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Challenges of Poor Drainage Systems in Lagos Metropolis

Research Proposal · September 2019

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.32057.11368

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Challenges of Poor Drainage Systems in Lagos Metropolis

By
Fidelis, Gift Donubari
U2014/6010126

Being a research project submitted to the Department of

Geography and Environmental Management, Faculty of
Social Sciences, University of Port Harcourt.

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of

B.Sc degree in Geography and Environmental
Management.

11/10/2018.
 DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my ever lovely parent Mr. and Mrs. Akara
for their cordial love, prayers and support and most importantly to
God almighty to who I owe my being and existence.
 CERTIFICATION

The Board of Examiners declares as follows:

That this is the original work of Fidelis Gift Donubari; that

the project is accepted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of B.Sc Degree in Geography
and Environmental Management.

…………………….. ……………... .………………

Project Supervisor Signature Date

………………………... …………………. ………………

Head of Department Signature Date

………………………. …………………. ………………

Dean of Faculty Signature Date

……………………… …………………….
…………………
External Examiner Signature Date
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would love to express my deep and profound gratitude to those who deem
it fit to make this work a success. First and foremost to my project supervisor
Prof. J.E Umeuduji who took his time to read this work over and over again and
guided me throughout the proposal of the work until perfection is ascertained; he
is a mentor disciplined and goal oriented. Also, big thank you to Engr. Charlse,
Mr. Cyprian Bakpea, Mr. Lucky Imonah and Mrs. Kobindi.

I am deeply appreciative of the diverse contributions of friends, colleagues

and loved ones a page is not enough to mention all the names of people who have
inspired this work. Finally, to my beloved siblings Bariyaa and Hannah to the
entire Akara family, to Mr. & Mrs. Namene and to my good neighbours. I can’t
thank you less. To as many whose names were not mentioned special thanks to
you, I recognize you in my hearth; you’ve been my pen on paper. My gratitude is
incomplete if I fail to give credence to God almighty, the first and the last, the
captain of my ship, my initiator; to whom I owe my being and existence.
 LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Fig 1.1 Lagos Metropolis Showing Ikeja and Eti-Osa LGAs 9

Fig 2.1 Schematic diagram of the array of sustainable urban 24

drainage systems (SUDs) benefit

Fig 4.1 Pie chart representing responses to opinion on flooding 46

Fig 4.2 Pie chart showing respondents rating on the role of 47
government in communicating expected flood event
Fig 4.3 Bar graph showing adjustment/coping strategies to flood 48
Fig 4.4 Bar graph representing problems associated with flooding 52
Fig 4.5 Line graph showing relationship between poor drainage 56
and health
Fig 4.6 Doughnut chart showing percentages of rating on impact 57
of poor drainage on infrastructural development
Fig 4.7 Relationship between poor drainage system and 58
infrastructural development
 LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 4.1 Sampled Area and Number of Questionnaires Retrived 41
Table 4.2 Distribution of socio-economic characteristics of the 42
Respondents.
Table 4.3 Opinion on causes of flooding 44
Table 4.4 Level of compliance to cleaning of drainage during 54
environmental sanitation
Table 4.5 Responses on waste disposal in open drain is the major 55
breeding ground for disease vector.
 LIST OF PLATES
Page
Plate 1.1 Researcher standing 30cm from a street gutter totally 45
submerged with no indication/demarcation in
Jakande estate.
Plate 4.2 Use of temporary wooden bridge as a coping strategy in 50
Jakande estate.
Plate 4.3 Relocation as a coping strategy in Lekki beach road 51
Plate 4.4 Damage to property and disruption of socio-economic 53
activities in Ilasan housing estate.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Fly leaf
Title …………………………………………………………………………. i
Dedication …………………………………………………………………… ii
Certification ………………………………………………………………… iii
Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………… iv
List of Figures ………………………………………………………………. v
List of Tables ……………………………………………………………….. vi
List of Plates …………………………………………………………………. vii
Table of Contents……………………………………………………………..
viii
Abstract……………………………………………………………………… xi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study………………………………………………… 1
1.2 Statement of Problem …………………………………………………… 3
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study ……………………………………… 6
1.4 Research Questions …………………………………………………… 6
1.5 Statement of research Hypothesis ……………………………………… 7
1.6 Scope of the Study ……………………………………………………… 7
1.7 Study Area ……………………………………………………………… 9
1.7.1 Location ……………………………………………………………… 10
1.7.2 Climate ………………………………………………………………… 11
1.7.3 Vegetation ………………………………………………………………12
1.7.4 Soils …………………………………………………………………… 13
1.7.5 Drainage ……………………………………………………………… 13
1.7.6 Economic Activities …………………………………………………… 13
1.7.7 Population ……………………………………………………………… 14
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Definition of Terms ……………………………………………………….15
2.2 Theoretical Framework ……………………………………………………17
2.2.1 Man-environmental interaction the theoretical bases …………………...17
2.2.2 Tobler’s First law of geography …………………………………………19
2.2.3 General system theory (GST) …………………………………………...19
2.3 Conceptual Framework ……………………………………………………20
2.3.1 Sustainable Urban Drainage …………………………………………….21
2.3.2 Flood control and urban drainage management …………………………24
2.4 Literature Review …………………………………………………………26
2.4.1 The Nature of drainage and its implication on health …………………...27
2.4.2 Factors responsible for poor drainage system …………………………...29
2.4.3 The role of communication in promoting responsible environmental
behaviour ……………………………………………………………….32
2.5 Gaps identified from Literature Reviewed ………………………………..33

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Nature of Data ……………………………………………………………..36
3.2 Methods of Data Collection ……………………………………………….36
3.3 Method of Data Analysis ………………………………………………….38

CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

4.1 Data Presentation …………………………………………………………40
4.1.1 Socio-economic characteristics …………………………………………42
4.2 Analyses: Testing of hypothesis …………………………………………..59
4.3 Discussion of Results …...…………………………………………………61
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY RECOMMENDATIONS &
CONCLUSION
5.1 Summary of Findings…………………………………………………… 66
5.2 Recommendations………………………………………………………. 68
5.2.1 The Government………………………………………………………. 68
5.2.2 Organizations………………………………………………………….. 69
5.2.3 Individuals…………………………………………………………….. 70
5.3 Conclusion………………………………………………………………. 71
References……………………………………………………………… 72
Appendices……………………………………………………………... 79
 ABSTRACT

This work looked into the challenges of poor drainage systems which has
a devastating effect on the environment both human and physical. The world
recently is faced with myriads of flooding issues which poses grave consequences
to inhabitants in every aspects of their lives.
Both the primary and secondary sources of data were employed for this
research work. Study area map was produced with the aid of Arc GIS version
10.2. Multi-stage sampling techniques were used in the stratification of Lagos
metropolis into Island and mainland followed by systematic selection of Ikeja and
Eti-Osa within the stratified local government areas. This research work was
conducted with the aid of questionnaires both closed ended and open-ended
which were administered strategically with the aid of random sampling
techniques to elicit unbiased responses from the interviewers. Results were
analysed with statistical techniques both inferential and descriptive with the use
of Microsoft excel and SPSS version 22.0.0. The major thrust of this research
work is to see if there is a relationship between poor drainage systems on public
health and infrastructural development which were the hypothesis stated in the
work.
Several findings were also made in this research work. Statistical analysis
of questionnaires administered with the aid of Chi-square showed values that led
to the rejection of the null hypothesis stated in this work. Hence the acceptance
of the alternate hypothesis which states that there is statistically significant
relationship between poor drainage systems on public health and infrastructural
development. Results also revealed findings that heavy rainfall affects drainage
systems by overflowing it capacity, thereby resulting to flooding. Also the
techniques imbibed by the government to communicate environmental issues
were found ineffective. In terms of public health it was established that waste
disposal in open drain is the major cause of drainage blockage, hence the major
breeding ground for disease vector. This shows that environmental health
education is not yet understood by the public.
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The world growing population which is the major factor affecting every

sphere of life and livelihood, have attracted attention globally, due to the

pressure it mounts on natural and man-made resources together with its

consequent effects which have had drastic impacts. Given the increase in

urbanization worldwide and the impact of storm water on both humans and

aquatic ecosystems, the management of urban drainage is a critically important

challenge (Chocat et al, 2001; Fletcher et al., 2013). Urban environment in

Nigeria are facing myriad of issues regarding poor drainage systems (Offiong et

al., 2008). And tight structures which are the major cause of flooding (Belete

2011). These issues are mostly felt among the poor masses that most times do

not have where to go as resilience communities are not created. Some of these

residents devise means to cope with the floods until the flood has subsided.

However, the loss of lives and livelihood has been characterized by these as well

as the loss of properties, as some criminals cease this opportunity to perpetuate

their act couple with the impact of water on household materials such as furniture,

utensils, gadgets and other accessories. The bourgeoisies are not left out of this
problem as poor drainage systems have also resulted mostly to the loss of

properties on this side.

Smith (2011) has shown that severe floods occur in areas occupied by

humans, leading to displacement of settlements. In developing countries of the

world like Nigeria, estates and buildings are erected without proper planning to

meet the demand of housing by the geometrically growing population. Good

drainage systems are not constructed in terms of flood control especially in areas

close to the coast as well as the flood- prone areas.

