v2 = i(R1 + R2 ) = iReq

The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in

series is the sum of the individual resistances.

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Circuits Simplifications

Notice that the source voltage v is divided among the resistors in

direct proportion to their resistances; the larger the resistance, the
larger the voltage drop.

This is called the principle of voltage division, and the circuit in

Fig.above is called a voltage divider.

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 Circuits Simplifications

Parallel Resistors and Current Division

Consider the circuit shown in the Fig. below, where two resistors
are connected in parallel and therefore have the same voltage across
them. From Ohm’s law
v = i1 R1 = i2 R2
and
v v
i1 = , i2 =
R1 R2

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Circuits Simplifications

Applying KCL at node a gives the total current i as

i = i1 + i2

by simple substitution
v v 1 1 v
i= + = v( + )=
R1 R2 R1 R2 Req
where is the Req equivalent resistance of the resistors in parallel:
1 1 1
= +
Req R1 R2
The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the
product of their resistances divided by their sum.
R1 R2
Req =
R1 + R2
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Circuits Simplifications

Given the total current i entering node, how do we obtain current i1

and i2 We know that the equivalent resistor has the same voltage,
or
R1 R2
v= i
R1 + R2
v R2 v R1
i1 = = i, i2 = = i
R1 R1 + R2 R2 R1 + R2
which shows that the total current i is shared by the resistors in
inverse proportion to their resistances. This is known as the principle
of current division.

Notice that the larger current flows through the smaller resistance.

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Circuits Simplifications

As an extreme case, suppose one of the resistors as shown in Fig.(a).

is zero, say R2 = 0 ; that is, R2 is a short circuit. From the above
equation, R2 = 0 implies that i1 = 0,i2 = i .

This means that the entire current i bypasses R1 and flows through
the short circuit R2 = 0, the path of least resistance. Thus when a
circuit is short circuited, two things should be kept in mind:
The equivalent resistance Req = 0
The entire current flows through the short circuit.
As another extreme case, suppose R2 = ∞, that is, R2 is an open
circuit, as shown in Fig.(b). The current still flows through the path
of least resistance, By taking the limit, we obtain Req = R1

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 Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Having understood the fundamental laws of circuit theory (Ohm’s

law and Kirchhoff’s laws), we are now prepared to apply these laws
to develop two powerful techniques for circuit analysis

Nodal analysis, which is based on a systematic application of Kirch-

hoff’s current law (KCL), and mesh analysis, which is based on a
systematic application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).

With the two techniques to be developed in this section, we can

analyze any linear circuit by obtaining a set of simultaneous equa-
tions that are then solved to obtain the required values of current
or voltage

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 Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Nodal Analysis

Nodal Analysis
Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits
using node voltages as the circuit variables.

Choosing node voltages instead of element voltages as circuit vari-

ables is convenient and reduces the number of equations one must
solve simultaneously

In this section, we shall assume circuits contain only current sources.

Nodal analysis of the circuit involves taking the following three steps.

Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages

v1 , v2 , ..., vn−1 to the remaining n − 1 nodes. The voltages are
referenced with respect to the reference node
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Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Nodal Analysis

Apply KCL to each of the n − 1 nonreference nodes. Use

Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in terms of node
voltages
Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the
unknown node voltages

Exxample: Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown in the

Fig. below

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Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Nodal Analysis

Exercise: Obtain the node voltages shown in the circuit below.

Example: Determine the voltages at the nodes in the Fig. given

below.

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Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Nodal Analysis

Exercise: Find the voltages at the three nonreference nodes in the

circuit given below.

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 Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Nodal Analysis

Nodal Analysis with voltage sources

We now consider how voltage sources affect nodal analysis. Consider
the following two possibilities

CASE 1: If a voltage source is connected between the

reference node and a nonreference node, we simply set the
voltage at the nonreference node equal to the voltage of the
voltage source.
v1 = 10v

CASE 2: If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is

connected between two nonreference nodes, the two
nonreference nodes form a generalized node or supernode; we
apply both KCL and KVL to determine the node voltages
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Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Nodal Analysis

A supernode is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent)

voltage source connected between two nonreference nodes and any
elements connected in parallel with it.

