2/8/2011

Outline
• General dose calculation considerations,
Absorbed Dose in Radioactive absorbed fraction
Media • Radioactive disintegration processes and
associated dose deposition
– Alpha disintegration
Chapter 5 – Beta disintegration
– Electron-capture transitions
F.A. Attix, Introduction to Radiological – Internal conversion
Physics and Radiation Dosimetry • Summary

Introduction Radiation equilibrium

• We are interested in calculating the absorbed dose in a. The atomic composition
radioactive media, applicable to cases of of the medium is
– Dose within a radioactive organ homogeneous
– Dose in one organ due to radioactive source in another b. The density of the
organ medium is
homogeneous
• If conditions of CPE or RE are satisfied, dose
c. The radioactive source
calculation is straightforward is uniformly distributed
• Intermediate situation is more difficult but can be d. No external electric or
handled at least in approximations magnetic fields are
present

Charged-particle equilibrium Limiting cases

• Emitted radiation typically includes both
• Each charged particle of a given type and photons (longer range) and charged
energy leaving the volume is replaced by an particles (shorter range)
identical particle of the same energy entering • Assume the conditions for RE are satisfied
the volume
• Consider two
• Existence of RE is sufficient condition for CPE limited cases based
• Even if RE does not exist CPE may still exist on the size of the
(for a very large or a very small volume) radioactive object

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Limiting cases: small object Limiting cases: large object

• A radioactive object V having a mean radius not much • A radioactive object with mean radius » l/m for
greater than the maximum charged-particle range d
the most penetrating g-rays
• CPE is well approximated at any internal point P that is
at least a distance d from the boundary of V • RE is well approximated at any internal point P
• If d« l/m for the g-rays, the absorbed dose D at P that is far enough from the boundary of V so g-ray
approximately equals to the energy per unit mass of penetration through that distance is negligible
medium that is given to the charged particles in
radioactive decay (less their radiative losses) • The dose at P will then equal the sum of the
• The photons escape from the object energy per unit mass of medium that is given to
and are assumed not to be scattered back by its charged particles plus g-rays in radioactive decay
surroundings

Limiting cases: large object Absorbed fraction

• Deciding upon a maximum g-
• An intermediate-size radioactive object V
ray “range” for this case
requires quantitative criterion • Dose at P will then equal the sum of the
– For primary beam (m) only less energy per unit mass of medium that is given
than 0.1% through 7 mean free to charged particles plus dose from g-rays
paths
– Taking into account scatter, • To estimate the dose from g-rays define
(broad beam geometry, m  ) will absorbed fraction:
increase the required object size
to satisfy the attenuation g - ray radiant energy absorbed in target volume
AF 
objectives (e.g. 16 mean free g - ray radiant energy emitted by source
paths to achieve 0.1% penetration

Intermediate-size radioactive object Case 1

• Reciprocity theorem: energy spent
• Consider volume V filled by a in dv due to the source in dv’:
homogeneous medium and a
uniformly distributed g-source  dv,dv   dv,dv and  dv,V  V ,dv
• The volume may be surrounded by
Case 1: infinite homogeneous medium • No source in dv’’
identical to V, but non-radioactive • Define ̅Rdv as the expectation value
(an organ in the body) of the g-ray radiant energy emitted
Case 2: Infinite vacuum (object in air) by the source in dv, and ̅dv,V the
part of that energy that is spent in
V, then the absorbed fraction with
respect to source dv and target V is

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Case 1 continued Case 1 continued

• The absorbed fraction with respect • Reduction in the absorbed dose due to g-rays
to source dv and target V is : energy escaping from V
 dv,V V ,dv • Can estimate AF using mean effective attenuation
AFdv,V   coefficient m  for g-rays energy fluence through a
Rdv Rdv distance r in the medium
source, target

1  2
• Estimates reduction in absorbed
dose relative to RE condition
AFdv,V  
4  0  0

1  e  m r sin dd
• For very small radioactive objects
(V  dv) this absorbed fraction • For poly-energetic sources have to find an average
approaches zero; for an infinite value of the absorbed fraction
radioactive medium it equals unity

Case 1 example Case 2

Radioactive object V surrounded by vacuum

radius of
• More difficult to
sphere calculate
• The reciprocity
theorem is only
approximate due to
the lack of
backscattering
• Dose is lower than in
• Dose calculations published in MIRD reports Case 1
• The larger the radius, the lower the energy – the closer
to RE condition (AF=1)

