ChapterNo2

Output Primitives

Computer Graphics(CSE305) 1
 Introduction
⮚ Shapes and colors of the objects can be described internally with pixel arraysorwithsetsof basic
geometric structures, such as straight line segments and polygoncolor areas

⮚ The picture is then displayed either by loading the pixel arrays into the framebufferorbyscan
converting the basic geometric-structure specifications into pixel patterns.

⮚ Graphics programming packages provide functions to describe a scene intermsofthesebasic

geometric structures, referred to as output primitives

⮚ Each output primitive is specified with input coordinate data and other informationaboutthe
way that object is to be displayed.

⮚ Points and straight line segments are the simplest geometric components of pictures.

⮚ Additional output primitives that can be used to construct a picture includecirclesandother

conic sections, quadric surfaces, spline curves and surfaces,
polygoncolorareas,andcharacter strings

Computer Graphics(CSE305) 2

Mario Picture inpixel form

 Computer

Graphics(CSE305) 3

POINTS ANDLINES
⮚ With a CRT monitor, the electron beam is turned on to illuminatethescreenphosphor
at the selected location.
⮚ For A random-scan (vector) system ⮚ stores point-plotting instructions in the display
list file andcoordinatevalues in these instructions

⮚ Then converted to deflection voltages that position the electronbeamatthe screen

locations to be plotted during each refresh cycle.

⮚ A random-scan display, a straight line can be drawn smoothlyfromoneendpoint

to the other.

⮚ With an RGB system

⮚ The frame buffer is loaded with the color codes for the intensitiesthatareto be
displayed at the screen pixel positions

Computer Graphics(CSE305) 4

POINTS ANDLINES
⮚ For a black and-white raster system ⮚ A point is
plotted by setting the bit value
corresponding to a specified screen position
within the frame buffer to 1.

⮚ the electron beam sweeps across each

horizontal scan line,

⮚ it emits a burst of electrons (plots a point) whenever avalueof1is

encounter in the

⮚ Thus rounding of coordinate values to integers causes lines

frame buffer.

tobedisplayed
with a stairstep appearance ("the jaggies"), ⮚ noticeable on systems

⮚ for smoothing raster lines are based on adjusting pixel

with low resolution
 intensitiesalongthe
line paths. Computer Graphics(CSE305) 5

Setting up pixel position

⮚ We can
set and get the pixel position with the help of followingcommands:⮚ setpixel (x,y)

⮚ getPixel (x,y)
 Computer Graphics(CSE305) 6

LINE-DRAWINGALGORITHMS
⮚ The Cartesian slope-intercept equation for a
straight line is y= �. � + �
--------- Eq 3.1
⮚ Where �= slope of the line
� = y intercept

⮚ we can determine values for the slope m and y

intercept b with the
following
calculations:

-----------Eq 3.2

------Eq 3.3
⮚ For any given x interval Δx along a line, we can compute the correspondingyinterval
Δy from eq 3.2 and Vise versa ,
Δy= m * Δx ----Eq 3.4
and Δx = Δy / m -----Eq 3.5
Computer Graphics(CSE305) 7

For different values of slopmCase I: For |

m| < 1
Case II : For | m| > 1
Case III: For |m|==1

▪Δxcanbeset

▪Δycanbeset

▪ For lines withm=1,Δx=

proportional to a small
proportional to a small
Δy andthehorizontal
horizontal deflection
v e rti c a l d e f l e c ti o n
 and vertical deflections
voltageandthe
voltagewiththe
voltages areequal.
corresponding vertical
corresponding horizontal
deflection is then set
deflection voltage set
proportional to Δy
proportional to Δx
▪

▪
 Δy
Δy
Δy
Δx Δx Δx

Computer Graphics(CSE305) 8

DDAAlgorithm
⮚ The digital deferential analyzer (DDA) is a scan-
conversionlinealgorithmbased on Calculating either Δy or Δx

⮚ We sample the line at unit intervals in one coordinate anddeterminecorresponding

integer values nearest the line path for the other coordinate.
⮚ If the slope is less than or equal to 1, we sample at unit xintervals(Δx=1)and
compute each successive Δ y value as
��+1 = �� + �----------eq3.6

