Mid term

A . What is a software process? What are the differences between software process and process
model? Example

Software processes in software engineering refer to the methods and techniques used
to develop and maintain software.
Software Processes is a coherent set of activities for specifying, designing, implementing and
testing software systems. A software process model is an abstract representation of a process that
presents a description of a process from some particular perspective.

There are many different software processes but all involve:

• Specification – defining what the system should do;

• Design and implementation – defining the organization of the system and

implementing the system;

• Validation – checking that it does what the customer wants;

• Evolution – changing the system in response to changing customer needs.

## Software process is set of work that is applied to design or built a software product. The
fundamental activities that is common to all software process are :

1. software specification
2. software design and implementation
3. software evaluation
A software process model is the a abstract representation of a software process. It is a structure of
a software process present the description of a process . There are several process models are
available

1. Waterfall model
2. Generic process model
3. Incremental model
4. Agile process model
5. Prototyping model
6. Spiral model
7. Iterative development model, etc
b. describe waterfall model.what are the advantages and disadvantages

The Waterfall Model was the first Process Model to be introduced. It is also referred to as
a linear-sequential life cycle model. It is very simple to understand and use. In a waterfall
model, each phase must be completed before the next phase can begin and there is no
overlapping in the phases.
The Waterfall model is the earliest SDLC approach that was used for software development.
The waterfall Model illustrates the software development process in a linear sequential flow.
This means that any phase in the development process begins only if the previous phase is
complete. In this waterfall model, the phases do not overlap.

Waterfall Model - Design

Waterfall approach was first SDLC Model to be used widely in Software Engineering to ensure
success of the project. In "The Waterfall" approach, the whole process of software development
is divided into separate phases. In this Waterfall model, typically, the outcome of one phase
acts as the input for the next phase sequentially.
The following illustration is a representation of the different phases of the Waterfall Model.

The sequential phases in Waterfall model are −

• Requirement Gathering and analysis − All possible requirements of the
system to be developed are captured in this phase and documented in a
requirement specification document.
• System Design − The requirement specifications from first phase are studied in
this phase and the system design is prepared. This system design helps in
specifying hardware and system requirements and helps in defining the overall
system architecture.
• Implementation − With inputs from the system design, the system is first
developed in small programs called units, which are integrated in the next phase.
Each unit is developed and tested for its functionality, which is referred to as
Unit Testing.
• Integration and Testing − All the units developed in the implementation phase
are integrated into a system after testing of each unit. Post integration the entire
system is tested for any faults and failures.
 • Deployment of system − Once the functional and non-functional testing is
done; the product is deployed in the customer environment or released into the
market.
• Maintenance − There are some issues which come up in the client environment.
To fix those issues, patches are released. Also to enhance the product some better
versions are released. Maintenance is done to deliver these changes in the
customer environment.

Waterfall Model - Advantages

The advantages of waterfall development are that it allows for departmentalization and control.
A schedule can be set with deadlines for each stage of development and a product can proceed
through the development process model phases one by one.
Development moves from concept, through design, implementation, testing, installation,
troubleshooting, and ends up at operation and maintenance. Each phase of development
proceeds in strict order.
Some of the major advantages of the Waterfall Model are as follows −
• Simple and easy to understand and use
• Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model. Each phase has specific
deliverables and a review process.
• Phases are processed and completed one at a time.
• Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well understood.
• Clearly defined stages.
• Well understood milestones.
• Easy to arrange tasks.
• Process and results are well documented.

Waterfall Model - Disadvantages

The disadvantage of waterfall development is that it does not allow much reflection or revision.
Once an application is in the testing stage, it is very difficult to go back and change something
that was not well-documented or thought upon in the concept stage.
The major disadvantages of the Waterfall Model are as follows −
• No working software is produced until late during the life cycle.
• High amounts of risk and uncertainty.
• Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.
• Poor model for long and ongoing projects.
• Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to high risk
of changing. So, risk and uncertainty is high with this process model.
• It is difficult to measure progress within stages.
• Cannot accommodate changing requirements.
• Adjusting scope during the life cycle can end a project.
• Integration is done as a "big-bang. at the very end, which doesn't allow
identifying any technological or business bottleneck or challenges early.
•
c. Explain why incremental development is the most effective approach for developing business
software systems.draw block diagram of a general model of the software design process
Incremental development is often considered an effective approach for developing
business software due to several advantages it offers:

1. Faster time-to-market: Incremental development allows for the delivery of

functional software in smaller iterations or increments. This means that
business users can start benefiting from the system sooner, even if it is not
fully complete. This approach enables faster time-to-market and allows
businesses to respond more quickly to market demands and changing
requirements.
2. Flexibility and adaptability: Incremental development embraces the concept of
iterative and incremental improvements. It allows businesses to adapt and
refine the software based on user feedback and changing needs. This
flexibility ensures that the final product is better aligned with the evolving
requirements of the business.
3. Early and continuous user involvement: With incremental development, users
and stakeholders have the opportunity to provide feedback and review
working software at regular intervals. This early and continuous involvement
helps ensure that the software meets the business needs and reduces the risk
of misalignment between the delivered product and user expectations.
4. Risk mitigation: Incremental development mitigates risks associated with
large-scale projects. By breaking down the development process into smaller
increments, businesses can identify and address potential issues and risks
early on. This approach allows for course correction and adjustments,
reducing the likelihood of major failures or budget overruns.
5. Enhanced transparency and communication: Incremental development
encourages regular communication and collaboration between development
teams and business stakeholders. As working software is delivered in
iterations, it facilitates ongoing discussions, clarifications, and the resolution of
any misunderstandings. This transparent and collaborative approach improves
overall project understanding and reduces miscommunication.
6. Cost-effectiveness: Incremental development can be cost-effective as it allows
for better resource allocation. Instead of investing a significant amount of
resources into a single monolithic project, incremental development allows for
smaller, manageable increments with clear goals and deliverables. This phased
approach enables businesses to prioritize and allocate resources more
efficiently based on immediate needs and value.
7. Quality assurance and testing: Incremental development enables continuous
testing and quality assurance efforts throughout the development process.
Each increment is subject to testing, ensuring that defects and issues are
identified and addressed early on. This leads to a higher quality end product
as compared to the traditional "big bang" approach where testing occurs
towards the end of the project.
General model of the desigh process
d. describe the agile manifesto .Explain how the principles underlying agile methods lead to the
development and deployment of software.

The Agile Manifesto is a set of guiding principles that define the values and
principles of agile software development. It was created by a group of software
development experts in 2001 and emphasizes flexibility, collaboration, and
continuous improvement in software development processes. The Agile Manifesto
consists of four core values and twelve principles.

Agile Manifesto Values:

1. Individuals and Interactions over Processes and Tools: This value emphasizes
the importance of effective communication, collaboration, and teamwork
among individuals involved in the software development process. It
recognizes that people and their interactions are the foundation of successful
software development, and processes and tools should support their
collaboration.
2. Working Software over Comprehensive Documentation: This value emphasizes
the delivery of functional software that meets the needs of users. It
acknowledges the importance of documentation but prioritizes working
software as the primary measure of progress and success. The focus is on
delivering value to the customer through tangible, working software.
3. Customer Collaboration over Contract Negotiation: This value emphasizes the
active involvement and collaboration of customers or stakeholders throughout
the development process. It promotes close collaboration, feedback, and
iterative development to ensure the software meets customer needs. The goal
is to work closely with customers to understand and respond to their
requirements effectively.
4. Responding to Change over Following a Plan: This value recognizes the
dynamic nature of software development. It acknowledges that requirements
and priorities may change over time, and the development process should be
flexible and responsive to accommodate those changes. Agile teams embrace
change and adjust plans accordingly to maximize the value delivered.

Agile Manifesto Principles:

The twelve principles underlying the Agile Manifesto expand on the values and
provide specific guidance for agile software development. These principles include:

1. Satisfy the customer through early and continuous delivery of valuable

software.
2. Welcome changing requirements, even late in the development process.
3. Deliver working software frequently, with a preference for shorter timescales.
4. Collaborate closely with customers and stakeholders throughout the project.
 5. Build projects around motivated individuals and give them the environment
and support they need.
6. Use face-to-face communication as much as possible.
7. Measure progress primarily by working software.
8. Maintain a sustainable pace for development teams.
9. Promote technical excellence and good design.
10. Keep things simple and maximize the amount of work not done.
11. Empower teams to make decisions and self-organize.
12. Regularly reflect on team effectiveness and adjust accordingly.

2021 solution
1.a. define software engineering.What are the benefits of incremental development model
over waterfall model?

is also known as Classical/Traditional Model. Sometimes It is referred as linear-

sequential life cycle model because all phases involve in this model completed one
by one in linear fashion. In this model, we get software after completion of all
coding phase. This model is basically used for small projects. There exist only one
cycle in waterfall model.
 Figure – Waterfall Model
While in Incremental Model Multiple development cycles take place and these
cycles are divided into more smaller modules. Generally a working software in
incremental model is produced during first module Each subsequent release of the
module adds function to the previous release. In incremental model, process
continues till the complete system is achieved.
 Figure – Incremental Model
Here we will see that how waterfall model is different from an incremental model
in terms of time, cost, maintenance, documentation etc.
Some differences between them are given below:

S.
No. Waterfall Model Incremental Model

The need for Detailed Documentation in

Need for Detailed Documentation
1. the incremental model is Necessary but
in the waterfall model is Necessary.
not too much.