Case 2 Radioactive disintegration

processes
• To obtain a crude estimate of the dose at some • Radioactive nuclei tend to undergo transformations
point P within a uniformly g-active homogeneous to a more stable state through expulsion of energetic
object, it may suffice to obtain the average particles
distance ̅r from the point to the surface of the
object by
1  2
4  0  0
r r sin  d d
• The total mass, energy, momentum, and electric
• Then one may employ men = ̅m in the straight- charge are conserved
ahead approximation to obtain • Energy equivalent of the rest mass:
– 1 amu=1/12 of the mass of 126C nucleus=931.50 MeV
AFdv,V 1  emenr – 1 electron mass=0.51100 MeV

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Alpha disintegration Alpha disintegration

• Occurs mainly in heavy nuclei

• Example: decay of radium to radon, presented by
the mass-energy balance equation

226
88 Ra  222
86 Rn  42 He  4.78 MeV
parent
1 / 2 1602 y daughter

• Each of the elemental terms represents the rest

• Two branches are available for disintegration
mass of a neutral atom of that element
• Kinetic + quantum energy released is 4.78MeV
• After the -particle slows down it captures two electrons from
its surroundings, becoming a neutral He atom

Absorbed dose from

Beta disintegration
- disintegration
• Nuclei having excess of neutrons typically emit an
• Take into account both branches through the average electron,  - particle; atomic number Z is increased by 1
branching ratios
• Nuclei having excess of protons typically emit positron,
• For radium average kinetic energy given to charged
particles per disintegration  + particle; atomic number Z is decreased by 1
• Nucleus is left in an exited state, emitting one or more
E  0.946  4.78MeV  0.054 4.6 MeV  4.77 MeV
g-rays
• For CPE condition in a small (1 cm) radium-activated • Example:
object: D=4.77 x n MeV/g, where n – mumber of
disintegration per gram of the matter 32
15 P  32
16 S   -  00  1.71 MeV
• For RE condition (large object): D=4.78 x n MeV/g,  1 / 2 14.3 d
includes g-ray energy

Beta disintegration Beta disintegration

• Average kinetic energy of the  - or  + particle is typically

0.3-0.4 Emax; 1/3 Emax is often used for purposes of roughly
• Kinetic energy 1.71 MeV is shared between  - and neutrino
estimating absorbed dose
• Charge balance is realized through initially ion of 3216S+
• Neutrino is not included in dose estimates due to almost zero
capturing an electron
rest mass energy and no charge

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Beta disintegration Absorbed dose from

- disintegration
• Under CPE condition D=nEavg MeV/g for n
disintegration per gram of medium
• Any additional contributions to energy
deposition due to g-rays must be included
for RE condition
• Radiative losses by -rays, such as
• In  + disintegration valence electron is emitted bremsstrahlung and in-flight annihilation,
• Example: 15 O
8 -> 157N are ignored
15
8 O  15
7 N  e-     00  1.73 MeV
 1 / 2 122 s
positron annihilation yields 2m0c2=1.022 MeV

Example 5.1 Example 5.1

• Uniformly distributed  - and g-ray source • For -ray Emax=5 MeV corresponds to maximum particle
range (Appendix E) d ~2.6 cm << 1/m=14.3 cm
• The rest-mass loss is spent
• CPE exists at P, therefore dose due -rays:
– half in 1 -MeV g -ray production and
– half in  - -decay, for which Emax=5 MeV and Eavg=2 MeV 1
D  Eavg  102 J/kg  102 J/kg
• The point of interest P is located >5 cm inside 2
_ the
boundary of the object, at an average distance r = 20 1/m
• For g-ray 20cm is not >> 1/m=14.3 cm
cm from the boundary. d • RE does not exists at P, therefore have
• men=0.0306 cm-1 and m = 0.0699 cm -1 for the g -rays
L>5cm
r  20 cm P to use absorbed fraction:
• A total energy of 10-2 J converted from rest mass in AF  1  e  men r  0.46
each kg of the object
Dg  0.46  (1 / 2)  10 2 J/kg  2.3  103 J/kg
• Estimate the absorbed dose at P
Dtot  (2.3  10) 103 J/kg  1.23 10 2 J/kg

Example 5.2 Example 5.2

• What is the absorbed dose rate (Gy/h) at the • Emax=1.71 MeV corresponds to maximum
center of a sphere of water 1 cm in radius, particle range of ~0.8 cm < 1 cm
homogeneously radioactivated by 3215P, • CPE condition
with 6 X 105 disintegrations per second • Absorbed dose rate: D  N  Eavg
occurring per gram of water? (Assume time
dis MeV
constancy.) D  6  105  0.694
g sec dis
5 MeV s Gy
 4.164  10  3600  1.602  1010
g sec hr MeV/g
 2.4 Gy/h