⮚ Where ��+1= next point and ��= Old /Prev. point

⮚ For lines with a positive slope greater than 1, we reverse therolesofxandy.That

is, we sample at unit Δy intervals (Δy = 1) andcalculateeachsucceeding x
value as
��+1 = �� +1�--------eq3.7
Computer Graphics(CSE305) 9

DDAAlgorithm
⮚ Last equations are based on the assumption that lines are
tobeprocessedfromthe left endpoint to the right endpoint
⮚ If this processing is reversed, so that the starting endpoint is at
theright,theneither we have Δ x = -1 and
⮚ ��+1 = �� − �⮚ Where ��+1= next point and ��= Old /Prev. point ⮚

1
(when the slope is greater than I) we have Δy = -1 with ��+1 = �� − �

Computer Graphics(CSE305) 10

Example
⮚ Consider Line points are A ( 2 , 2 )
and B ( 9 , 2 ) �1 , �1
�2, �2
⮚ Now calculate Δx and Δy:
 Δ x= �2 - �1 Δ y = �2- �1
=9–2=7=2–2=0

⮚ Now calculate slop (m)

m=Δ y
0
Δ x = 7= 0

⮚ Now decide the steps = Highest value of Δx and Δy ⮚ Here Δy= 7 > Δx value
therefore Step = 7

⮚ Calculate ���� , ����:

����� = 1 ���� =Δy

���� =Δx
����� = 0

Computer Graphics(CSE305) 11
Example
X value2 Y value

3 2

4 2

5 2

6 2

7 2

8 2

9 2

StartingpointcoordinatevaluesA( 2, 2)
 Computer Graphics(CSE305) 12

Grid view
Y axis

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
xaxis
 Computer Graphics(CSE305) 13

DDAAlgosteps
• DDAAlgo accepts as input the two end point pixel positions. • Horizontal and vertical
differences between the endpoint positions areassignedtoparameters dx and dy.
• The difference with the greater magnitude determines the value of parameter steps. • Starting
with pixel position (xa , yb), we determine the offset neededat eachsteptogenerate the next pixel
position along the line path.
• We loop through this process steps times.
• If the magnitude of dx is greater than the magnitude of dy and xa is lessthanxb,thevalues of the
increments in the x and y directions are 1 and m, respectively. • If the greater change is in the x
direction, but xa is greater than xb, then thedecrements-1and -m are used to generate each new
point on the line.
• Otherwise, we use a unit increment (or decrement) in the y direction andanxincrement(or
decrement) of l/m
Computer Graphics(CSE305) 14
DDAAlgo Program

Computer
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 Advantages
⮚It is a faster method than method of using direct
useoflineequation.

⮚This method does not use multiplication theorem.

⮚It allows us to detect the change in the valueof xandy,soplotting

of same point twice is not possible.

⮚This method gives overflow indication

whenapointisrepositioned.
⮚It is an easy method because each step involves justtwoadditions.

Computer Graphics(CSE305) 16

Disadvantages ⮚ It involves floating

point additions rounding off is done. ⮚ Accumulations of round off error cause

accumulation of error.

⮚ Rounding off operations and floating point operations consumesalotoftime.

⮚ It is more suitable for generating line using the software. ⮚ But it is

less suited for hardware implementation.

 Computer Graphics(CSE305) 17

BresenhamAlgorithm
⮚ An accurate and efficient raster line-generating algorithm,
developedbyBresenham

⮚ In Dispaly Screen Coordinate system ,the vertical axis show-scan-linepositions,

and the horizontal axis identify pixel columns.

⮚ Sampling at unit x intervals in these examples, we needtodecidewhichoftwo

possible pixel positions is closer to the line path at eachsamplestep

⮚ For lines with positive slope less than 1 (m<1) : ⮚ Pixel positions along a line
path are then determinedbysamplingatunitx intervals.

⮚ Starting from the left endpoint (x0, y0) of a given line, ⮚ we step to each
successive column (x position) and plot thepixelwhosescan-line y value is
 closest to the line path.
Computer Graphics(CSE305) 18

Pixel positionandlines Computer Graphics(CSE305) 19

Pixel positionandlines
yk+1

yk

xk xk+1

Computer Graphics(CSE305) 20
Computer Graphics(CSE305) 20

display line onscreen

BresenhamAlgorithm
⮚ Assuming we have determined that the pixel
at (xk, yk) is to be displayed,

⮚ we next need to decide which pixel to plot in

column xk+1

⮚ Our choices are the pixels at positions (xk

+1,yk ) and (xk+1,yk+1).