In the waterfall model, early stage In an incremental model, early-stage

2.
planning is necessary. planning is also necessary.

There is a high amount of risk in There is a low amount of risk in the

3.
the waterfall model. incremental model.

There is a long waiting time for

There is a short waiting time for running
4. running software in the waterfall
software in the incremental model.
model.

The waterfall model can’t handle The incremental model also can’t handle
5.
large projects. large projects.

Flexibility to change in the Flexibility to change in incremental

6.
waterfall model is Difficult. model is Easy.
 S.
No. Waterfall Model Incremental Model

The cost of the Waterfall model is The cost of the incremental model is also
7.
Low. Low.

Testing is done in the waterfall

Testing is done in the incremental model
8. model after the completion of the
after every iteration of the phase.
coding phase.

Returning to the previous

Returning to the previous stage/phase in
9. stage/phase in the waterfall model
the incremental model is possible.
is not possible.

In the waterfall model, a large team In an incremental model large team is

10.
is required. not required.

In the waterfall model overlapping In incremental model overlapping of

11.
of phases is not possible. phases is possible.

There is only one cycle in the Multiple development cycles take place
12.
waterfall model. in the incremental model.

The customer is involved only at In incremental model, customer

13.
the beginning of development. involvement is intermediate.

Linear with iterative framework type is

14. The linear framework type is used.
used.

The customer has more control over the

The customer is having least
15. administrator in comparison to the
control over the administrator.
waterfall model.

16. Reusability is the least possible. Reusability is possible to some extent.

b. describe the difference between plan driven and agile approaches with a diagram. What are
the advantages and drawbacks of agile approaches?
Plan-Driven Approach: The plan-driven approach, often associated with traditional waterfall
methodologies, follows a sequential and predictive process. It involves detailed planning,
documentation, and a fixed scope of work. Here is a simplified diagram illustrating the plan-
driven approach:

_____________
| Planning |
|_____________|
|
_________/ \_________
| Execution |
|___________________|
|
______/ \_______
| Testing |
|________________|
|
______/ \_______
| Deployment |
|________________|

Agile Approach: The agile approach, on the other hand, follows an iterative and
incremental process that allows for flexibility, adaptability, and continuous
improvement. Agile methodologies, such as Scrum or Kanban, involve shorter
development cycles called iterations or sprints. Here is a simplified diagram
illustrating the agile approach:

____________________
| Iteration/Sprint 1 |
|____________________|
|
_______/ \__________
| Iteration/Sprint 2 |
|_____________________|
|
 _______/ \__________
| ... |
|_____________________|
|
_______/ \__________
| Iteration/Sprint N |
|_____________________|

Advantages of Agile Approaches:

1. Flexibility: Agile approaches allow for changing requirements and priorities

throughout the development process, providing flexibility to adapt to evolving
business needs.
2. Customer Collaboration: Regular customer involvement and feedback
promote a deeper understanding of their needs, leading to a higher chance of
delivering a product that meets their expectations.
3. Early Value Delivery: Incremental development and frequent iterations enable
the delivery of functional software early, providing value to customers and
stakeholders sooner.
4. Continuous Improvement: Agile methodologies emphasize regular
retrospectives and process refinements, enabling continuous improvement in
both the development process and the delivered product.
5. Enhanced Team Collaboration: Agile methodologies promote self-organizing,
cross-functional teams that collaborate closely, fostering better
communication, knowledge sharing, and problem-solving.

Drawbacks of Agile Approaches:

1. Lack of Predictability: Agile approaches are not as predictable as plan-driven

methods due to changing requirements and iterative development. This may
make it challenging to estimate project timelines and costs accurately.
2. Requires Active Customer Involvement: Agile methodologies rely heavily on
customer collaboration, and if customers are not actively engaged or
available, it can hinder the effectiveness of the approach.
3. Potential Scope Creep: The flexibility in agile approaches can lead to scope
creep, where the project scope expands beyond the original intentions,
potentially affecting budget and timelines if not managed effectively.
 4. Learning Curve: Agile methodologies may require a learning curve for teams
unfamiliar with the approach, which can initially impact productivity until the
team becomes proficient.

c. write a short note on Ishikawa diagram

An Ishikawa diagram is a diagram that shows the causes of an event and

is often used in manufacturing and product development to outline the
different steps in a process, demonstrate where quality control issues
might arise, and determine which resources are required at specific times.