Sustainable drainage system is a method or approach towards managing

flood related issues. Drainages function majorly in regulating surface water run-

offs which have accumulated over time as a result of rainfall intensity and other

environmental factor such as soil permeability. According to the National

Emergency Management Agency (NEMA, 2012) statistics shows that in the year

2012, 2.1 million Nigerian were displaced and about 363 people were feared

dead. Thirty (30) states out of 36 in Nigeria were affected by that flood experience

and it was concluded as the worst that has ever happened in the past 40 years,

causing damages of an estimated value of 2.6 trillion Naira.

The issue of poor drainage systems has been a major problem in Lagos

state. Nigerian coastal cities are daily inundated with flood waters and millions
 of properties have been destroyed and lives lost (Eze, 2008). The effects of poor

drainage systems are not only felt economic-wise but also health-wise.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The issue of poor drainage systems has resulted to tremendous

environmental challenges globally. Residents affected mostly by these flood

events, due to poor drainage systems are particularly those residing along flood

plains, low lands areas and other coast line areas such as Lekki beach, Alpha beach,

Kuramo beach, Okun Ajah etc. An episode of flooding activities in Lagos state

shows the ineffectiveness of the drainage systems in the metropolis. The storm

water in the early hours mostly left knee-deep floods in some part of the metropolis

such as Adeniji, areas in Lagos Island as well as Ikoyi and Victoria Island in Eti-

osa local government area, with drainage and canal totally submerged. According

to (NEMA, 2011) flood is the most devastating event affecting all aspects of

activities in Lagos state, cutting across all sectors in the state from economics,

social, to educational activities. Most schools are forced to close until the flood has

subsided.

According to Nigeria institute of oceanography and marine research

(NIOMR, 2011), Lagos sometimes experiences 264 millimeter of rainfall in a day

which is equivalent to the amount of rainfall expected for a month interval. This
poses a threat to the resilience of the drainages as most of the drainage were not

constructed to move out such quantity of water, here pressure is mounted on the

drainage systems.

In the words of Umeuduji (2000) Urbanization turns a higher proportion of

rainfall into surface runoff which flows more quickly from the relatively

impermeable surfaces of streets, pavements and roofs and eventually to the streams

and Rivers. This extreme hydrometereological event exemplifies the problem

currently faced in most urban centers, not only in Nigeria but also in most

developing countries of the world (Frimpong, 2014; Aderogba et al 2012;

Satterthwaite et al 2007; Action aid 2006).

Human activities can accelerate catchment response to rainfall events. This

quick response is reflected in terms of shortening of the channel with reduced

losses (from infiltration and interception), the flood peak increases, hence reducing

the lag time. Human activities caused the channel to respond more quickly to

rainfall events, in which case the lag time shortens (Umueduji, 2000). Urban

centers are characterized mostly by concretized surfaces, this in turn poses the

problem of water seepage or infiltration into the soil. However, the resultant effect

of this is the issue of much surface runoff, followed by drainage failure. This

implies that the more a surface is concretized, the higher the amount of surface

water in cubic meter (m3) of an urban area. Onisarotu (2010) opined that with the
increasing number of urban dwellers worldwide, the number of people at risk or

vulnerable to flood hazards is likely to increase. Removing storm water and

household waste water sometimes called “sullage” is an important environmental

health intervention for reducing diseases. Poorly drained storm water forms

stagnant pools that provide breeding sites for disease vectors. Poor drainage that

cannot cope with intense rainfall has been cited as the main cause of the disastrous

floods, this problem is compounded by the high amount of garbage from domestic

industry and agriculture.

Aderamo (2008) listed land use problems, increased paved surfaces, river

channel encroachments, poor waste disposal techniques, physical development

control problems, gaps in basic hydrological data and cultural problem as the major

cause of street flooding in Nigerian cities. One of the major causes of drainage

failure in terms of low rainfall is the fact that some drainages in Lagos are

constructed without outlets hence the drainage cannot empty itself. At other times,

the outlets of the drainage are blocked by illegal structures and waste dumps,

making this storm water to exceed the capacity of the drainage to cope in terms of

effective movement of water. Sule (2001) has given examples of cities where

houses are constructed directly on drain channels to include Lagos, Calabar and

Ibadan and this practice has resulted to blockage of storm drains and consequently

leading to inundation and flooding streets.

1.2 Aims and Objectives of the Study

The aim of this study is to identify the challenges of poor drainage systems

and the factors responsible for this, the problem it causes and its

consequences.

The objectives of this study will be to achieve the following;

(i) To find out the impact of heavy rainfall on drainage systems.

(ii) To find out the effect of poor drainage on infrastructure.

(iii) To ascertain the level of communication of expected flood events by

government agencies to the inhabitants.

(iv) To find out the impacts of poor drainage systems on public health.

1.4 Research Questions

The study will address the following questions;

(i) How does heavy rainfall affect drainage systems?

(ii) What is the effect of poor drainage system on infrastructure?

(iii) Does the government sensitize or pre-inform the public about flood?

(v) How does poor drainage system impede health?

1.5 Statement of research Hypothesis

H0: There is no statistically significant relationship between poor drainage

system and public health.

H1: There is a statistically significant relationship between poor drainage

system and public health.

Ho: There is no statistically significant relationship between poor drainage

system and infrastructural development.

H1: There is a statistically significant relationship between poor drainage

system and infrastructural development.

1.6 Scope of the Study

The study is established to look into the challenges of poor drainage

systems in Lagos metropolis, investigating issues and happenings that have

occurred as a result of poor drainage systems, the factors responsible for this as

well as ascertaining the causes, magnitude and effects of indiscriminate solid

waste disposal on drainages. Ascertaining whether the drainage systems can cope

with the heavy down pour, as well as finding out whether all residents are usually

pre-informed about the magnitude of rainfall expected and what to do to cope.

The study will also cover aspects of responsible environmental behaviour in terms
of refuse disposal, community service and sanitations. It will also put to the fore-

light that poor drainage system, compounded by behavioral approach of waste

disposal method end up aggravating the flood event and also contribute to health

related issues. The geographical scope will be limited to Eti-Osa Local

government area and Ikeja Local government area of the metropolis to represent

the larger population for effectiveness and ease of data collection.

1.7 Study Area

Fig 1.1 Lagos Metropolis showing Ikeja and Eti-Osa LGAs

1.7.1 Location

Lagos metropolis is situated on the western part of Nigeria, its geographic

co-ordinates are latitude 6040’0”N and 6020’0”N and longitude 2050’0”N and

4020’0”E (see Fig 1.1). The entire region lies within the coastal low land of south

western Nigeria, generally less than 100m above sea level. It has a total land area

of 999.6km2. Lagos is bounded to the north by Ogun state, to the east by Ondo

state, to the west by Benin republic and to the south by the Atlantic Ocean. The

city with its adjoining conurbation is the largest in Nigeria (although the smallest

land area), the second largest city in Africa, and the seventh largest city in the

world. The population growth rate in the Lagos metropolis is estimated at 3.2 %

(World Bank, 2013). It is also one of the fastest growing cities in the world and

the most populous urban agglomeration. It is made up of sixteen (16) local

government areas, divided into three (3) senetorial areas namely island,

consisting of; Amuwo-Odofin, Apapa, Eti-Osa, and Lagos Island. Mainland,

consisting of; Ajeromi-Ifelodun, Lagos mainland, Surulere. Sub urban

comprising of: Agege, Alimosho, Ifako-Ijaiye, Ikeja, Kosofe, Mushin, Ojo,

Oshodi.
1.7.2 Climate

Lagos state has a tropical climate. The summers are much rainier than the

winters in Lagos. The Köppen-Geiger climate classification is Aw. The average

temperature in Lagos is 27.0 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1693 mm, the

least amount of rainfall occurs in December. The average in this month is 21 mm.

The greatest amount of precipitation occurs in June, with an average of 386 mm.

The temperatures are highest on average in March, at around 28.6 °C. The lowest

average temperatures in the year occur in August, when it is around 25.2 °C. The

variation in the precipitation between the driest and wettest months is 365 mm.

The variation in temperatures throughout the year is 3.4 °C. The temperature

range in Lagos is fairly small, generally staying between a high of (33°C) and

low of (21°C). The hottest month is March, when average daytime temperatures

reach (29°C), while June is the coldest month with an average temperature of

(21°C). Lagos has a tropical wet and dry climate with two distinct rainy seasons;

the more intense season occurs between April and July, with a milder one from

October to November. At the peak of the rainy season, the weather in Lagos is

wet about half the time. Lagos experiences a dry season (when it rains less than

two days per month) during August and September, as well as between December

and March, accompanied by Harmattan winds from the Sahara Desert, which are

at their strongest from December to early February.

1.7.3 Vegetation

Two main vegetation types are identifiable in Lagos State: Swamp Forest

of the coastal belt and dry lowland rain forest. The swamp forests in the state are

a combination of mangrove forest and coastal vegetation developed under the

brackish conditions of the coastal areas and the swamp of the freshwater lagoons

and estuaries. It also comprises Red mangrove (sometimes attaining heights of

592m) as well as mangrove shrubs, stilt rooted trees with dense undergrowth and

raffia palms which are characteristic of the swamp forest zone. On the seaward

side of this zone, wide stretches of sand and beaches exist. Although a small

amount of pit props and fuel material emanate from the swamp forest zone in

Lagos State, it is of no significance in the lumber economy of Nigeria. Lying to

the north of the swamp forest is the lowland (tropical) rain forest zone. This zone,

which stretches from the west of Ikeja through Ikorodu to an area slightly north

of Epe has been modified by man. Yet this is the area of the state where such

economically valuable trees as teak, tripochiton, seletrocylon (Arere), Banclea

diderrichil (Opepe) and terminahia (Idigbo) are to be found. The creeks, lagoons

and rivers act as arteries which carry huge quantities of logs out of the state.
1.7.3 Soils

Lagos State is endowed with very little arable land. Altogether, four soil

groups are identifiable. On the western half of the coastal margin, juvenile soils

on recent windborne sands occur. The rest of the coastal area towards the east is

covered also by juvenile soils on Fluviomarine alluvium (mangrove

swamp).Thirdly, a narrow and rather discontinuous band of mineral and/or

organic hydromorphic soils occurs in the middle and north eastern sections of the

state. The fourth group, occurring in two rather tiny and discontinuous patches

along the northern limits of the state, consists dominantly of red ferrallitic soils

on loose sandy sediments.