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Electron-capture transitions Electron-capture transitions

• Parent nucleus captures its own atomic • Example: 2211Na -> 2210Ne with half-life for both
electron from K-shell (~90% probability) or branches of 2.60 years
L-shell (~10% probability) and emits –  + branch
monoenergetic neutrino
• Resulting shell vacancy is filled with
22
11 Na  22
10 Ne  e-     00  0.546 MeV (k.e.)
 1 / 2  2.60 y
2m0=1.022 MeV
electron from a higher orbit, leading to
emission of a fluorescence x-ray – EC branch
• Process competing with  + disintegrations 22
11 Na  22
10 Ne  00  E b  1.275 MeV (Eg )
 1 / 2  2.60 y
1.568 MeV

Electron-capture transitions
Absorbed dose for EC process

• Most of the energy is carried away by

neutrino
• The only available energy for dose
deposition comes from electron binding
term Eb, which is very small compare to that
• Binding energy for K-shell Eb~ 1 keV of neutrino
• For electron capture to occur the minimum atomic mass
decrease of 2m0 between the parent and daughter nuclei is
required to supply  + with kinetic energy

Internal conversion Internal conversion

• An excited nucleus can impart its energy

directly to its own atomic electron, which
then escapes with the net kinetic energy of
hv-Eb (hv is the excitation energy)
• No photon is emitted in this case
• Process competing with g-ray emission
• Internal conversion coefficient is the ratio
of Ne/Ng • Example: 137
55Cs -> 13756Ba

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Absorbed dose for internal Absorbed dose for internal

conversion conversion
• If IC occurs in competition with g-ray emission, it • If the fraction p = 1 – AF of these fluorescence x-
results in increase in absorbed dose in small objects rays escape, then the energy contributed to dose per
(CPE condition) due to release of electron locally IC event under CPE condition
depositing the energy
f IC  hv  pK YK hvK  pLYL hvL
EIC  hv  Eb
 m en r
• Using straight-ahead approximation p  e
• In addition electron binding energy is contributed • Values of fluorescence yield YK,L and the mean
to the dose unless it escapes as a fluorescence x-ray emitted x-ray energies hvK,L are tabulated

Fluorescence data
Example 5.5
• A sphere of water 10 cm in diameter contains a
uniform source of 137Cs undergoing 103
disintegration per g s. What is the absorbed dose at
the center, in grays, for a 10-day period, due only to
the decay of 137m56Ba? Use the mean-radius straight-
ahead approximation.

For g-ray of 0.662 MeV

in water men=0.0327 cm-1
Electron binding energies and
Fluorescence yield for K
mean fluorescence x-ray
and L shells
energies, K and L shells

Example 5.5 Example 5.5

• For the K-shell conversion process we need
• First check RE condition: 1/m=30.6 cm >> r=5
YK=0.90, hvK = 0.032 MeV, and men=0.13 cm-1 for
• Find absorbed fraction AF  1  e0.03275  0.151 0.032 MeV. Then pK  e  m r  e 0.135  0.52 and the
en

• Dose in 10 days=8.64x105 s is dose contribution is

dis g  rays MeV dis
D ICK  103  0.078
IC ( K )
 ( hv  p K YK hvK )
MeV
Dg  103  0.85  0.662
gs dis g  ray gs dis IC ( K )
Gy
Gy  1.602  1010  8.64  105 s
1.602 1010  8.64 105 s  AF MeV / g
MeV / g
 1.080(0.662  0.52  0.90  0.032)  10 2 Gy
 1.17 10 2 Gy  6.99  10-3 Gy

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Example 5.5 Summary

• Similarly, for the L+M+…-shell conversion process • General approach to dose calculation within
we need YK=0.90, hvL  Eb = 6 keV, and men=24 cm-1
L
and outside of distributed radioactive source
245
for 6 keV. Then pL  e  0 and the corresponding
• Radioactive disintegration processes and
dose contribution
dis IC ( L) MeV
calculation of absorbed dose
D ICL  103  0.078  ( hv  p LYL hvL )
gs dis IC ( L) – Alpha disintegration
 1.602  1010
Gy
 8.64  105 s – Beta disintegration
MeV / g
– Electron-capture transitions
 1.65  10-3 Gy
– Internal conversion
• The total absorbed dose is Dtot  Dg  DICK  DICL  2.03102 Gy