The Ishikawa diagram was developed by Kaoru Ishikawa during the 1960s
as a way of measuring quality control processes in the shipbuilding
industry.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• An Ishikawa diagram is used to show the causal factors that go into

some final outcome, often related to a production or design problem.
• They are named after Japanese engineering professor Kaoru
Ishikawa in the 1960s, who helped apply them to manufacturing
processes.
• Shaped somewhat like a fish, these charts are sometimes called
fishbone or "Fishikawa" diagrams.
• Ishikawa diagrams often follow the "Six M's": manpower, machinery,
methods, materials, measurement, and mother nature.

2. a. Scrum,JRP,Unit testing

Scrum is the type of Agile framework. It is a framework within which people can
address complex adaptive problem while productivity and creativity of delivering
product is at highest possible values. Scrum uses Iterative process. Silent features
of Scrum are:
• Scrum is light-weighted framework
• Scrum emphasizes self-organization
• Scrum is simple to understand
• Scrum framework help the team to work together

JRP, or Joint Requirements Planning, is a collaborative approach used in software

engineering to gather and analyze requirements for a software project. It involves
bringing together stakeholders, including business analysts, developers, users, and
other relevant parties, to work together and define the requirements for the software
system.
The JRP process typically includes the following stages:

1. Pre-planning: Identify the purpose and objectives of the JRP, select the
appropriate participants, and establish a schedule and agenda for the process.
2. Discovery: Gather information about the existing system, user needs, and
other requirements for the new software system.
3. Analysis: Analyze the information collected to identify requirements and
prioritize them based on their importance and feasibility.
4. Specification: Define the requirements in detail, including functional and non-
functional requirements, as well as any constraints and assumptions.
5. Validation: Review the requirements with stakeholders to ensure they are
complete, accurate, and acceptable.
6. Management: Track and manage changes to the requirements throughout the
software development lifecycle.

JRP has several benefits for software development projects, including:

1. Collaboration: JRP promotes collaboration and communication among

stakeholders, leading to a shared understanding of the requirements and
greater buy-in from all parties.
2. Efficiency: JRP allows for a more efficient and streamlined requirements
gathering process, reducing the likelihood of missed or misunderstood
requirements.
3. Clarity: JRP facilitates the clear and concise documentation of requirements,
making them easier to understand and interpret for all parties involved.
4. Flexibility: JRP allows for the rapid adaptation of requirements in response to
changing project needs or stakeholder feedback.

Unit Testing is a type of software testing where individual units or

components of a software are tested. The purpose is to validate
that each unit of the software code performs as expected. Unit
Testing is done during the development (coding phase) of an
application by the developers. Unit Tests isolate a section of code
and verify its correctness. A unit may be an individual function,
method, procedure, module, or object.

b. describe factory design pattern with proper examples.

The Factory Design Pattern is a creational design pattern that provides an interface
for creating objects without specifying their concrete classes. It encapsulates the
object creation logic and allows the client code to use the created objects through a
common interface. The Factory Design Pattern promotes loose coupling by
separating object creation from the client code.

Here's an example to illustrate the Factory Design Pattern:

Let's say we have an application that deals with different types of documents, such as
PDF documents, Word documents, and Excel documents. We want to abstract the
document creation process using the Factory Design Pattern.

1. Product Interface: First, we define an interface called Document that declares

the operations common to all types of documents. It could include methods
like open(), close(), or save().
public interface Document {
void open();
void close();
void save();
}

2. Concrete Product Classes: Next, we create concrete classes that implement

the Document interface for each specific document type.

public class PDFDocument implements Document {

// Implement PDF document operations
// ...
}

public class WordDocument implements Document {

// Implement Word document operations
// ...
}

public class ExcelDocument implements Document {

// Implement Excel document operations
 // ...
}

3. Factory Class: We create a factory class called DocumentFactory that

encapsulates the creation logic. It provides a method, such as createDocument(),
which returns a Document object based on the specified type.

public class DocumentFactory {

public Document createDocument(String type) {
if (type.equals("PDF")) {
return new PDFDocument();
} else if (type.equals("Word")) {
return new WordDocument();
} else if (type.equals("Excel")) {
return new ExcelDocument();
}

throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid document type: " + type);

}
}

4. Client Code: Finally, the client code can use the DocumentFactory to create
documents without knowing the concrete document classes.

public class Client {

public static void main(String[] args) {
DocumentFactory documentFactory = new DocumentFactory();

Document pdfDocument = documentFactory.createDocument("PDF");

pdfDocument.open();
// Use PDF document
 Document wordDocument = documentFactory.createDocument("Word");
wordDocument.open();
// Use Word document

Document excelDocument = documentFactory.createDocument("Excel");

excelDocument.open();
// Use Excel document
}
}

In this example, the DocumentFactory acts as the factory, and it creates instances of
PDFDocument, WordDocument , or ExcelDocument based on the type specified by the client
code. The client code doesn't need to know the concrete classes; it can work with the created
Document objects through the common Document interface.

c. what are the attributes of a good software?