1.7.4 Drainage

The drainage system of the State is characterized by a maze of lagoons and

waterways which constitute about 22 percent of 787 sq. kms (75,755 hectares) of

the State total landmass. The major water bodies are the Lagos and Lekki

Lagoons, Yewa and Ogun Rivers. Others are Ologe Lagoon, Kuramo Waters,

Badagry, Five Cowries and Omu.

1.7.5 Economic Activities

Lagos has a rich history of economic growth and transformation. Although

it covers a land mass of 3445sq km, 60% of Lagos is water, swamps and lagoons,

leaving Lagos with only 1378sq km actual useable land mass, making it the
smallest state in the country, 60% of industrial and commercial activities in the

nation. Lagos is financially viable, generating over 75% of its revenues

independent of federal grants derived from oil revenues. It generates the highest

internal revenue of all states in Nigeria Manufacturing industries in Lagos State

include food, beverages and tobacco, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, rubber and

foam, cement, plastic products, basic metals and foam, steel and fabricated metal

products, pulp and paper products, electrical and electronics, textile

manufacturing, furniture and wood products, motor vehicles and miscellaneous

assembly.

1.7.6 Population

Lagos has a very high population due to heavy migration from other parts

of Nigeria and surrounding countries. The population of Lagos was 1.4 million

in 1970, which saw a tremendous rate of increase, reaching 21 million people.

The population census of Lagos state as of 2006 shows that Lagos has a

population of 9 million people, although controversy exist as regarding the

population of Lagos. The National Population Commission of Nigeria put the

population of Lagos at over 21 million in 2016. By 2050, Lagos population is

expected to double, which will make it the third largest city in the world but with

less infrastructure than any other large cities of the world. Lagos has a population

density of 20,921 people per sq km.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW`

2.1 Definition of Terms

Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of water from an area.

Overland flow is the flow of water that occurs when excess storm water or other

sources flows over the earth’s surface also known as surface runoffs.

Storm water refers to any precipitation that falls from the atmosphere towards

the ground.

Drainage System is an organized method of removing excess water on or

beneath the surface of the earth.

Floods are overflow of water that submerges land that is usually dry.

Landscape is the visible features of an area of land and its integration with natural

and man-made features.

Sustainable drainage is a design to reduce the potential impact of new and

existing developments with respect to surface water discharges.

Drainage capacity is the maximum quantity of storm water a drainage can

successfully drain.

Waste waters are waters that have been affected by human or industrial use.
Infiltration is the process by which water on the surface of the earth enters the

soil, also known as seepage.

Natural hazards are described as any natural events or occurrences that have the

potential to cause harm or damages to lives, properties and livelihoods.

Rainfall is the amount of rain that falls in a place during a particular period.

Inundate is the act of flooding, covering or overspreading with water over a

particular land area.

Street gutters are depression running parallel to a road design to collect rain

water flowing along the streets and divert it into a storm drain.

Waste is the left over, used products whether liquid or solid having no economic

value or demand and which must be disposed or thrown away.

Public health is the control of all factors in human’s physical environment that

exercises or may exercise, deleterious effects on their physical fitness, health or

survival.

Environmental Health refers to the health implications of the interaction

between humans and their natural and built environment.

Responsible Environmental Behaviour (REB) is an action taken by individuals

or group of people to do what is right to protect their environment.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

The study will be examining three theoretical frameworks, showing the

relevance of theory to spatial phenomena in space. The first theory is the theory

of man-environment interaction; addressing the issue of human activities in space

and how it has impacted the existing infrastructure such as drainage systems. The

second theory is the Tobler’s first law of geography; used in showing how

nearness to poor drainage facilities impedes health, the third theory is the system

theory; looking and the drainage as a system within a system. Flooding in various

parts of Nigeria has been occurring much more frequently in recent years because

of the escalating trend towards urbanization and the increasing number and size

of the metropolis and mega-cities without proper planning and drainage

infrastructure (Adeaga, 2015).

2.2.1 Man-environment interaction the theoretical bases

The man-environment interaction theory is divided into three bases with

different proponents asserting their idea of the relationship that exist between man

and the environment. With both man and the environment as a central role which

influence or is been influenced by the environment or by man. For the purpose of

this work only one of this theory will be highlighted, that is; the theory of

environmental Possibilism which will be used to explain how the activities of

man in space has influenced the planning of the place where he lives and carry
out activities. The proponent of environmental determinism theory is Vidal de la

blache (1903) this theory holds that man is the master of the environment. Here

man makes use of his initiative to choose what to locate where; why and how, all

this questions when asked provide rational reason why several components of the

environment are aligned where there are. In this case the space is been planned,

but an unplanned space shows that this question have not been appropriately

answered. The theory of environmental possibilism is a counteract for that of

environmental determinism, which holds that the environment determines man’s

course of action, while this is true to some extent that of probabilism equate it,

that is; the environment can influence man and man can also influence the

environment, But the later in this case have much more negative influence in all

its ramifications.

The major impacts of the consequence of human activities on drainages is

flooding, according to the United Nation International Strategy for Disaster Risk

Reduction (UNISDR, 2014) flood risk is conceptualized on the basics of three

integral components which are frequently adopted during flood damage

estimation. These components are probability of flood hazards, the level of

exposure and the vulnerability of elements at risk. Human interaction with

environmental variables over time has increased the flood risk and vulnerability

of people, through the blockage of drainage channels by plastic pollutions. The

rapidly growing urban environments in many areas correspond with a lack of

urban planning strategies, the deterioration and lack of capacity of urban drainage

infrastructure and an increased rate of development in flood plains (Gill 2004; Cil

2001). Humans have built several structures on floodplains and this in turn mount

pressure on existing drainage channel and exposing such areas to flood risk.

2.2.2 Tobler’s First law of geography

This theory by Waldo Tobler states that everything is related to everything

else, but near things are more related than distance things. The first law is the

foundation of the fundamental concepts of spatial dependence and spatial auto

correlation. This theory will be used to explain how the proximity to poor

drainage system affects the health of citizens closer to it.

2.2.3 General system theory (GST)

This theory is one of the widely used geographical theories to explain

events in space. The term general system theory originate from Von Bertalanffy

according to Hall and Fagan (1956) a system is a set of objects together with the

relationship between the subject and their attributes

 2.3 Conceptual Framework

The introduction to the concept of sustainability has in the field of urban

water systems among others, led to an increase interest for source control and

open drainage of storm water within the urban environment (Geldof and Stahre,

2006). Urbanization spurs a unique set of issues to the environment; this is

stimulated by various factors one of which is the promise of jobs and prosperity

among other factors which pulls people to cities. Bruton (1974) contends that

increases in population the rate of that increase and changes in the distribution of

that population are the root cause of many problems facing urban planners. Most

cities in the developing world have urban water infrastructure deficit as it stands,

along with deteriorating physical environments (Bhatt, 2014; Baker 2010; Hodijk

et al., 2014).

Rapid population in Lagos metropolis poses a number of problems in the

urban area. Such problems include pressure on land and lack of housing and

failure of the urban community as a whole to adapt to changing conditions

occasioned by the influx of migrants to its institutional and social services. Poor

drainage system poses catastrophic disasters to residents leading to loss of lives

and livelihood. Over the past two decades, the causes of flooding in Lagos have

received significant attention in the literature (Ayoade and Akintola, 1980; Action
Aid, 2006; Adeloye and Rustum, 2011; Adelekan, 2013; Aderogba, 2012a;

Oshodi, 2013; Ajibade et al., 2013, 2014; Soneye, 2014).

2.3.1 Sustainable Urban drainage

The techniques of sustainable drainage systems are widely recommended

and applied in many parts of the world whereas; the terminology varies in

different regions but with similar design philosophies (Quianqian Zhou, 2014).

Urbanization leads to impermeabilization of soil by means of paving and soil

compaction from the passage of vehicles and from buildings among other things

which impedes rain water infiltration (Silveria, 2002). This in turn accounts for

the increase of surface water, thereby posing the problem of infiltration by soils,

unlike the rural areas where most of the soils are bare or covered by vegetation

which uses a good proportion of the water and gives it out through transpiration

with the aim of reducing the water that goes into the drainages. In Europe

sustainable urban drainage system (SUDs) is used with its main focus of

maintaining good public health, protecting valuable water resources from

pollution and preserving biological diversities and natural resource for future

needs (Quianqian Zhou, 2014). Sustainable urban drainage systems have a

whole lot of benefit to individuals, infrastructure and physical environment. Elliot

and Trowsdale (42) cited by Qianqian (2014) examined ten modeling methods

for (SUDs) according to their capacity with respect to water quantity and quality
simulations, sustainable urban drainage device modeling and spatial planning.

