HALL EFFECT € & To study Hall effect and to determine Hall voltage Vin Hall coefficient Ry To determine the type of majority carriers i.e. whether the semiconductor crystal is of n — type of ptype. To determine the charge carrier density or carrier concentration per unit volume in the semiconductor crystal, 4 To determine the Hall angle Oy. INTRODUCTIO! In 1879, E.H. Hall observed that on placing a current carrying conductor perpendicular to a magnetic field, a voltage is observed perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the current. Itwas observed that the charge carriers, which were assumed to be electrons ,experienced a sideways force opposite to what was expected. This was later explained on the basis of band theory. | The number of conducting charges and the sign of charge carriers cannot be determined by the measurement of conductivity of a specimen. In metals/conductors ,the current carriers are only electrons whereas in semiconductors ,both electrons and holes act as current carriers Therefore, in semiconductor, it is quite necessary to determine whether a material is of n- type or p-type .The Hall effect can be used to distinguish the two types of charge carriers and also to determine the density of charge carriers. THEORY When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a current carrying specimen(metal or semiconductor),a voltage is developed in the, specimen in a direction perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is called Hall effect. The voltage so generated is called Hall voltage. We know that a static magnetic field has no effect on charges unless they are in motion. When the charges flow , a magnetic field directed perpendicular to the direction of flow produces a mutually perpendicular force on the charges. Consequently, electrons and holes get separated by opposite forces and produce an electric field Ex thereby setting up a potential difference between the ends of a specimen. This is called Hall potential V.n, WORKING PRINCIPLE: Consider a semiconductor in the form of a flat strip .Let a current I flows through the strip along X-axis . P and P’ are two points on the opposite faces of a b c d and ab’ c' d' respectively, If a miliivoltmeter is connected between points P and P' it does not show any reading ,indicating that there is no potential difference setup between these points. But, when @ magnetic field is applied along Y-axis , i.e. perpendicular to the direction of current, a lyee ood in the millivoltmeter indicating that a potential difference is set up between P and P" . This potential difference is known as Hall voltage or Hall potential V 1. As shown in fig. 1, if @ current is passed along X-axis , then the electrons move along re direction of x-axis .The force on electron due to the applied magnetic field B is given y, ‘ F=e(vxB) F=evBsin90° Or FeevB (1) where, v is the drift velocity of electron and e is the charge of electron. Using Fleming's left hand rule it is seen that force on the electrons will be directed towards the face a’b cd , i.e. along positive Z-axis thereby making the face a b c d negative and a’ b’ c'd' positive, If the current is carried by positively charged carriers i.e. holes , the carriers move in the same direction as that of the current . The magnetic force causes the positive charge carriers to move towards the face a b cd , thereby making the face a b cd positive and a" b’ c’ d' negative. Thus, @pdetermining the polarities of the surface of the strip , we can determine the sign of the charge carriers. ‘At thermal equilibrium ,when the Lorentz force exactly matches the force due to the electric field Ex (the Hall voltage) we have : evB= eE (2) If b be the width and t is the thickness of the specimen (crystal), its cross sectional area A is given by : A=bt The current density J= VA. ... (4) or Is neva. (6) 5where, nis the number of charge carriers per unit volume Using above equations we get dine = Vib /B I. (6) The Hall coefficient is given by: Ru = Vy b/IB.. m7) and charge carrier density is given by: nee Ri. (8) Ifthe conduction is primarily due to one type of charge carriers , then conductivity is related to Mobility Uw as: (9) | therefore, Home Ral (10) where , ris the resistivity. There is another interesting quantity called the Hall angle( q) defined by equation tanou= Ey / Ex ee -{M) ut 12 tang . HV BIEX= P mB hence (13) HALL EFFECT EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP: It consists of : 1. Power supply for electromagnet Specifications: 0-16 V, § Amps. 2, Power supply (Constant current source): ‘Specifications: 0-20 mA 3, Gauss meter with Hall Probe 4, Semiconductor{ Ge single crystal)mounted on a PCB Specifications: = pelype Ge crystal. = Thickness (t): 0.5 mm = Width(b) : 6 mm= Length (): 7mm 5, Multimeter for measuring Hall voltage. 6, Hall Effect Apparatus, 7GR F EXPE 00k DIAGRAM OF EXPERIMENTAL. srt-ul Fonitted to 2 Go Crystal H ultimeter for Voltage moasuremont LT Ome ee power Supply 0-416 VDC Constant wurrent source 0-20 mA DC Hall Probe Fig. 2 Fig.2 Shows the block diagram for experimental set up with connections . Ap type Ge crystal temcunted on PCB. PCB Is provided with four sockets and a pot to make the Hal voltage pero when there 1s no current flowing through the crystal and also when there /s no magnetic vera ‘The lower lwo sockets are connected to a constant curent de source and the upper two toa mullimeter/millivoltmeter. | FORMULA USED: | (1) Hall coefficient R, = vb / BI mc where, V = Hall voltage in volts b = width of the sample in m. B = magnetic flux density in Tesla. | = Current in mA. (2) Concentration of charge carriers per n=teR conionih where, e'» 1.6% 10 (3) Resistivity