BresenhamAlgorithm
⮚ At sampling position xk+l , we label
vertical pixel separations from the
mathematical line path as d1, and d2
(Fig. 3-8).
⮚ The y coordinate on the mathematical line at pixel column position
xk+l is calculated as

� = �. (�� + �) + �

⮚ Then we calculate the  d1, and d2

�� = � − ��
After putting the value of � ,
               �� = �. (�� + �) +� −��
Computer Graphics(CSE305) 23

BresenhamAlgorithm
⮚ And d2 we can calculate as ,
�� = (�� + �) − �
⮚ After putting value of y, We get:
�� = (�� + �) − �. (�� +�) −�

⮚ The difference between these two separations is

�� − �� = �. (�� + �) + � − �� − {(� � +�) −�. (��+�)

−�}= + + � − �� − �� − � +++�= ��. �� + �� + �� −
��� − � �� − �� = ��(�� + �) + �� − ��� − �

⮚ m is nothing but slop and it gives us float value so

eliminatemfromaboveequation
Computer Graphics(CSE305) 24

CalculatePk
⮚ by substituting m = AyIAx, where Ay and Ax are the vertical andhorizontal
separations of the endpoint positions, and defining:
 ⮚ At step k + 1, the decision parameter is evaluated from

Computer Graphics(CSE305) 25

BresenhamAlgorithm
⮚ Substract the equation 4 from 3 to calculate decision parameterforallpixel,
pk + 1
- pk= 2Δ� . �� + 1 − 2Δ �. �� + 1
 -2� . ��+2�. ��
pk + 1
- pk= 2Δ� (�� + 1 − �� ) − 2Δ �. (�� + 1 − ��)

⮚ Where �� + 1 = xK + 1

is either 0 or 1, depending on the signof parameter

⮚ where the term yk+1 - yk pk. ⮚ The
at thestartingpixel
first parameter, p0, is evaluated from Eq of PK position (xo, yo) and

with m evaluated as Δy/Δx:

Computer Graphics(CSE305) 26

BresenhamAlgorithm
 Computer

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Mid-Point Algofor circle

⮚ Properties of Circles : circle is defined as the set of
points that are all at a given distance r from a center
position (x,, y,) (Fig. 3-12)

⮚ Pythagorean theorem in Cartesian coordinates as, � 

(� − ��)� + (� − ��)� = �

⮚ calculating the corresponding y values at each position

 
as, � = �� + �� − (�

−��)�

⮚ One problem with this approach is that it

involves considerable computation at each step.

⮚ the spacing between plotted pixel positions is not

uniform⮚ Above method involves multiplications and square root calculations
Computer Graphics(CSE305) 28

Mid-Point Algofor circle

⮚ Another way to eliminate the unequal spacing shown inFig. 3-13istocalculate
points along the circular boundary using polar coordinatesrandѲ
⮚ Computation can be reduced by considering the symmetryof circles. ⮚ The shape
 of the circle is similar in each quadrant.
Computer Graphics(CSE305) 29

Midpoint Circle Algorithm

⮚ we sample at unit intervals and determine the closest pixel
positiontothespecified circle path at each step.

⮚ use a decision parameter to determine which of the two possibleypositionsis

closer to the circle path at each step.
⮚ If the point is in the interior of the circle, The circle

function is negative.
⮚ if the point is outside the circle, the circle function is positive.
 Computer Graphics(CSE305) 30

Midpoint Circle Algorithm

⮚ Thus circle function is the decision parameter in the midpoint algorithm,and
we can set up incremental calculations for this functionaswedidinthe line
algorithm.

⮚ we have just plotted the pixel at (xk, yk),

⮚ we next needs to determine whether the pixel at position(xk +1, yk)ortheone at

position (xk + 1, yk - 1) is closer to the circle.

⮚ We have to calculate mid point

⮚ Midpoint: { (xk + 1
)+(xk + 1)
 2,yk+ (yk − 1)
, yk- 12)
2} = (xk + 1

⮚ Our decision parameter is the circle function 3-27 evaluatedat

themidpointbetween these two pixels:
�� � � 
�� = (�� + �) + (�� − �) −�
Computer Graphics(CSE305) 31

Midpoint Circle Algorithm⮚ If p < 0, k

is
this midpoirat is inside the circle and the pixel onscanlineyk closer to the circle
boundary.