The paper shows that most of the reviewed models contain functions on

hydrological simulation in terms of rainfall generation and runoff routing and

only a few are capable of simulating the drainage network hydraulics. Through

time and up to the modern age, drainage networks as a rule were not considered

as necessary infrastructures providing conditions for the development and

ordering of urban centers (Matos, 2003).

Uncertainty about long-term maintenance and other operational factors

have retarded the wide spread adoption of (SUDs) but environmental regulators

and local authorities and developers are keen to implement this approach in

addition to traditional urban drainage systems (Andoh et., al 2002).

Sustainable urban drainage systems are designed to allow water to either

infiltrate into the ground or be retained in devices in order to mimic the natural

disposal of surface water (Charlseworth et., al 2003; Charlseworth 2010). Among

the goals of (SUDs) are;

(i) Quantitative control of surface water

(ii) Improvement in the quality of water from surface runoffs;

(iii) Conservation of natural characteristics of bodies of water

(iv) Balance of hydrological variables of watersheds.

 In terms of sustainable urban drainage system, Nigeria as a country have

not been able to fully adapt this technique in managing the storm water. This is

because true because cities in Nigeria like lagos seen as the fastest growing in

Africa is still faced with the issue of flooding and inundation from year to year

especially at peak rainfall. According to Souza (2005) landscaping,

environmental and economic gains reinforce the advantages presented by the

conception of urban drainage treatment, controlling not only the peak flows, but

also the volume, the frequency, the duration and the quality of runoffs and

drainage. The control of surface runoffs is inadequate for large volume of water

which pick up several impurities and dirt deposited in areas of lesser kinetic

energy along slopes. Sustainable urban drainage put a check on all these and also

pre-empt issues that may arise as time goes on, transcending from the present to

the later stage of surface runoffs control.

If properly operated, (SUDs) have been known to deliver many benefits

(CIRIA, 2000; 2001):

(a) Enhance ground water recharge leading to improved yield of aquifer

systems, abatement of possible salt water intrusion in coastal aquifers and

enhanced based flow discharges in hydraulically connected river systems.

 (b) Protection and enhancement of water quality through pollutant trapping

and degradation processes of other-wise difficult-to-control diffused

sources

(c) Flood peak attenuation thus reducing the risk of downstream flooding

(d) Reduction in potable water demand deficiency through rain water

harvesting

(e) Improving amenity through the provision of public open space and wildlife

habitat.

Disaster Decrease cost of Reducing

reduction flood risk loss of life

Natural Sustainable
landscape water
protection management
Sustainable
Urban
Runoff Drainage Rain water
management System harvesting

Habitat Land spaces

enhancement preservation

Recharge Biodiversity Water quality

Augmentation Preservation protection

Fig 2.1 Schematic diagram of the array of sustainable urban drainage systems

(SUDs) benefit (CIRIA, 2000; 2001).

2.3.2 Flood Control and urban drainage management

Urban flood risk management aims at assessing and reducing flood risk, as

well as preparing for effective response and quick recovery after actual floods,

with the purpose of minimizing disturbances, disruptions and associated cost in

relation to city’s preferred development overtime (Johanna Sorensen et al; 2016).

The reduction in flood risk usually incorporate the state of urban drainage in city

centers. Drainage with good response to flood mitigation discharge a huge

quantity of storm water over an area, thus resilience is the capacity of a system,

such as a city, to continuously develop along a preferred trajectory (Becker,

2014). A city without good resilience to flooding activities is prone to the effect

of flooding on every aspects of the city, as damage to properties, lives and

livelihood will be on the increase to a considerable extent.

The immense complexities of the physical and human activities in the

urban area make the task of management difficult (Cooke and Doorkamp, 1990).

Most urban centers in Nigeria are usually congested with a lack of planning

running through all this centers; this is usually compounded by human activities

in space, which puts pressure on the available drainage therefore, heightening the

problem of management. Constructing or putting up a structure is a very

important aspect of development. However, the management of such structure

will determine whether or not the structure will serve its purpose on the long-run.
 These account for the reason why existing drainage systems are unable to perform

few years after its construction. It is also observed that inadequate urban planning,

lack of drainage facilities and inconsiderate construction at water runways are the

major cause of flooding (Bernstein 1995 and Tucci 1992). Urban planning

encloses or subsumes all other problems which comprises of poor drainage

facilities and inconsiderate construction at water runways. Runways are being

disrupted by unplanned structures which acts on drainages by reducing inducing

the movement of storm water; thereby creating avenue for flood hazard or

sometimes disasters in areas where the coping capacity of resident are tampered,

this can result to devastating issues.

2.4 Literature Review

Burrows and De Bruin (2006) indicated that among natural catastrophes,

flooding has claimed more lives than any other single natural hazard. Poor

drainage systems and its impacts is worsened by poor solid waste management,

as uncollected solid waste may end up in the drain, when there is severe wind

this refuse accumulate in time and result to blockage of drain flow capacity.

These create breeding sites for parasites which thrive mostly in this condition.

It posses threat not only to the public-health but also to the environmental health

and sanitary conditions of a place. Carey (2005) argues that human populations
 worldwide are vulnerable to natural disasters. The most vulnerable landscapes

for floods are low-lying parts of floodplains, low-lying coasts and delta with

small basins subject to flash flood. In a study of known risk (2005), it is observed

that the economic impacts of natural disasters shows a marked upward trend

over the last several decades worldwide. Some groups are more vulnerable than

others mainly those less privileged in the society (Living with risk 2002).

2.4.1 The Nature of drainage and its implication on health

The healths of citizens are affected by poor drainage systems which

is usually associated with stagnant water, creating breeding sites for parasites.

Worldwide parasitic and infectious communicable diseases including all water

related diseases caused 32% of all deaths in 1993, resulting in loss of 16.5

million live; 99% of reported cases occurred in developing countries (WHO

1997). This is because these countries are usually known by their poor

infrastructural development which includes drainages. Most infections can only

be transmitted by a particular disease -specific-vector such as malaria by

Anopheles mosquitoes.

According to Cairncross and Feachem (1983) a vector is an animal often

an insects, that transmits an infection from one person to another or from

 infected animals to humans. Generally, the overall problems of blocked water

channels are one of deteriorations in environmental quality, creating breeding

place for mosquitoes among others. According to Fritsch (1993) direct

pathogen transfer and the transmission by vectors and intermediate host

requires specific environmental and socio-economic conditions. These

conditions are defined by:

1. Quality and quantity of water.

2. Type and frequencies of human-waste contacts.

3. Number and distribution of vector or intermediate host breeding sites.

4. Exposure of humans to vector and intermediate host populations.

However, in terms of reducing the health implications of poor drainage

systems all these conditions and many more need to be meet. Most drainage in

urban centers such as Lagos fail to operate even at the early hour of the rain.

Hence, posing the issue of quantity just as illustrated by (Fritsch, 1993). The

issue of quality of water is inextricably tied to humans. Anthropogenic activities

on drainages may pose a devastating effect on health and environment if proper

sanitation is not carried out.

In the word of Fritsch (1993) misuse and lack of maintenance are two main

reasons why drainage structures (road, drainage ditches, culverts, dam site,
 drainage or drainage canals in irrigation schemes and also drainage water

treatment and disposal facilities) are often associated with environmental health

problems. Pathogenic fungi in open drains contribute significantly to the spread

of diseases like dysentery, diarrhea, cholera, typhoid, malaria and gastroenteric

disorders (Van and Pur, 1990; Bicki, 2001; Burabai et al 2007; Ochuko Thaddeus,

2013; Shafi et al 2013; Ogbonna 2014).

2.4.2 Factors responsible for poor drainage system

There are diversities of problems and factors responsible for poor drainage

systems. For the purpose of this work, these factors will be sub-divided into two

broad groups namely;

(i) Anthropogenic or Human factors

(ii) Natural Factors

The reason for this division is because of the fact that the condition of

drainage is not only attributed to human alone in terms of waste disposal methods,

drainage sanitary conditions, construction and what a view. Several natural

forces are also responsible for drainage failure thereby constituting several

environmental, social and economic issues.

However, it is worthy of note that since time immemorial, the activities of

man in the biophysical environment have been a major threat to every aspect of
the ecosystem, where he exists and carries out daily activities of life. This

assertion lends credence to the position of (Osinbanjo, 1990 p.128) who remarked

that:

“One of life most poignant paradox must be that

man’s progressive activities pose the most potent
dangers to his ecological environment and thus, his
continuous existence”. “The vibrant centers of
industrial and technological activities providing
physical and cerebral simulations along economic
livelihood are also the source point of hazardous
effluents in all states of matter”.
Humans in the quest of improving their lives and livelihood have created havoc

to themselves and the environment where they live. These activities have

contributed immensely to the problem of man. There are several factors affecting

drainage systems, these factors will be discussed under the following sub-

heading;

(i) Poor attitude to refuse management

This factor is the most dominating factor especially when drainages have been

put in place. Usually different categories of wastes arising from household

activities are often deposited at inconvenient places. In most cases, such deposits

completely blocks waterways (Ahmed 2000; Olawepo; 2000). These wastes in

some areas are in heaps in street gutters and canals in several areas. Indiscriminate

dumping of waste can be serious in cities lacking efficient waste disposal system

or treatment plants and this we find in most cities in Nigeria (Okuo et al., 2007).