of the material of the sample “ reVbt/ii m Where, V; voltage between two points situated |cm apart on one face of sample 'b = width of the sample In m « t= thickness of the specimen In m. mvs? unit volume (4) Mobility pws Ru /T (5) Hall angle o= tan"( B) 18Fig. 3 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP PROCEDURE Mount the PCB (with mounted crystal) on one of the pillars and hall probe in another pillar. ;. Complete all the connections as shown in fig.2 ‘Switch ON the Gauss Meter and place the hall probe away from the electromagnet. Select the range of the gauss meter as X1 and using the adjustment knob of the Gauss Meter, adjust the reading of the Gauss Meter as zero. DO NOT SWITCH ON THE ELECTROMAGNET AT THIS STAGE. ~ Switch ON the constant current source and set the current, say at § mA in constant current source. Keep the magnetic field at zero as recorded by Gauss meter. DO NOT SWITCH ON THE ELECTROMAGNET AT THIS STAGE. Set the voltage range of the multimeter at 0-200 mV. If needed set the voltage as recorded by multimeter to be zero by adjusting the zero set pot, as shown in fig.4, provided on the PCB using a screw driver. When a current of § mA is passed through the crystal without application of magnelic field the hall voltage as recorded by the multimeter should be zero. The zero set should be adjusted carefully and gradually DO NOT SWITCH ON THE ELECTROMAGNET AT THIS STAGE.3, Bring the current reading of the constant current source to Zero by ‘gjusting the knob of the constant current source. . Switch ON the electromagnet (say al about 17V, 3.5 A) , Select the range of the Gauss meter as x10 and measure the magnetic flux density at the center belween the pole pieces, The ti ip of the Hall Probe and the crystal should be placed between the center of the pole pieces, ‘The pole pieces should be very close to the crystal and the tip of the Hall Probe. POLE PIECES SHOULD NOT TOUCH THE CRYSTAL OR THE TIP OF THE HALL PROBE FOR CARRYING OUT THE EXPERIMENT THE MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY SHOULD BE MORE THAN 1500 GAUss. 2, Do not change the current in the electromagnet i.e. keep the magnetic field constant for the whole of the experiment 10 Vary the current through the constant current source in small increments. Note the current | (mA) from the constant current source passing through the sample and the Hall voltage (mV)as recorded by the multimeter. Record these values in the observation table . 11 Reverse the direction the magnetic field by interchanging the ' +’ and’ connections of the colls(.e by interchanging Red and Black wires to the coils of the electromagnet ). Again note down the Hall Voltage for the same values of current as in step 10. Take the magnitude of magnetic flux density. In this particular case the hall voltage should be noted without taking care of ne gative sign of voltage. OBSERVATIONS: | Width of the specimen, — b Length of the specimen, f Thickness of the specimen, t Magnetic flux density, B 10° Tesla OBSERVATION TABLE HALL VOLTAGE VS CURRENT Ss nl Current I Reading of millivoltmeter Mean value of V,| Vull_| (ma) (mv) (mv) (ohms) Bal inone direction 1 | 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 : | 10 a | 12 | 13 14 | 20Swol current! | Distance beiwean Te ey, Bt Te . cea aaa ee aa) p av, bt! I between which potential (2m) Difforonce i meanured £ (mn) 1 Z 3 4 CALCULATIONS : 4, Mean value of Vij /i 2Ry = Vab/ixB mie . Sign of Hall coefficient Is positive, thus the semiconductor crystal is of p- \ype. (lo check whether a crystal is of p-type or n-lype we have first used a crystal of known type). For this the direction of magnelic field Is very Import ant so colls should be put in the standard configuration and direction of curent through the coil should be as per standard configuration. Concentration of charge carriers per unit volume netleRy carers’ where, e = 1.6 x 10° C Resistivity of the material of the sample reVbt/il m Where, V, voltage between two points situated I cm apart on one face of sample b = width of the sample in m , {l= thickness of the specimen in m. 6, Mobility pom= Ru/ m v's" 7. Hall angle ow = tan"(y B) SOURCES OF ERROR: The experiment has the pol the final alignment of the magnetic field, Calculations. This may be due to slight mis regulary in the grain of germanium crystal, stray magnetic elds generated by nearby electrical equipments tential to have systematic errors which could skew* WALL EFFECT EXPERIMENT SAMPLE RESULT (FOR ILLUSTRATION PURPOSE ONLY) Width of specimen, b = 6mms 6 x 10°m Length specimen, ¢ = 7mm = 7% 103 m ‘Thickness of specimen, t =0.5mm= 5 x 10 : m Magnetic density, B = 3110gauss= 3110 x10"Tesla OBSERVATION TABLE HALL VOLTAGE VS CURRENT OBSER_A_ SSE HALL VOLTAGE VS CURRENT | FSNo |Current (mA) Hall Voltage Vq (mv) | Hall Coefficient | Ry=Vy/l Ohm | tT TZ | f 7.09 | 2B Bi 21 7,00 | B ee 6.41 7.03 4 9.0 O2 a | 5 12.3 12.3 7.00 | 6 15.5 15.7 1.01 | 7 18.7 78.6 0.99 CALCULATIONS: Mean value of Vy /1=1.02 ohm 2 ( \b 4.02 x6 x 107 Ry el —os = 1.96x 10? mc? | \v/B 3110x 10" | 3. Sign of hall coefficient is positive. Therefore the crystal Is of p-type 4, Net/(.6 x 101.3110" 24.7 x10 carriers per m? 5. Resistivity, TABLE FOR RESISTIVITY s. Current | Distance between two ve No paint beeen wen em rev, DUI Votagetsreasured vim 1 ww 0200 x104m { ae Re 1.1. 107 0.208 x 107 x 2 ar (0.206 x 10m ar AOR OAD IO age 2.7107 0.206 x 107 a Ze | o200x10%m a1 | Saxro'snto%sset0! Souto'owexta 29.‘ 90 0206 10%m 9.0 10°x0200 x10? Ohm-m ean of r= 1.60% 10 = Ru Mr = (1.31 x10) /(101x10 ) 6 Bn 229 mye 7. The Hall angle, oy = tan" (1,8) = tan" (12.29 x 3110 x10 4) =75.33° 8, Graph between Hall Voltage V vs. Currenti 25