A good software typically exhibits certain attributes that contribute to its overall
quality, usability, maintainability, and performance. Here are some key attributes of
good software:

1. Functionality: Good software fulfills its intended purpose and meets the
specified requirements. It performs the tasks it was designed for accurately
and efficiently, providing the expected functionality to its users.
2. Reliability: Reliable software operates consistently and predictably, producing
correct results even in different environments and under varying conditions. It
minimizes errors, exceptions, crashes, and unexpected behaviors.
3. Usability: Usability refers to how easily and efficiently users can interact with
the software. Good software has an intuitive and user-friendly interface, clear
instructions, and well-designed features. It focuses on the user experience and
minimizes the learning curve.
4. Performance: Performance relates to the speed, responsiveness, and
efficiency of the software. Good software is optimized to execute tasks quickly,
handle large data volumes, and utilize system resources effectively. It
minimizes latency, processing time, and memory usage.
5. Scalability: Scalable software is designed to handle increased workloads and
accommodate growing user bases or data volumes. It can scale horizontally
 (by adding more servers) or vertically (by utilizing more resources on a single
server) to maintain performance as demand increases.
6. Security: Security is crucial for protecting the software and its users' data from
unauthorized access, breaches, or malicious activities. Good software
implements appropriate security measures, encryption, access controls, and
follows secure coding practices.
7. Maintainability: Maintainable software is easy to modify, enhance, and fix. It
follows clean code principles, modular design, and separation of concerns. It
uses meaningful variable names, comments, and documentation to facilitate
understanding and future maintenance by developers.
8. Testability: Testable software is designed to facilitate effective testing. It has a
modular and loosely coupled architecture, provides interfaces for testing or
mocking, and includes automated test suites. Good software aims for high test
coverage to ensure correctness and catch regressions.
9. Portability: Portable software can run on different platforms, operating
systems, or environments without requiring major modifications. It is designed
to be independent of specific hardware or software dependencies, facilitating
deployment and use across various systems.
10. Compliance: Compliance refers to adherence to legal, industry, or regulatory
standards applicable to the software. Good software follows applicable
guidelines, regulations, and standards, such as data protection laws,
accessibility standards, or coding conventions.

3.a. briefly describe the fact finding methods.

Fact-finding methods are techniques used in the early stages of system development
or problem-solving to gather information and understand the requirements,
constraints, and objectives of a project. These methods involve interacting with
stakeholders, observing processes, and analyzing existing documentation to collect
relevant data. Here are some commonly used fact-finding methods:

1. Interviews: Interviews involve direct one-on-one or group discussions with

stakeholders, subject matter experts, and end-users. The purpose is to gather
information about their perspectives, requirements, expectations, and
concerns. Structured or semi-structured interviews help elicit specific
information, while open-ended interviews encourage a broader discussion.
2. Questionnaires: Questionnaires are written surveys distributed to
stakeholders or end-users. They allow for collecting information from a larger
group of people. Questionnaires can be closed-ended (with predefined
answer choices) or open-ended (allowing respondents to provide detailed
responses). They provide quantitative or qualitative data that can be analyzed
for patterns and insights.
 3. Observation: Observation involves watching and studying people, processes,
or activities in their natural environment. By directly observing how tasks are
performed, interactions occur, or workflows are executed, valuable insights
can be gained. Observations can be passive (non-participatory) or active
(engaging with participants), depending on the desired level of involvement.
4. Document Analysis: Document analysis involves reviewing existing
documents such as reports, manuals, requirements specifications, policies, or
user guides. By examining these materials, valuable information about the
current system, business processes, rules, and constraints can be extracted. It
helps in understanding the existing context and identifying areas for
improvement.
5. Prototyping: Prototyping involves building partial or simplified versions of
the system to gather feedback and refine requirements. By creating
prototypes, stakeholders can visualize and interact with a representation of
the intended system, providing feedback and clarifying their needs.
Prototyping helps validate requirements and refine the design early in the
development process.
6. Workshops and Focus Groups: Workshops and focus groups bring together
stakeholders, users, and subject matter experts in a facilitated setting. These
interactive sessions encourage collaboration, brainstorming, and discussion to
generate ideas, explore requirements, and resolve conflicts. They are
particularly useful for gathering diverse perspectives and reaching consensus
on key decisions.
7. Surveys: Surveys involve collecting data from a large number of participants
to gain insights into their preferences, opinions, or experiences. Surveys can
be conducted online, via email, or through web forms. They provide statistical
data that can be analyzed to identify trends, patterns, or correlations.
8. Benchmarking: Benchmarking involves comparing a system or process to
best practices or similar solutions in the industry. It helps identify performance
gaps, areas for improvement, and potential solutions. Benchmarking can be
done through research, interviews, or direct comparisons with competitor
systems.
3.b . A book is written by an author, published by a publisher ,sold by a bookstore, and read by a
reader .Moreover, for a reader to read a book, she must but it from a book store that is selling it
.Draw a use case diagram for this scenario, showing relationships between different use cases
+------------+