(ii) Building of illegal structures on drainage channels

Building of illegal structures on drainage channels or flood plains, is an

anthropogenic factor which impedes the free flow of water in street gutters, canals

and other drainage structures. A further dimension, especially in urban areas of

developing countries is the problem posed by inadequate infrastructural provision

such as roads, drainage systems and waste collection and handling facilities

(Adebayo, 2010; Adeloye et al., 2010). Poor housing also contribute to poor

environmental health and its consequent input in the health of the urban dwellers

(Ibanga et al; 2015).

(iii) Urbanization

The influx of people to urban centers due to opportunities in this area, exerts a

pull force to city centers as a result of motivational forces followed by migration

which impedes development and sustainable environment in all ramification.

This is a threat on drainage system; its implication is that the more the people the
more pressure are mounted on drainage systems, the more the waste generated

and obstruction possible. Problems arise both due to inflows to the systems,

which in future will be less certain and increasing downstream hydraulic and

regulatory constraint on outflow (Ashley et al., 2007). Alteration of natural

drainage basin, either by the impact of forestry, agriculture, or urbanization can

impose dramatic changes in the movement and storage of water.

2.4.3 The role of communication in promoting responsible environmental

behaviour

Communication plays a critical role in promoting a responsible

environmental behavior globally. Hence, it cannot be neglected due to the role

it plays in environmental sustainability by creating public awareness through

every means of communication and across every arm of government, schools,

hospitals, organizations, churches, mosque and several agents of socialization.

Since the Rio ‘Earth Summit ‘of 1992 (UNCED, 1992) the emphasis placed on

encouraging action by individual citizens for sustainability has proliferated.

Individual citizens need to be alarmed on the dangers of certain actions carried

out on the environment. These actions pose a drastic consequence due to the

aftermath effects of human activities on drainage systems. Ross and Mico cited

by Akpan (1995) see public health education awareness as a process with

intellectual, psychological and social dimensions relating to activities which

 increase the abilities of people to make informed decisions affecting their

personal, family and community well-being. Stewart Bar r (2003) proposed that

the process of engagement is commonly seen in governmental circles as a

problem of awareness; individual people simply do not appreciate

environmental problem for what they are. The globalization of environmental

challenges is changing the role of national governments in dealing with

environmental issues and non-state actors, including citizens which play an ever

more important role in environmental governance. Access to comprehensible

information is crucial for these actors to support the identification and

implementation of alternative solutions (Vanden Burg, 2006).

Presently, about 2.6 billion people are living without proper sanitation of which

Africa is not exempted (Olukanni, 2013). Communication can be basically

carried out by sensitizing the public through promotion of environmental health

education.

2.5 Gaps identified from Literature Reviewed

In prior studies done by different researchers, emphasis has been laid on

the existence of good drainage systems for effective flood control and other

associated problems. They have been little or no concern about the characteristics

of what is meant for a drainage to be so called. Flooding activities in coastal

areas of Nigeria are not usually caused by water from the Ocean but mostly by
rainfall. Some areas in these cities distinguished from the flood prone areas due

to the supposed good drainage systems, experiences flash floods. Hence, this x-

rays the fact that drainages in these areas are mostly constructed without the

incorporation of rainfall data for futuristic planning and for a sustainable drainage

system (SUD) that will serve its purpose on the long run. Extremities are the case

in flood prone areas, where a newly constructed drainage is unable to function

properly. Here, little amount of rainfall can result to severe street flooding in such

areas, damaging properties and other laid down infrastructures. Some drainage is

so shallow and with a bad slope that it ends up becoming a reservoir for storm

water. This sometimes could be the reason behind blocked drains. Although

indiscriminate waste disposal have been identified as one of the challenges of

poor drainage systems. While this is true, much emphasis need to be laid on poor

drainage construction pattern as a contributing factor to other agglomerating

problems of poor drainage systems to a considerable extent, just as ascribed to

improper waste disposal on drains.

Furthermore, the issues of sanitation have been emphasized by researchers

in several fields of environmental studies, with more concern on waste

management and clean up in the surrounding. Drainage facilities most times are

usually excluded from this exercise especially in flood prone areas where the

effect on the long run will play a negative impact as the rainy season approaches.
Here, sensitization of the public regarding this may be a problem when salient

aspects of the information are not properly disseminated. Most persons with all

the environmental programs and studies completed in previous years still may not

have a full understanding of what his or her perception towards the environment

should be. This problem have a devastating effect on every aspect of the

environment with people having a misconception about what proper sanitation

should be and not just mere cleaning of their immediate environment but

neglecting the street gutters, canals, and other water ways. Every street

beautification scheme that does not but the existing drainage facilities into

consideration is a waste of time and money because drainages are part of the

aesthetic nature of the environment.

 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Nature of Data

The sources of data that will be employed for this research will include

both the primary and secondary sources. The primary sources include; direct field

observations by field survey, administration of questionnaire and personal

interviews, while the secondary sources will include information obtained from

publications such as text books, journals, official documents, pre-existing

research works and the use of search engines such as Google, Wikipedia, and

ask.com. GIS (Geographic information system) technique will also be used for

map production, to enhance better findings in the research, relative to the study

area. Histogram, bar chart and pie chart will also be used for showing

relationships.

3.2 Methods of Data Collection

The data employed will be derived from field survey of the inundated areas

in the metropolis. This will be done by mixed method data collection and analysis

with multi-stage sampling technique. Multi-stage sampling techniques used

include the stratification of the local government area in Lagos metropolis into

two major study areas (Island and mainland), followed by systematic selection of
Ikeja and Eti-osa within the stratified Local government area. Questionnaires will

be administered strategically within this area and simple random sampling

selection will be used to determine the samples. This will be done randomly to

eliminate bias by giving all individuals an equal chance to be chosen. According

to Moore and Mccabe (2006) it is true that sampling randomly will eliminate

systematic bias. Ikeja have a total population of 313,333 persons and Eti-Osa has

a total population of 287,958 persons. Hence, it is difficult to obtain information

from the entire population. This shows the essence of random sampling, it is cost-

effective and time saving. 200 copies of questionnaires will be administered for

analysis; questionaires will be administered streets by street after every third

person encountered, in other to maintain consistency in sampling. 100 copies of

questionnaires will be administered for Ikeja and 100 copies of questionnaires for

Eti-Osa local government area. Interview will be conducted and the head of every

household at every third house will be made to respond to series of questions.

Cochran’s sample size determination for continuous data, categoritical data

and discrete data at 10% sample size will be used to determine the sample size.

Focus group interview will be part of the instrument used to elicit response from

the respondent. Inspections will also be conducted on the existing drainage

facilities in the sample points of the two sub-divided areas with attention to

drainage sanitary conditions, drainage structures and challenges of storm water

flows. Considering the target population, the nature of research and the research

focus, the survey questions will be measured with a Likert scale and several other

numeric scale, with questions from four sections namely; Environmental

questions, Socio-economic questions, Infrastructural and Health indicator

questions (See Appendix II).

3.3 Methods of Data Analysis

The data collected from the field will be coded and analyzed using the

Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22.0.0.0 and Microsoft

excel spread sheets. The study will adopt both inferential and descriptive

statistical techniques, inferential statistics that will be used for analysis includes;

figures, tables, histogram and pie chart while Chi square will be the descriptive

statistics used to test the relationships between variables in the research work, and

also for testing whether to reject or accept the null/alternate hypothesis as stated

in this work. Chi square results generated from Statistical package for social

science (SPSS) and Microsoft excel spread sheets will be the statistics employed

to take decisions on several questions, especially for testing the effect of poor

drainage systems on residential buildings, properties, traffic and health. Whereas

percentage analysis will be used to analyze other aspects, such as the identified

causes and problems related to poor drainage systems.

(1) Chi square formula is represented by;

(O  E ) 2
 ……………………….................................... (Equation 1)
2
x E

Where;

ᵡ2= Chi square

O= the observed value of distribution

E= the expected value of distribution

 CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

4.1 Data Presentation

This chapter presents the data analysis, results and findings on the

challenges of poor drainage systems in Lagos metropolis. Questionnaires were

administered to respondents within the selected sections of Etio-Osa and Ikeja

local government areas. A total of 200 copies questionnaires were administered

to the two local government areas. However, 195 was retrieved with 190 valid

and 5 invalid. Each questionnaire contained 22 items. These items were grouped

into four sections (A, B, C, and D) on the basis of their relevance and relatedness

to each of the research questions under examination.

Percentages, means, standard deviation, bar graph, pie charts, histogram,

line graph, and doughnut chart were used for the analysis of research questions

while chi-square was used for the testing hypothesis. Total questionnaire useable

for data analysis is 190 representing 95% of the total number of questionnaires

administered.
Table 4.1 Sampled Area and Number of Questionnaires Retrived

No. of
Sampled Area Questionaires No. Retrived
administered
Etio-Osa LGA Itedo 10 10
Jakande estate 20 20
Lekki (admiralty way) 12 11
Osapa London 22 22
Ologolo 21 21
Victoria island 15 14
Total= 100 98
Ikeja LGA Obasa street 14 14
Esugbaye 24 23
Ladejobi 10 10
Ladoke Akinola 12 11
Arinola Coker 22 22
Total= 100 97

Etio-Osa and Ikeja LGA

Total= 200
Total Retrieved= 195
Total Invalid= 5
Total Valid= 190

The sample area selected for the purpose of this research work are prone

to flooding and hence usually inundated. Some of these areas have only one

way street gutters that are usually small or sometimes large with debris

comprising polyethene bags, plastic bottles, grasses and nylons which obstruct

the free flow of water from the area.