⮚ Otherwise, the midposition is outside or on the circle boundary, andweselect the

pixel on scan line yk - 1.
⮚ We can obtain a recursive expression for the next
decisionparameterbyevaluating the circle function at sampling position x k+1
+1=xk +2.

⮚ From Pk equation to find pK+1

� � � � 
��+� = (�� + � + �) + (�� + � − �) −�
 
⮚ Difference in decision parameter can be calculated as � } -{(�� +�)� +(��
 
−��)�−�� }

��+� − �� = {(�� + � + �)� + (�� + � −��)� − � ⮚ After simplifying

the above requation ,
Computer Graphics(CSE305) 32

Midpoint Circle Algorithm

��+� = �� + (�� + �) + {(�� + �)� − (��)�}-(�� + � −��) +1⮚ At
each xk position, starting at k = 0, performthe followingtest: Test1:
⮚ If pk ˂ 0, the next point along the circle centered on (0,0) is (xk+1, yk)and��+�
= �� + ��� + �
Test 2
⮚ Otherwise , the next point along the circle is (xk + 1
, yk - 1) and
��+� = �� + ��� + � + � − ��� + � where 2xk+1,= 2xk + 2 and 2yk+1,=
2yk- 2 ⮚ The initial decision parameter is obtained by evaluating the
circlefunctionat the start position (x0, y0) = (0, r ): put xk=0 and yk=r �
� � 
� ) −�
�� = (� + �)� + (� −

�  �
� − � = � −�
�
� 
�� = � + � − � +
Computer Graphics(CSE305) 33

Steps for Midpoint CircleAlgorithm

 Computer Graphics(CSE305) 34

Steps for Midpoint EllipseAlgorithm

 Computer

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Steps for Midpoint EllipseAlgorithm

 Computer

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Antialiasing
⮚ Definition:
“Displayed primitives generated by the raster algorithms have a jagged, orstairstep,
appearance because the sampling process digitizes coordinatepintsonanobject to discrete
integer pixel positions. This distortion of informationduetolow frequency sampling
(undersampling) is called aliasing.”

⮚ Antialiasing is a technique used in computer

graphics to remove the aliasing effect.

⮚ Undersampling occurs when sampling is done

at a frequency lower than Nyquist sampling
frequency.

⮚ This minimum required frequency is referred to as Nyquist samplingfrequency(fs):fs

=2*fmax

Computer Graphics(CSE305) 37
 Methods of Antialiasing(AA)
⮚ Four methods:
1. Using high-resolution display,
2. Post filtering (Supersampling),
3. Pre-filtering (Area Sampling),
4. Pixel phasing.

⮚ Post filtering (Supersampling),

⮚ we are increasing the sampling resolution by treating the screenasif it’smadeof a much

more fine grid, due to which the effective pixel size is reduced.⮚ Now, intensity from each
subpixel is calculated and average intensityofthepixel is found from the average of
intensities of subpixels.

⮚ Thus we do sampling at higher resolution and display the imageatlowerresolution or

resolution of the screen, hence this techniqueiscalledsupersampling.

⮚ This method is also known as post filtration as this procedureisdoneaftergenerating

the rasterized image.

Computer Graphics(CSE305) 38

Methods of Antialiasing(AA)
 Computer Graphics(CSE305) 39

Methods of Antialiasing(AA) ⮚ Pre-

filtering (Area Sampling):
⮚ In area sampling, pixel intensities are calculated proportional to areas of overlapofeach pixel
with objects to be displayed.
⮚ Here pixel color is computed based on the overlap of scene’s objectswithapixelarea.

⮚ For example: Suppose, a line passes through two pixels. The pixel
coveringbiggerportion(90%) of line displays 90% intensity while less area(10%)
coveringpixeldisplays 10-15% intensity.

⮚ If pixel area overlaps with different color areas, then the final pixel color istakenasan average
of colors of the overlap area.

⮚ This method is also known as pre-filtering as this procedure is doneBEFOREgenerating

the rasterized image.

⮚ It’s done using some graphics primitive algorithms.

Computer Graphics(CSE305) 40

Methods of Antialiasing(AA)
 Comput

er Graphics(CSE305) 41

Methods of Antialiasing(AA)
⮚ Pixel phasing:
⮚ It’s a technique to remove aliasing.