| Author |

+------------+

|1

+------------+

| Write Book |

+------------+

|1

+------------+

| Publish |

+------------+
 | |

v1 v1

+------------+ +-------------+

| Bookstore | | Publisher |

+------------+ +-------------+

|1 |1

v v

+------------+ +-------------+

| Sell | | Publish |

+------------+ +-------------+

|1 |

v |

+------------+ |

| Read |<----+

Explanation:

1. Author: Represents the author of the book who writes the book.
• Use Case: "Write Book" - The author writes the book.
2. Publish: Represents the publishing process that involves the publisher and the
book.
• Use Case: "Publish" - The author submits the book to the publisher,
who then publishes it.
3. Bookstore: Represents the bookstore that sells books to readers.
• Use Case: "Sell" - The bookstore sells books to readers.
4. Publisher: Represents the publisher who publishes the book written by the
author.
• Use Case: "Publish" - The publisher publishes the book.
5. Sell: Represents the process of selling books to readers by the bookstore.
• Use Case: "Sell" - The bookstore sells the book to the reader.
 6. Read: Represents the reader's action of reading the book after buying it from
the bookstore.
• Use Case: "Read" - The reader reads the book.

Relationships:

• The Author "Write Book" use case is associated with the Publish "Publish"
use case since the author submits the book to the publisher for publication.
• The Publish "Publish" use case is associated with the Bookstore "Sell" use
case since the publisher's published book is sold by the bookstore.
• The Bookstore "Sell" use case is associated with the Reader "Read" use case
since the reader can read the book after buying it from the bookstore.

3.c. describe multiplicity notations in class diagram.

Multiplicity (Cardinality) Place multiplicity notations near the ends of an

association. These symbols indicate the number of instances of one class
linked to one instance of the other class. For example, one company will
have one or more employees, but each employee works for just one
company.

4.a.
to buy a book electronically from chapters .com, a customer needs to select the book from a list
provided by chapters ecommerse system, provide credit card information to the system , then the
system gets authorization from the bank for the payment , and if positive confirms the sale. the
order is then sent to the orders department and when the book becomes available, it is shipped
to the customer. also, the order department charges the customers credit card by informing the
bank of the amount.draw a sequence diagram that models this process.Make sure to model all
relevant actors and the interactions between them .do show explicitly the time interval when
different actors actively participate in the process you are modeling.
Customer Chapters.com Bank Orders Department
| | | |
| Selects a book | | |
|----------------->| | |
| | | |
| Provides credit | | |
| card information| | |
|-----------------> | | |
| | | |
| | Sends | |
| | authorization | |
| |--------------->| |
| | | |
| | | Processes |
| | | authorization |
| | |------------------->|
| | | |
| | | Confirms sale |
| | |<-------------------|
 | | | |
| | | |
| | | Notifies |
| | | order department |
| | |------------------->|
| | | |
| | | Charges credit |
| | | card for the book |
| | |<-------------------|
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | Notifies | |
| | customer | |
| |<--------------| |
| | | |
| Receives the | | |
| book | | |
|<-----------------| | |
| | | |

In this sequence diagram:

1. The customer selects a book from the Chapters.com list.

2. The customer provides credit card information to the Chapters.com e-
commerce system.
3. The Chapters.com system sends authorization request to the bank.
4. The bank processes the authorization and responds with the result (positive or
negative).
5. If the authorization is positive, the Chapters.com system confirms the sale.
6. The Chapters.com system notifies the orders department about the sale.
7. The orders department charges the customer's credit card for the book.
8. The orders department notifies the customer about the successful transaction
and shipment of the book.
9. The customer receives the book.

4.b.
in terms of use case modeling ,define the extends relationship with example
The use case diagram displays three kinds of entities: the system, the actors, and the use cases.
The system is represented by a box encompassing the use cases. The actors are users or systems that
interact with the main system and are represented by figures. The use cases are functions performed by
the actors interacting with the system. Ellipses represent use cases.

To represent complex relationships between different use cases, we can use the extend and include
relationships.

• Extend relationship: The use case is optional and comes after the base use case. It is represented
by a dashed arrow in the direction of the base use case with the notation <<extend>>.
• Include relationship: The use case is mandatory and part of the base use case. It is represented
by a dashed arrow in the direction of the included use case with the notation <<include>>.