 4.1.1 Socio-economic characteristics

Table 4.1 Distribution of socio-economic characteristics of the respondents

Socio-economic Characteristics No. %
Gender Male 88 46.3
Female 102 53.7
Age of 18-25 62 32.6
Respondents 26-33 66 34.7
34-41 44 23.2
42 Above 18 9.5
Total 190 100
Marital Status Single 104 54.7
Married 72 37.9
Divorced/Seperated 8 4.2
Widow/Widower 6 3.2
Total 190 100
Educational First School 57 30
Qualification Leaving Certificate
WAEC O'Level 81 42.6
Degree 34 17.9
Non Formal 8 4.2
Others 10 5.3
Total 190 100
Occupation Trader 36 18.9
Company 92 48.4
Worker/Civil
Servants
Students 32 16.8
Others 30 15.9
Total 190 100
 Data from (Table 4.2) shows the socio-economic characteristics of

respondents. Majority of the respondents were females (53.7%) while (46.3%)

were males. In terms of age bracket of the respondents a considerable percent of

the respondents falls within age 18-25 and 26-33 which represents (32.6%) and

(34.7%) respectively. This may account for the reason why majority of the

respondents are single (54.7%) while the married ones represents (37.9%) of the

respondents. Educational qualification of the respondents shows that (30%)

obtained First School Leaving Certificate (FSLC), (42.6%) obtained (O’Level),

(17.9%) are degree holders, (4.2%) and (5.3%) indicated others. The table clearly

shows that (48.4%) of the respondents are company workers which represents

much of the population about (16.8%) are students, traders represents (18.9%) of

the respondents and others represents (5.3%).

Table 4.3 Opinion on causes of flooding
Question SA A D SD Total X SD

Blockage of drainage is the major 112 68 6 4 190 3.5 0.68

cause of flooding

Heavy rainfall is the major cause of 84 78 20 8 190 4.5 0.32

flooding

Lack of proper channelization is the 120 60 6 4 190 3.5 0.68

major cause of flooding

Building on water channel is the major 86 50 46 8 190 3.1 0.81

cause of flooding

The table shows a calculated mean (X) of 3.5 and the standard deviation of

0.68 for the question that says blockage of drainage is the major cause of flooding.

The (X) of 3.5 > the cutoff point of 3.0 shows therefore that the statement is

highly accepted. The highly accepted mean of 4.5 and standard deviation of 0.32

were recorded for the question that says heavy rainfall is the major cause of

flooding. A highly accepted mean of 3.5 with a standard deviation of 0.68 were

equally recorded for the question that says lack of proper channelization is the

major cause of flooding. While a mean of 3.1 and a standard deviation of 0.81

were recorded for the question that says building on water channel is the major

cause of flooding.
Plate 1.1 Researcher standing 30cm from a street gutter totally submerged with
no indication/demarcation in Jakande estate, Lagos State.

Source: Field observation done by the researcher (2017 flood episode)

(Plate 1.1) correspond with findings in column 4 in (Table 4.3) that lack of

proper channelization is one of the major cause of flooding in the metropolis the

picture shows that the water is stagnant with no route to flow out of the area hence
it build up to become flood in this case infiltration by the soil and evapouration

is depended upon for water level to reduce.

Respondents opinion to flooding

31%
53%

16%

Key Increasing Decreasing Constant

Fig 4.1 Pie chart representing responses to opinion on flooding

The pie chart above shows the percentage of responses about the rate of

flooding in neighbourhoods. (53%) of the respondents indicated that flooding is

increasing compared to years back and hence its impact is more felt as years goes

by meanwhile, (31%) of the respondents indicated that flooding is neither

increasing nor reducing but constant overtime. Whereas, (16%) of the respondent
choose the option that flooding activities is decreasing with comparison to years

before.

ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNICATING EXPECTED FLOOD

EVENT

Very Good
17%

Bad
47%

Key
Very Good

Good Good
36%
Bad

Fig 4.2 Pie chart showing respondents rating on the role of government in
communicating expected flood event.

When the role of government in communicating flood event was asked,

respondents gave their various opinions to the question, (17%) of the

respondents indicated that government play’s a very good role in communicating

flood events to the people while (36%) indicated that government play’s a good

role in communicating flood events. However, a considerable (47%) of the

population indicated that government play’s a bad role when it comes to

communicating flood events to the people beforehand. This is a problem because

lack of communication to the public makes them un aware of the intensity of the

rainfall to enable them make preparation to flooding in the aspects of cleaning of

drainage, proper channelization of all water ways and removal of debris that may

have clogged the drainage during the dry season which may hinder the free flow

of storm water to the drain.

Adjustment/Coping Strategies to Flood

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
Raised Temporal
Use of Sand bags Sand filling Relocation Others
Pavement wooden bridge
Response 44 56 70 50 57 5

Fig 4.3 Bar graph showing adjustment/coping strategies to flood

This bar graph above presents data about the adjustment/coping strategies

that have been adopted by respondents to mitigate the effect of flooding.

Respondents in this part were allowed to choose three (3) answers from the five

(5) options that were given in the closed-ended question. The bar graph shows

that the use of sand bags as a coping strategy was picked (44) times, raised

pavements was picked (56) times, temporal wooden bridge was picked (70) times

which was the highest in the chart. Wooden bridges are mostly used in areas

where the entire walk way are usually inundated. Sand filling was picked (50)

times, relocation was picked (57) times, this is ranked as the second highest in

the bar graph. This shows that people usually relocate from the flooded

environment when the rain is at its peak to a less inundated environment in other

to survive the aftermath effect of the flood.

Plate 4.2 Use of temporal wooden bridge as a coping strategy in Jakande estate,
Lagos State.
Source: Field photograph by the researcher (2017 flood episode)

It can be seen clearly that (Plate 4.2) correspond with the third bar in (Fig

4.3) which shows the highest response, stating that the use of wooden bridge is

the widely used acceptable coping strategy to survive flooding as a result of poor

drainage systems.
Plate 4.3 Relocation as a coping strategy in Lekki beach road, Lagos state.
Source: Field photograph by the researcher (2017 flood episode)

The plate above support the finding that relocation is one of the most

adopted strategy for coping to flood. This response with a frequency of (57) is

widely adopted when the flood has gone above the coping capacity of residents

in the metropolis.
 Problems associated with flooding
90
80
70
60
Frequency

50
40
30
20
10
Key 0
Response
Structrural Damage 68
Loss of Life 57
Damage to property 84
Disruption of socio-economic
73
activities

Fig 4.4 Bar graph representing problems associated with flooding

When respondents were asked to indicate accordingly the problems

associated with flooding with the choice of ticking three answers from five (5)

options of the closed ended question, the response represented by the graph shows

that damage to property is the major problem with a frequency of (84), disruption

to socio-economic activities including transport and transportation has a

frequency of (73), structural damage has a frequency of (68), whereas loss of life

has a frequency of (57) which represents the lowest frequencies and hence the

least problem.
 Plate 4.4 Damage to property and disruption of socio-economic activities in
Ilasan housing estate, Lagos State.

Source: Field photograph by the researcher (2017 flood episode)

It has been revealed clearly that flood activities owning to poor drainage

systems can result to damage to properties and the disruption of socio-economic

activities as shops, schools and companies located in the flooded area are not able

to operate until the area is dry. This pose a massive loss to companies whose
materials and machines for production are damaged and also many household

appliances.

The table below shows the percentages of responses on the level of

compliance to cleaning of drainage during sanitation.

Table 4.4 Level of compliance to cleaning of drainage during

environmental sanitation.

Level of compliance in cleaning of drainage Frequency %

Never 16 8.5

Rarely 46 24.2

Sometimes 52 27

Most of the times 50 26

Always 26 13.4

Total Response = 190 100

The table shows that (8.5%) of the respondents never comply to the

cleaning of drainage, the compliance of those who rarely engage in cleaning of

drainage were (24.2%) while those who sometimes comply to the cleaning the

drains during environmental sanitation have the largest number put at (27%).

Respondents that indicated most of the represents (26%) of population and those
who always comply with sanitation makes up (13.4%) of the population of

respondents.

Table 4.5 Responses on waste disposal in open drain is the major breeding
ground for disease vector.
Waste disposal in open
drainage is the major SA A D SD Total X SD
breeding ground for
mosquitoes
Responses 110 66 14 0 190 3.5 0.6

The table above stated the calculated mean of 3.5 and a standard deviation

of 0.6 for the response on waste disposal in open drain is the major breeding

ground for disease vector The (X) of 3.5 > the cutoff point of 3.0 shows therefore

that the statement is highly accepted.

 Response on poor drainage and health impact
180
160
140
Frequency

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Yes NO
Responses 160 30

Does poor drainage have an impact on health?