⮚ Here pixel positions are shifted to nearly approximate positionsnearobject

geometry.

⮚ Some systems allow the size of individual pixels tobeadjustedfordistributing

intensities which is helpful in pixel phasing.

Computer Graphics(CSE305) 42

FILLED-AREAPRIMITIVES
⮚ Area filling is a method or process that helps us to fill anobject, area,orimage.
We can easily fill the polygon.

⮚ A polygon can be defined as a shape that is formed by linesegmentsthatare

placed end to end, creating a continuous closed path.

⮚ two basic approaches to area filling:

1. by determine overlap intervals of scan line 2. start from given
interior postion and filling outword

⮚ Algorithms
1. Scan Line Polygon Fill Algorithm 2. Boundary-Fill Algorithm 3. Flood-
Fill Algorithm

Computer Graphics(CSE305) 43
 1. Scan Line PolygonFill Algorithm
⮚ For each scan line crossing a polygon, the area-fill
algorithmlocatestheintersection points of the scan line with the polygon
edges.

⮚ These intersection points are then sorted fromleft to right

⮚ The corresponding frame-buffer positions between eachintersectionpairare

set to the specified fill color.
 Frame buffer:
10 14 18 24

Computer Graphics(CSE305) 44

1. Scan Line PolygonFill Algorithm⮚

Some scan-line intersections at polygon vertices require special handling.

⮚ A scan line passing through a vertex intersects two edges at that position,adding
 two points to the list of intersections for the scan line.

⮚ For scan line y, the two intersecting edges sharing a

vertexareonoppositesides of the scan line.

⮚ But for scan line y'

, the two intersecting edges are both abovethescanline.

⮚ If the endpoint y values of two consecutive edges monotonicallyincreaseor

decrease, we need to count the middle vertex as a singleintersectionpoint for
any scan line passing through that vertex.

⮚ Otherwise, two edge intersections

Computer Graphics(CSE305) 45

1. Scan Line PolygonFill Algorithm

 Computer
Graphics(CSE305) 46

1. Scan Line PolygonFill Algorithm

⮚ One way to resolve the question as to whether we shouldcount avertexasone
intersection or two is:
⮚ to shorten some polygon edges to split those vertices that shouldbecounted as one
intersection.

Computer

Graphics(CSE305) 47

2.Boundary-Fill Algorithm
⮚ Another approach to area filling is to start at a point insidearegionandpaint
the interior outward toward the boundary.
 ⮚ If the boundary is specified in a single color, the fill
algorithmproceedsoutward pixel by pixel until the boundary color is
encountered.

⮚ A boundary-fill procedure accepts as input the coordinates of aninteriorpoint (x,

y), a fill color, and a boundary color.

⮚ Starting from (x, y), the procedure tests neighboring positions

todeterminewhether they are of the boundary color.

⮚ If not, they are painted with the fill color,

Computer Graphics(CSE305) 48

2.Boundary-Fill Algorithm
⮚ two methods for proceeding to neighboring pixels fromthecurrenttestposition.

1. 4-Connected. 2. 8 connected Computer

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For 8 connectedpixel
 Computer Graphics(CSE305) 50

2.Boundary-Fill Algorithm
 Computer
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3.Flood-Fill Algorithm
⮚ Sometimes we want to fill in (or recolor) an area that is not definedwithin a single
color boundary.

⮚ We can paint such areas by replacing a specified interior color insteadofsearching

 for a boundary color value.

⮚ This approach is called a flood-fill algorithm.

Comp

uter Graphics(CSE305) 52

Inside-OutsideTests
⮚ Area-filling algorithms and other graphics processes
oftenneedtoidentifyinterior regions of objects
 ⮚ two methods are used
1. Odd-even rule, also called the odd parity rule or the evenoddrule• If the
number of polygon edges crossed by this lineisodd, thenPis an interior point.
Otherwise, P is an exterior point.

2. Nonzero winding number rule

• which.counts the number of times the polygon edges
windaroundaparticular point in the counterclockwise direction.
• This count is called the winding number
• Each intersected Edge goes
– Right ----> Left && Top -----> Bottomthenconsider+1– Left ---->
Right && Bottum ----> top thenconsider-1Computer Graphics(CSE305) 53

Inside-OutsideTests
 Computer
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