Note the following properties of a supernode

The voltage source inside the supernode provides a constraint
equation needed to solve for the node voltages.
A supernode has no voltage of its own
A supernode requires the application of both KCL and KVL 27 / 70
Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Nodal Analysis

Example: For the circuit shown in the Fig., find the node voltages.

Exercise: Find v and i in the circuit shown below.

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Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Nodal Analysis

Example: Find the node voltages in the circuit given below

Exercise: using nodal analysis, Find v1 ,v2 and v3 in the circuit

shown below

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 Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Mesh Analysis

Mesh Analysis
Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing cir-
cuits, using mesh currents as the circuit variables.

Using mesh currents instead of element currents as circuit variables

is convenient and reduces the number of equations that must be
solved simultaneously

Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown voltages in a given

circuit, while mesh analysis applies KVL to find unknown currents.

Mesh analysis is not quite as general as nodal analysis because it is

only applicable to a circuit that is planar.

A planar circuit is one that can be drawn in a plane with no branches

crossing one another; otherwise it is nonplanar.
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Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Mesh Analysis

A circuit may have crossing branches and still be planar if it can be

redrawn such that it has no crossing branches

Nonplanar circuits can be handled using nodal analysis, but they will
not be considered in this text.

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 Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Mesh Analysis

Mesh Analysis with Voltage Sources

In this section, we will apply mesh analysis to planar circuits that
do not contain current sources. In the next section, we will consider
circuits with current sources.

In the mesh analysis of a circuit with n meshes, we take the following

three steps.
Assign mesh currents i1 , i2 , ..., in to the n meshes
Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to
express the voltages interms of the mesh currents
Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh
currents

The direction of the mesh current is arbitrary—(clockwise or coun-

terclockwise)—and does not affect the validity of the solution.
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Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Mesh Analysis

Example: For the circuit in the Fig. below, find the branch currents
and using mesh analysis

Exercise: Calculate the mesh currents i1 and i2 of the circuit of in

the Fig. below.

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Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Mesh Analysis

Example: Use mesh analysis to find the current in the circuit shown
in the Fig. below.

Exercise: Using mesh analysis, find I0 in the circuit shown below.

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 Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Mesh Analysis

Mesh Analysis with Current sources

Applying mesh analysis to circuits containing current sources (de-
pendent or independent) may appear complicated.

The presence of the current sources reduces the number of equa-

tions. Consider the following two possible cases.
CASE 1: When a current source exists only in one mesh:
Consider the circuit given below. We set i2 = −5A and write
a mesh equation for the other mesh in the usual way; that is
−10 + 4i1 + 6(i1 − i2 ) = 0, i1 = −2A

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Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Mesh Analysis

CASE 2: When a current source exists between two meshes:

Consider the circuit given below. We create a supermesh by
excluding the current source and any elements connected in
series with it.
−20 + 6i1 + 10i2 + 4i2 = 0
A supermesh results when two meshes have a (dependent or inde-
pendent) current source in common.
Supermesh must satisfy KVL like any other mesh. Therefore, ap-
plying KVL to the supermesh

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Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Mesh Analysis

We apply KCL to a node in the branch where the two meshes inter-
sect. Applying KCL to node 0

i2 = i1 + 6
which gives
i1 = −3.2A, i2 = 2.8A
Note the following properties of a supermesh

The current source in the supermesh provides the constraint

equation necessary to solve for the mesh currents.
A supermesh has no current of its own.
A supermesh requires the application of both KVL and KCL.

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Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Mesh Analysis

Example: For the circuit shown in the Fig., find i1 to i4 using mesh
analysis

Exercise: Use mesh analysis to determine i1 i2 and i3 in the Fig.

below.

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 Linearity

Linearity

Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear relationship

between cause and effect

The property is a combination of both the homogeneity (scaling)

property and the additivity property

The homogeneity property requires that if the input is multiplied by

a constant, then the output is multiplied by the same constant.

If the current is increased by a constant k, then the voltage increases

correspondingly by k; that is

kiR = kv

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Linearity

The additivity property requires that the response to a sum of inputs

is the sum of the responses to each input applied separately. Using
the voltage-current relationship of a resistor, if

v1 = i1 R, v2 = i2 R

then applying (i1 + i2 ) gives

v = (i1 + i2 )R = i1 R + i2 R = v1 + v2

Resistor is a linear element because the voltage-current relationship

satisfies both the homogeneity and the additivity properties.