Fig 4.5 Line graph showing relationship between poor drainage and health

The line graph above presents information on whether or not poor drainage

have an impact on public health responses were given in a closed ended format

with a yes and no answer. Respondents who indicated that poor drainage has an

impact on public health has a frequency of (160) which represents (84.2%) of the

respondents while those who opted for poor drainage does not have an impact on

public health were (30) which represents (15.8%) of the respondents. This graph

correlate with (Table 4.5) which shows that waste disposal is the major breeding

ground for disease vector which may in turn impede the public health in this

scenario.
 IMPACT OF DRAINAGE ON
INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT

17%

44%

39%

Very Noticeable Noticeable Not noticeable

Key

Fig 4.6 Doughnut chart showing percentage of ratings on impact of poor drainage
on infrastructural development

The doughnut chart above shows the percentages of respondents rating on

the impact of drainages on infrastructural development in (Section D) of the

questionnaire. From the graph it is clearly seen that (44%) of the respondents

indicated that the impact of poor drainage system on infrastructural development

is very noticeable, while (39%) represents the opinion that the impact of poor

drainage system to infrastructural development is noticeable and remaining

(17%) stated that the impact of poor drainage system to infrastructural

development is not noticeable, this response represents the lowest to the question

asked.
 Relationship between poor drainage
system and infrastructural development

Key

Yes
83% 17%
No

Fig 4.7 Relationship between poor drainage system and infrastructural

development

The graph above supports the doughnut chart which tries to see the rating

of poor drainage on infrastructural development. This graph however, establishes

the relationship that exist between poor drainage system and infrastructural

development and from the result generated it shows that (83%) of the respondents

established that there is a relationship between poor drainage system and

infrastructural development while (17%) where against the motion that poor

drainage systems has an impact on infrastructural development.

4.2 Analyses: Testing of hypothesis

The hypothesis in this work were tested and analysed using the Statistical

Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 22.0.0 software. The following

hypothesis were tested

H0: There is no statistically significant relationship between poor drainage

systems and public health.

H1: There is statistically significant relationship between poor drainage systems

and public health.

Table 1: Test of association between poor drainage systems and public health

Public Health Chi-square test

Response
Typhoid
Malaria Other X2 Df P-value
fever

Yes 168 (95.5) 124 (70.5) 60 (34.1)

150.818 2 0.00*
No 8 (4.5) 52 (29.5) 116 (65.9)
*= significant at P < 0.05

The SPSS (Statistical Packages for Social Sciences) results above shows

that the p-value of 0.00<0.05 at 99% confidence interval implies that we reject

the null hypothesis which states that there is no statistically significant

relationship between poor drainage systems and public health and accept the

alternate hypothesis which states that there is statistically significant relationship

between poor drainage systems and public health.

 The Chi-square result shown below were given for the second hypotheses

which states as follows;

H0: There is no statistically significant relationship between poor drainage

systems and infrastructural development.

H1: There is statistically significant relationship between poor drainage systems

and infrastructural development.

Table 2: Test of association between poor drainage system and infrastructural development

Infrastructure Chi-square test

Response Damage to Damage to Destruction of
X2 df P-value
Aesthetics Property Road Pavement

Yes 109 (57.4) 156 (82.1) 123 (64.7)

28.20 2 0.00*
No 81 (42.6) 34 (17.9) 67 (35.3)

*= significant at P < 0.05

The Chi-square analysis represented above shows that the p-value of

0.00<0.05 implies that we reject the null hypothesis which states that there is no

statistically significant relationship between poor drainage systems and

infrastructural development and accept the alternate hypothesis which states that

there is statistically significant relationship between poor drainage systems and

infrastructural development.
4.3 Discussion of Results

The discussion of results are organized according to the result of each of

the research questions tested.

Research Question 1

How does heavy rainfall affect drainage systems?

The result of this research question were presented in (Table 4.4). When

the respondents were asked specifically to indicate accordingly the effect of

heavy rainfall their responses shows that (84) respondents representing (44%) of

the population strongly agreed that heavy rainfall results to flooding as drainages

cannot withstand the volume of storm drain. Those who agreed to the question

asked were (78) in number representing (41%) of the total number of respondents

interviewed. The number of respondents who disagreed that heavy rainfall does

not result to flooding were (20) in number representing (11%) of the respondents

interviewed, whereas (8) respondents representing (4%) of the respondents

strongly disagreed.

The workings which shows indicated that heavy rainfall is the major cause

of flooding can be seen in (Appendix A). The highly accepted mean of 4.5 and

standard deviation of 0.32 were recorded for the question that says heavy rainfall

is the major cause of flooding. The results shows findings that heavy rainfall
affect drainage system by overflowing its capacity and however resulting to

flooding of the area. The need to construct a sustainable drainage in the

metropolis is increasingly becoming importance as exiting drainage facilities on

ground lack the capacity to drain all waters from the street during heavy

downpour. The increase in urbanization accompanied by high population and

concretization of streets together with new ways of packaging items makes pre-

existing good drainage ineffective and unable to cope with present stress.

Research Question 2

What is the effect of poor drainage system on infrastructure?

The bar graph in (Fig 4.4) revealed the effect of poor drainage systems on

infrastructure from the graph it was revealed that (68) responses were given for

structural damage as the effect of poor drainage on infrastructure, (57) responses

were given for loss of life, (84) responses were given to damage to property and

(73) responses were given to disruption of socio-economic activities including

transport and communication. This however shows that the effect of poor

drainage systems are mostly felt on infrastructure than on loss of life as opinion

relating to infrastructure has the highest response in the order of damage to

property, disruption of socio-economic activities, structural damage and lastly,

loss of life.
Research Question 3

Does the government sensitize or pre-inform the public about flood?

The answer to this question were shown in a pie chart in (Fig 4.2) it was

established that (47%) of the respondents rated the role of government in

communicating expected flood events as very bad (Plate 1.1) give a pictorial

scenario which supported the claims as residents were seen packing their

belongings as their houses have been occupied by storm drain and drainage totally

submerged. However, (17%) of the respondents were against the view that

governments does not give a first-hand information regarding upcoming flood

episodes. Also, (36%) rated government role in communicating expected flood

events as good. From the results that has been gathered, it can however be

established that the role of government in communicating expected flood event

is very bad as a large number of respondents supported this claims.

This implies the technique imbibe by government to communicating

environmental issues are ineffective. This is in line with the assertion of Onabanjo

(2000) that the message once heard on radio disappears into the atmosphere

literally, but to reduce this negative outcome, programmes once heard should be

repeated to make impact. Communication is a way of sensitizing the public on

environmental issues of immediate attention in other to make them change their

attitude on what they do to their immediate environment, especially by telling the

drastic impacts with a very educative and teachable methods. The result of this

study confirms the report of Adelakun (2004) that the present mass environmental

education programmes on radio and television are not always directional, they

hardly educate ordinary citizens whose behaviours and skills mostly degrade the

environment. Here the need to reach out the masses on information pertaining to

environmental issues can be done to involve the indulgence of everybody in every

classes (rich and poor) whether literate or illiterate, whether young or old.

Research Question 4

How does poor drainage system impede health?

This question were asked to ascertain the impact of poor drainage systems

on public health. The result of this findings can be seen in (Table 4.5) where the

mean and standard deviation were used to calculate the responses given by

respondents. The table however stated the calculated mean of 3.5 and a standard

deviation of 0.6 for the response on waste disposal in open drain is the major

breeding ground for disease vector. The (X) of 3.5 > the cutoff point of 3.0 shows

therefore that the statement is highly accepted. The working can be seen in

(Appendix II) of this work. Drainages are the major breeding ground for disease

vector because it supports and create a favourable condition for the reproduction
of pathogenic insects which leads to the spread of diseases like malaria that

impedes health. Respondents agreed that poor drainage system is associated with

sickness such as malaria, cholera and other water borne diseases, although some

seems not to be aware as their response went off the benchmark. This finding is

in line with the assertion of Olaniran (1995) that the link between environment

and health is fairly understood by the average persons in most developed and

developing nation of the world.

 CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Summary of Findings

The challenges of poor drainage systems in Lagos metropolis is a very

critical one and hence demands immediate attention owning to the fact that Lagos

is an urban center characterized by great dis-equilibrium between areas of

existing drainage facilities and areas without. However, certain challenges that

were identified in this work portrays reasons why both area are still inundated by

several flood episodes.

The attention of the researcher was drawn to this problem during the

(2017) flood episode experienced in the state. At this time, residents were crying

out large with various displeasures and speculations as some identify the heavy

downpour to be the anger of the gods. The devastating extent of the flood left a

knee deep water in the early hours of the rain. In some areas, all drainage facilities

were totally submerged with some measuring up 2.5ft while some paved streets

with existing drainage were measuring up to 3ft on the average. The researcher

nevertheless, identified this re-occurring problem and hence observed the existing

drainage during the dry season this gave a clue to identifying the root cause of the

problem to which solutions were proffered.

 The study observed and confirmed the seriousness of flooding during the

wet seasons and the coping capacity of drainage facilities to abate it and went

further to view the relationship between poor drainage systems on both public

health and infrastructural development. The issue of sanitation and proper

channelization of drainage were parts of the solutions proffered. During field

survey, it was observed that some large water bodies in the state has been sand

filled, the major projects on-going in the state pertaining to sand-filling of water

bodies is the Eko-Atlantic project. Storm drains in many cases have no place to

dissipate as water bodies has been altered by either siltation or land reclamation

process, this leave the water with no option than to run into residential areas and

some low depressed areas with steep slopes.

Results shows that some residents were unaware of the incoming flood

episodes therefore, unprepared as street gutters and canals were clogged with

sands, solid waste and debris leaving the drainage with a minute volume that

cannot withstand the lowest millimeter (mm) of rainfall. Attitudinal problem were

also identified as part of the compounding issues of poor drainage systems as

most residents see sanitation as one- last-Saturday of the month exercise and not

a routine exercise. Although monthly environmental sanitation in the state has

been scrapped out of the state policy by the present administration and residents

has been encouraged to always keep their environment in a pristine condition

instead of waiting for the monthly sanitation imposed by the state government.