Use case diagram

In the above use case diagram, the use case “Read book” includes the use case “Open book”. If a reader
reads the book, she must open it too, as it is mandatory for the base use case (read book). The use case
“read book” extends to the use case “turn page”, which means that turning the page while reading the
book is optional. The base use case in this scenario (read book) is complete without the extended use
case.

4.c.
suppose you are writing a stack class .design some test cases to verify your code
ChatGPT
When designing test cases for a stack class, it is important to consider various scenarios and edge
cases to ensure that the code handles different situations correctly. Here are some test cases you
can use to verify the functionality of your stack class:

1. Test Case: Empty Stack

• Actions:
• Create an empty stack.
• Verify that the stack is empty using the isEmpty() method.
• Try to pop() an element from the stack and ensure that it throws an
exception or returns an appropriate error code.
2. Test Case: Pushing Elements
• Actions:
• Create an empty stack.
• Push several elements onto the stack using the push() method.
• Expected Results:
• Verify that the isEmpty() method returns false.
• Verify that the size() method returns the correct number of elements in the
stack.
• Verify that the top element of the stack matches the last element pushed.
3. Test Case: Popping Elements
• Actions:
• Create a stack and push some elements onto it.
• Pop elements from the stack using the pop() method.
 • Expected Results:
• Verify that the isEmpty() method returns true after popping all elements.
• Verify that the size() method returns 0 after popping all elements.
• Verify that the elements are popped in the reverse order in which they
were pushed.
4. Test Case: Peek at Top Element
• Actions:
• Create a stack and push some elements onto it.
• Use the peek() method to retrieve the top element without removing it.
• Expected Results:
• Verify that the peek() method returns the correct top element.
• Verify that the size() and isEmpty() methods are not affected by the peek
operation.
5. Test Case: Clearing the Stack
• Actions:
• Create a stack and push some elements onto it.
• Call the clear() method to remove all elements from the stack.
• Expected Results:
• Verify that the isEmpty() method returns true after clearing the stack.
• Verify that the size() method returns 0 after clearing the stack.
6. Test Case: Handling Stack Overflow (if applicable)
• Actions:
• Create a stack with a limited capacity (e.g., 5 elements).
• Push more elements than the capacity of the stack.
• Expected Results:
• Verify that the stack throws an exception or returns an appropriate error
code when trying to push beyond its capacity.
7. Test Case: Handling Stack Underflow
• Actions:
• Create an empty stack.
• Try to pop() or peek() an element from the stack.
• Expected Results:
• Verify that the stack throws an exception or returns an appropriate error
code when trying to pop or peek an element from an empty stack.

These test cases cover various aspects of stack functionality, such as pushing, popping, peeking,
checking the stack's state, and handling different boundary conditions. It's important to consider
additional test cases based on the specific implementation details and requirements of your stack
class.

5.a.
draw an activity diagram that represents the making of a cup of tea. the initial three activities are
fill kettle with water ,find cup and find tea bag and they may be performed in parallel.when the
find cup and find tea bag are cimpleted the activity place tea bag in cup can start .the kettle must
have boiled an the tea bag must have been placed in the cup before the activity andd water to
cup can begin .if milk is required then activity add milk should be performed.
+------------------------+
| Start the Process |
+------------------------+
| | |
v v v
+------------------------+
| Fill Kettle with Water |
+------------------------+
|
v
+------------------------+
| Find Cup and Tea Bag |
+------------------------+
| AND
v
+------------------------+
| Place Tea Bag in Cup |
+------------------------+
| AND
v
+------------------------+
| Boil Kettle |
+------------------------+
| AND
v
+------------------------+
| Add Water to Cup |
+------------------------+
| AND
 v
+------------------------+
| Optional: Add Milk |
+------------------------+
|
v
+------------------------+
| End the Process |
+------------------------+

Explanation:

1. The process starts with the "Start the Process" activity.

2. The activities "Fill Kettle with Water," "Find Cup and Tea Bag," and "Find Tea
Bag" can be performed in parallel.
3. When the activities "Find Cup and Tea Bag" and "Find Tea Bag" are completed,
the activity "Place Tea Bag in Cup" can start.
4. The "Kettle must have boiled" condition and the "Tea Bag must have been
placed in the Cup" condition are shown as converging "AND" branches before
starting the "Add Water to Cup" activity.
5. After the "Boil Kettle" and "Place Tea Bag in Cup" activities are completed, the
"Add Water to Cup" activity can begin.
6. After the "Add Water to Cup" activity, there is an optional activity "Add Milk"
that may or may not be performed, depending on whether milk is required.
7. Finally, the process ends with the "End the Process" activity.
5.b.
represent a librry management system using layered architectural and client server architectural
patterns with necessay justifications
ChatGPT
Sure! Here's an architectural representation of a Library Management System using both the
Layered Architecture and Client-Server Architecture patterns:

Layered Architecture:

In the Layered Architecture pattern, the system is divided into multiple layers, each responsible
for specific functionality. This helps to achieve separation of concerns and maintain a modular
and scalable system. Here are the layers commonly found in a Library Management System:

1. Presentation Layer:
• Responsible for handling user interactions and displaying information.
• Provides a user interface for library staff and patrons to access the system.
• Justification: Separating the presentation layer allows for easy customization of
the user interface and improves user experience.
2. Application Layer:
• Implements business logic and coordinates the flow of data between the
presentation and domain layers.
• Handles tasks such as user authentication, request processing, and validation.
• Justification: Separating the application layer enables easier maintenance, testing,
and reusability of business logic.
3. Domain Layer:
• Contains the core business entities, rules, and operations specific to the library
domain.
• Manages data persistence and retrieval.
• Justification: Separating the domain layer ensures that the business logic is
decoupled from the underlying infrastructure and can be reused across different
applications or services.
4. Infrastructure Layer:
• Provides interfaces and implementations for data access, external services, and
other infrastructure-related concerns.
• Includes database access, file management, network communication, and external
API integrations.
• Justification: Separating the infrastructure layer allows for easy swapping of
technologies, improves maintainability, and promotes testability.

Client-Server Architecture:

In the Client-Server Architecture pattern, the system is divided into two main components: the
client, which makes requests for resources or services, and the server, which provides the
requested resources or services. Here's how it can be applied to a Library Management System:

1. Client:
• Represents the user interface or application that interacts with the library system.
 • Sends requests to the server for operations such as searching for books,
borrowing, returning, etc.
• Receives and displays responses from the server.
• Justification: Separating the client allows for different types of clients to access
the library system, such as web-based interfaces, mobile applications, or desktop
software.
2. Server:
• Provides the core functionality of the Library Management System.
• Receives requests from clients, processes them, and returns the appropriate
responses.
• Implements the business logic and data management operations.
• Justification: Separating the server allows for centralized control, scalability, and
better management of system resources. It also enables concurrent access from
multiple clients.

The communication between the client and server follows a request-response model, where the
client initiates a request and the server responds with the requested data or performs the
necessary operations.

By combining the Layered Architecture and Client-Server Architecture patterns, the Library
Management System achieves modular design, separation of concerns, scalability, and flexibility
in terms of the user interface and the platform on which it runs. It also enables efficient
communication between clients and the server, ensuring reliable access to library resources and
services.
5.c.
Describe agile manifesto

Agile Manifesto
In February 2001, at the Snowbird resort in Utah, a team of 17 software developers
met to discuss lightweight development methods. The result of their meeting was the
following Agile Manifesto for software development:-

We are uncovering the better ways of developing software by doing it and helping
others to do it. Through this meeting, we have come to value -

o Individuals and interactions over Processes and tools.

o Working software over comprehensive documentation.
o Customers are collaboration over contact negotiation.
o Responding to change over following a plan.

So that, while there is value in the items on the right, we value the items on the left
more.
The Twelve Principle of Agile Manifesto
1. Customer Satisfaction: Manifesto provides high priority to satisfy the costumer's
requirements. This is done through early and continuous delivery of valuable software.
2. Welcome Change: Making changes during software development is common and
inevitable. Every changingrequirement should be welcome, evenin the late
development phase. Agile process works to increase the customers' competitive
advantage.
3. Deliver the Working Software: Deliver the working software frequently, ranging from
a few weeks to a few months with considering the shortest timeperiod.
4. Collaboration: Business people (Scrum Master and Project Owner) and developers
must work together during the entire life of a project development phase.
5. Motivation: Projects should be build around motivated team members. Provide such
environment that supportsindividual team members and trust them. It makes them feel
responsible for gettingthe job donethoroughly.
6. Face-to-face Conversation: Face-to-face conversation betweenScrum Master
anddevelopment team and between the Scrum Master and customers for the most
efficient and effective method of conveying information to and within a development
team.
7. Measure the Progress as per the Working Software: The working software is the key
and primary measure of the progress.
8. Maintain Constant Pace: The aim of agile development is sustainable development.
All the businesses and users should be able to maintain a constant pace with the
project.
9. Monitoring: Pay regular attention to technical excellence and good design to
maximize agility.
10. Simplicity: Keep things simple and use simple terms to measure the work that is not
completed.
11. Self-organized Teams: The Agile team should be self-organized. They should not be
depending heavily on other teams because the best architectures, requirements, and
designs emerge from self-organized teams.
12. Review the Work Regularly: The work should be reviewed at regular intervals, so that
the team canreflect on how to become more productive and adjust its behavior
accordingly.