In general, a circuit is linear if it is both additive and homogeneous.

A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly

proportional) to its input.
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Linearity

Example: For the circuit shown in the Fig., find I0 when vs = 12v
and vs = 24v

Exercise: For the circuit shown in the Fig., find vo when is = 15A
and is = 30A

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Linearity

Example: Assume Io = 1A and use linearity to find the actual value

of Io in the circuit shown below.

Exercise: Assume that Vo = 1V and use linearity to calculate the

actual value of V0 in the circuit given below

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 Superposition Theorem

Superposition Theorem

Another way is to determine the contribution of each independent

source to the variable and then add them up. The latter approach
is known as the superposition. The idea of superposition rests on
the linearity property.

Superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current

through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the
voltages across (or currents through) that element due to each in-
dependent source acting alone.

The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with

more than one independent source by calculating the contribution
of each independent source separately

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Superposition Theorem

Apply the superposition principle, we must keep two things in mind:

We consider one independent source at a time while all other

independent sources are turned off. This implies that we
replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a short circuit), and
every current source by 0 A (or an open circuit).
Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled
by circuit variables
Steps to apply superposition principle
Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the
output (voltage or current) due to the active source using the
technique covered in the previous sections
Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent source
Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contribution due to the independent source
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Superposition Theorem

Example: Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit given

below

Exercise: Using the superposition theorem, find vo in the circuit

given below

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Superposition Theorem

Example: Using superposition, Find io in the circuit given below.

Exercise: Use superposition to find vx in the circuit shown below

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 Source Transformation

Source Transformation
We have noticed that series-parallel combination and wye-delta trans-
formation help simplify circuits.

Source transformation is another tool for simplifying circuits. Basic

to these tools is the concept of equivalence.

It is therefore expedient in circuit analysis to be able to substitute a

voltage source in series with a resistor for a current source in parallel
with a resistor, or vice versa

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Source Transformation

A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source

vs in series with a resistor R by a current source is in parallel with a
resistor R, or vice versa.

Source transformation also applies to dependent sources, provided

we carefully handle the dependent variable. A dependent voltage
source in series with a resistor can be transformed to a dependent
current source in parallel with the resistor or vice versa

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Source Transformation

Example: Use source transformation to find vo in the circuit in the

figure given below

Exercise: Find io in the circuit given below, using source

transformation

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Source Transformation

Exasmple: Using source transformation, Find vx

Exercise: Use source transformation to find ix in the circuit shown

below

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 Star-Delta Transformation

Star-Delta Transformation
Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the resistors are neither
in parallel nor in series.

For example, consider the bridge circuit given below. How do we

combine resistors through when the resistors are neither in series nor
in parallel?

Many circuits of the type shown in the Fig. below can be simplified
by using three-terminal equivalent networks.

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Star-Delta Transformation

These are the wye (Y) or tee (T) network shown in the Fig. below
and the delta (∆) or pi (Π) network. These networks occur by
themselves or as part of a larger network. They are used in three-
phase networks, electrical filters, and matching networks. Our main
interest here is in how to identify them when they occur as part of a
network and how to apply wye-delta transformation in the analysis
of that network.

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 Star-Delta Transformation

Delta to Wye Conversion

Suppose it is more convenient to work with a wye network in a place
where the circuit contains a delta configuration.

We superimpose a wye network on the existing delta network and

find the equivalent resistances in the wye network.

To obtain the equivalent resistances in the wye network, we compare

the two networks and make sure that the resistance between each
pair of nodes in the ∆ (or Π ) network is the same as the resistance
between the same pair of nodes in the Y (or T) network

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Star-Delta Transformation

We do not need to memorize the above three Eqs. To transform

a ∆ network to Y, we create an extra node n as shown in the Fig.
below and follow this conversion rule

Each resistor in the Y network is the product of the resistors in

the two adjacent ∆ branches, divided by the sum of the three ∆
resistors.

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 Star-Delta Transformation

Wye to Delta Conversion

Each resistor in the ∆ network is the sum of all possible products of
Y resistors taken two at a time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.