However, the efficacy of the policy contribution to the sustainability of the

environment is another research work that should be considered.

5.2 Recommendations

The researcher made the following recommendation to the government,

organizations and individuals.

5.2.1 The Government

1. Formulations and enforcement of strict laws on waste management should

be done by the government.

2. The government should ensure that all drainage projects in the state that

are on construction should be finished between the stipulated time and a

routine check should be done on the conditions of drainages from time to

time.

3. Construction of drainage in the state should involve several other ministries

that may proffer lasting solutions to drainage failure. The incorporation of

rainfall data in the planning phase of drainage construction will help to

provide data on rainfall intensity which will determine the slope, depth and

volume of storm drain that will be easily moved by the drainage.

 4. The ministry of town planning should ensure that all contraband building

on drainage channels are discouraged to enable the free flow of water to

the dams.

5. Refuse reception by Lagos State Waste Management Agency (LAWMA)

from various receptacle should be done in due time to discourage throwing

of refuse in drains. Large refuse receptacle should be kept in close range

with equi-distant intervals.

6. Awareness to the need to clean drainages should be supported by the

government by strategic methods that will capture the audience.

7. Monthly environmental sanitation programme should be re-introduced and

reinvigorated into the state policies.

5.2.2 Organizations

1. Organizations and private bodies should assist the government in creating

awareness on the need of having a clean drainage facility in the state.

2. Community service should also be encouraged by organizations either by

involving in the sanitation process or by providing materials to their host

communities to clean their surroundings and drainages.

3. Organizing workshops, seminars and conferences by governmental and non-

governmental organizations will also promote effective sensitization and

environmental awareness.

4. Solid waste should be adequately disposed of by organizations who generate

large chunks of waste.

5.2.3 Individuals

1. Individuals should see sanitation as a civic responsibility and not just an avenue

to take a break from their jobs.

2. Every household should have a coded refuse bin which will enable the easy

collection of waste by Lagos State Waste Management Agencies (LAWMA) and

also help in easy recycling process.

3. Adult citizens should show good examples to their children raising up

environmental sensitive issues and practicing good personal hygiene. This will

make the classroom experience practical to the children.

4. There should be a cultural revolution where awareness is created among the

illiterate inhabitants to desist from dumping of refuse indiscriminately in open

drains.

5. Public health awareness should be integrated in every household by every head

of the family.
 Finally, the incorporation of the afore-mentioned recommendation to the

government, organizations and individuals if adequately practiced and enforced

will mitigate and consequently put an end to the issue associated with poor

drainage systems in Lagos metropolis.

5.3 Conclusion

The study has been able to identify problems associated with poor

drainage systems through field observations and survey, which establishes the

findings and discoveries in the research work.

Statistical analysis of the questionnaire administered during the course

of the study showed value that led to the rejection of the null hypothesis stated in

the work. Some questions were analysed descriptively and this revealed valid

responses given by the populace that were randomly selected for the purpose of

the research work. Drainage systems as an infrastructure need not to be neglected

as it can run down a blossoming economy through the damage of properties and

assets, loss of lives especially children, increase in criminal activities due to

displacement of settlements and damage to buildings to mention but a few. Any

built environment especially urban centers which neglects drainage infrastructure

stand the risk of losing food, housing, clothing and shelter which are the basic

necessities of life.
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 APPENDIX I

University of Port Harcourt,

Faculty of Social Sciences,
Department of Geography
and Environmental
Management, P.M.B 5323, Choba,

Rivers State.

Dear Respondents,

I am a final year student of the above named institution, carrying out a

research project on the Challenges of poor drainage systems in Lagos
Metropolis. This questionnaire is to enable me obtain information of relevance
to the study stated above.

I will appreciate your cooperation in answering this attached questionnaire

appropriately in order to avoid misleading conclusions at the end of the study. I
will be grateful if you can complete the questions as soon as possible to enable
the researcher collect it back on the spot.

Any information given will be treated confidentially. Thanks for your

cooperation in making this research a success.

Yours Faithfully,

Fidelis Gift Donu

 RESEARCH QUESTIONAIRE

Please tick the blank boxes with the appropriate information. Note that the
response comes before the boxes. This questionnaire consists of four sections.
You are required to answer all according to instructions in each section.

Section A

Socio-economic characteristics

Please fill the blank boxes with the appropriate answers.

(1) Sex of Respondents

Male Female
(2) Age of Respondents
18-25 years 26-33 years 34-41 years 42 years and above
(3) Marital status
Single Married Divorced/Separated Widow/Widower
(4) Educational qualification
First School Leaving Certificate WAEC O’ Level Degree
Non Formal Others Specify
……………………………………………….
(5) What is your primary (major) occupation?
Trader Company worker/Civil Servants Student Others
 Section B

Environmental Condition Question

Opinion on Causes of flooding

Please tick only one option in each of the questions below.
(6) Blockage of Drainage is the major cause of flooding in the area
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

(7) Heavy rainfall is the major cause of flooding in the area

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
(8) Lack of proper Channelization is the major cause of flooding in the area
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
(9) Building on water channel is the major cause of flooding in the area
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree
(10) Compared to years back, what is your opinion about flooding in your
neighbourhood?
Increasing Decreasing Constant
(11) If increasing is your answer to question (9) above, what do you
think is responsible for
this?.............................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
...............
(12) How do you rate the government role in communicating expected
flood events to residence?
Very good Good Bad
 Adjustment/Coping Strategies adopted

Tick any three option in this section

(13) How do you adjust to flood in your neighbourhood?

Use of Sand bags Raised Pavement Use of temporary wooden
bridge Sand filling Relocation Others,
Specify………………………………......................................................
(14) What kind of problems is associated with flooding in your area?
Structural damage Loss of life Damage to property Disruption
of Socio-economic activity including transport and communication

(15) What bad environmental behaviour do you think contribute to poor

drainage system and flooding in your area? State (2)
(a)…………………………………………………………………………..
(b)…………………………………………………………………………..

(16) What is your level of compliance to cleaning of drainage during

environmental sanitation?
Never Rarely Sometimes Most of the times Always
 Section C

Health Indicator Question

Please tick only one answer in each of the questions below
(17) Waste disposal in open drain is the major breeding ground for disease
vector.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree.
(18) Do you think poor drainage have an impact on your health?
Yes No
(19) If yes is your answer to question (18) above, state two (2) negative
impact poor drainage system on your health.
(a)………………………………………………………………………….
…..................................................................................................................
(b)………………………………………………………………………….

Section D
Infrastructural Problem
(20) What kind of problem is associated with flooding in your area?
Damage to property Destruction of buildings Destruction of
Road pavements Damage to aesthetics
(21) How do you rate the impact of drainage, gutter, and canals on
infrastructural development?
Very Noticeable Noticeable Not noticeable
(22) Is there any relationship between poor drainage system and
infrastructural development?
Yes No
 Appendix II

Workings

Mean and standard deviation were used to solve for responses given in

question (7-10) of the questionnaire and also question (14) in (Table 4.5). The

workings are shown below;

Scale x Frequency (f) fx x-X (x-X) 2

SA 4 120 480 0.5 0.25

A 3 60 180 -1.5 0.25
D 2 6 12 -1.5 2.25
SD 1 4 4 -2.5 6.25

 fx  190  fx  676   9.0

Mean (X) =  fx Standard deviation =  (x  X ) 2

f f
676 9 .0
(X) = SD =
190 190

(X) = 3.5 SD = 0.473

SD = 0.6
 Scale x Frequency (f) fx x-X (x-X) 2

SA 4 84 338 0.48 0.230

A 3 78 468 -1.48 2.190
D 2 20 40 -2.48 6.150
SD 1 8 8 -3.48 12.11
 fx  190  fx  852   20.68

Mean (X) =  fx Standard deviation =  (x  X ) 2

f f
852 20.68
(X) = SD =
190 190

(X) = 4.5 SD = 0.105

SD = 0.32

Scale x Frequency (f) fx x-X (x-X) 2

SA 4 110 440 0.5 0.25

A 3 66 198 -0.5 0.25
D 2 14 28 -1.5 2.25
SD 1 0 0 -2.5 6.25
 fx  190  fx  666   9.0

Mean (X) =  fx Standard deviation =  (x  X ) 2

f f
666 9 .0
(X) = SD =
190 190

(X) = 3.5 SD = 0.473

SD = 0.6
 Scale x Frequency (f) fx x-X (x-X) 2
SA 4 86 344 0.9 0.81
A 3 50 150 0.1 0.01
D 2 46 92 1.1 1.21
SD 1 8 8 2.1 4.41
 fx  190  fx  594   6.44

Mean (X) =  fx Standard deviation =  (x  X ) 2

f f
594 6.44
(X) = SD =
190 190

(X) = 3.1 SD = 0.033

SD = 0.81

Scale x Frequency (f) fx x-X (x-X) 2

SA 4 110 440 0.5 0.25
A 3 66 198 -0.5 0.25
D 2 14 28 -1.5 2.25
SD 1 0 0 -2.5 6.25
 fx   fx    9.0
190 594

Mean (X) =  fx Standard deviation =  (x  X ) 2

f f
666 9 .0
(X) = SD =
190 190

(X) = 3.5 SD = 0.473

SD = 0.6
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