The Y and ∆ networks are said to be balanced when

R1 = R2 = R3 = Ry , Ra = Rb = Rc = R∆

Under these conditions, conversion formulas become

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Star-Delta Transformation

Example: Convert the ∆ network in the Fig. below to an equivalent

Y network

Exercise: Transform the wye network in the Fig. shown to a delta

network

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Star-Delta Transformation

Example: Obtain the equivalent resistance Rab for the circuit shown
in the Fig. below and use it to find current i.

Exercise: For the bridge network shown in the Fig., find Rab and i.

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 Thevenin’s Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorems
It often occurs in practice that a particular element in a circuit is
variable (usually called the load) while other elements are fixed.

As a typical example, a household outlet terminal may be connected

to different appliances constituting a variable load. Each time the
variable element is changed, the entire circuit has to be analyzed all
over again.
To avoid this problem, Thevenin’s theorem provides a technique by
which the fixed part of the circuit is replaced by an equivalent circuit

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Thevenin’s Theorems

Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be

replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh
in series with a resistor RTh , where VTh is the open-circuit voltage
at the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

To apply this idea in finding the Thevenin resistance, we need to

consider two cases.
CASE 1: If the network has no dependent sources, we turn off
all independent sources. RTh is the input resistance of the
network looking between terminals a and b, as shown in Fig.

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Thevenin’s Theorems

CASE 2: If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all

independent sources. As with superposition, dependent
sources are not to be turned off because they are controlled by
circuit variables. We apply a voltage source vo at terminals a
and b and determine the resulting current io . Then RTh = vioo .

Alternatively, we may insert a current source at terminals a-b

as shown in Fig. and find the terminal voltage vo . Again
RTh = vioo . In either approach we may assume any value of vo
and io . For example, we may use vo = 1v or io = 1A, or even
use unspecified values of vo or io .

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Thevenin’s Theorems

Thevenin’s theorem simplify large circuit may be replaced by a single

independent voltage source and a single resistor.

The current IL through the load and the voltage VL across the load
are easily determined once the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit at
the load’s terminals is obtained

VTh RL
IL = , VL = RL IL = VTh
RTh + RL RTh + RL
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Thevenin’s Theorems

Example: Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown

in Fig., to the left of the terminals a-b. Then find the current
through RL = 6,16, and 36Ω.

Exercise: Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the equivalent circuit to

the left of the terminals in the circuit of Fig.. Then find I

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Thevenin’s Theorems

Example: Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig. at

terminals a-b

Exercise: Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig.

to the left of the terminals a-b.

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 Norton’s Theorems

Norton’s Theorems
Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN
in parallel with a resistor RN , where IN is the short-circuit current
through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance
at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off

We are mainly concerned with how to get RN and IN , We find RN in

the same way we find RTh . In fact, from what we know about source
transformation, the Thevenin and Norton resistances are equal; that
is RN = RTh

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Norton’s Theorems

Example: Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig. at

terminals a-b

Exercise: Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the circuit in Fig.,
at terminals a-b

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Norton’s Theorems

Example: Using Norton’s theorem, find IN and RN of the circuit in

Fig. at terminals a-b

Exercise: Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig.

at terminals a-b

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 Maximum Power Transfer

Maximum Power Transfer

In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide power

to a load.

There are applications in areas such as communications where it is

desirable to maximize the power delivered to a load. We now address
the problem of delivering the maximum power to a load when given
a system with known internal losses.

It should be noted that this will result in significant internal losses

greater than or equal to the power delivered to the load.

The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power a

linear circuit can deliver to a load.

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Maximum Power Transfer

We assume that we can adjust the load resistance, If the entire

circuit is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent except for the load, as
shown in Fig., the power delivered to the load is
vTh
p = i 2 RL = ( )2 RL
RTh + RL

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Maximum Power Transfer

For a given circuit, Vth and RTh are fixed. By varying the load
resistance RL , the power delivered to the load varies.

The power is small for small or large values of RL but maximum for
some value of RL between 0 and ∞ We now want to show that this
maximum power occurs when RL is equal to RTh . This is known as
the maximum power theorem

Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance

equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from the load (RL = RTh ).

The maximum power transferred is obtained by substituting

2
VTh
Pmax =
4RTh

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Maximum Power Transfer

Example: Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the

circuit of Fig.. Find the maximum power.

Exercise: Determine the value of RL that will draw the maximum

power from the rest of the circuit in the Fig. shown below.
Calculate the maximum power.

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