Information Technology

Chapter Objectives
Information Technology has changed manifold in last two
decades. To remain competitive, organizations need to keep
pace with these changes in computing and computing and
communication technologies which are the main constituents of
Information Technology from a historical perspective starting
from the critical days to the current trends.
Basic objectives of the chapter is to:
-Introduce what computers are
-Understand how computers evolved
-Learn how computers are categorised into broader
classifications
-Understand the complete architecture of a computer
-Understand various components of a Computer
-Appreciate the role of software and different types of software
-Understand broader steps required in software development
and implementation
-Understand emerging trends in the world of computers

Introduction
Twenty-first century is the century that is driven by Information
Technology. People have already started experiencing the new
ways of living and working. Technology has started playing a vital
role in our lifestyle; the way we work, the way we communicate,
the way we shop, the way we enjoy, all has dependence on
Information Technology. The key to succeed in this Information
Technology environment is to manage the information, which is
the most vital resource. The only way one can take advantage of
and manage the immense available information is through
proper understanding of how computers work and through the
ability to use computers. Most people believe that the ability to
use a computer is a basic skill necessary to succeed in life and to
function effectively in society.
This chapter will help you to join the information age by learning
the definition and characteristics of computers and computer
systems. Even if on does not have a home computer or use a
computer at workplace, computers are still being used in one
form or other. Many of the routine activities in today’s society
are being performed by computers. For example, when we plan
our holiday-rail/plane seats are often reserved by computers;
many of the bills we pay (electricity, telephone, insurance, etc.)
are calculated and printed by computer. In many countries
computers are used in many more areas like traffic control,
space research, hospitals, etc. There are three basic concepts
that one needs to know in order to be able to think sensibly and
talk intelligently about computers in today’s technology driven
society – what are computers? What can they do? How can one
communicate effectively with computers?
But first of all, what do the terms ‘Computers’ and ‘Computing’
mean. Obviously computing has something to do with reckoning
or calculation, but man has been using his brain to do his brain to
do just that for centuries. The Egyptians built the pyramid;
whoever built Stonehenge left a calendar which can still
accurately predict eclipses; and even radio and television were
invented-all without computers! What is so special about them
that we need computers today? It cannot simply be because that
they are calculating devices. We have many form of such devices
– the Abacus (still used in the Far East), pocket and desk
calculators, even POS (point of sale) at the supermarket –all of
which are cheaper and easier to use than computers. So why was
the computer invented?
The scientists and researchers found that this machine can be
used for many other applications other than the fast calculating
machine. Real need was felt during World War II and slowly the
computers have moved from scientific laboratories to offices,
homes, schools, and are now an integral part of every day life.
After number of research results, a computer named ‘ENIAC’ had
a formal dedication ceremony on 15 th February 1946. The
problems which early computers had to solve were mostly
mathematical. Today, the computers are used to forecast the
weather, to operate machines, to cut shapes out of sheet metals,
and even guide spacecraft to the moon, etc. They can set and
print newspapers and bools. They can be used to help in
diagnosing diseases and to find obscure documents in archives
and elusive criminals on the run. Companies use them for
accounting, invoicing, stock control, payrolls, research and
development and business intelligence, etc.
The original objective for inventing the computer was to create a
fast calculating machine. But in over 80 per cent of the
computing today, the applications are of a non-mathematical or
non-numerical nature. To define a computer merely as a
calculating device is to ignore over 80 per cent of its work. If not
as a calculating device, then how can we define a computer?
Basically all computers act upon information –in computing
terminology, this is called ‘data’.
What is a computer system? A computer system is an electronic
device that operates under the control of a set of instructions
that is stored in its memory unit.
A computer accepts data from an input device and processes it
into useful information which it displays on its output device.
Actually, a computer system is a collection of hardware and
software components that help to accomplish many different
tasks. Hardware consists of the computer itself, and any
equipment connected to it. Hardware includes all of the
physical, tangible parts of a system – such as central processing
unit, memory, display devices, storage media, and printer, etc.
Software is the set of instructions for controlling the hardware
devices, instructing computers to transform data into
information and many other information processing tasks.
Hardware and software in a computer system are tightly
integrated; software drives the hardware, which in turn provides
the computational tools. A typical Computer system is shown in
the figure below.
Evolution of Computers
The history of computers goes back to 500 BC, when the
ABACUS, a device of counting beads and string was used to do
calculations. The abacus is still widely used in many countries,
but do not offer long-term storage of information. In 1614, John
Napier developed Logarithm Tables, which provided the
methods by which multiplication and division could be achieved
through addition and subtraction. In 1620, William Oughtred,
developed the ‘Slide Rule’ based on the concept of logarithms.
Both these inventions were widely used until the development of
small electronic calculators in late 1960s.
Two other important developments that took place in the
Seventeenth Century, were the production of a mechanical
calculator –Pacaline by Blaise Pascal in 1642 and more powerful
calculator by Gottfried Leibnitz in 1694. This calculator could
perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division and
was called the Leibnitz Wheel.
In 1832, Charles Babbage, thought of building a general purpose
computing machine and planned for ‘Analytical Engine’, a steam
driven calculator which was able to perform calculation upto 60
decimal digits, and to handle any type of mathematical problem.
The inputs to these machines were based on punched cards.
Charles Babbage has defined the path for the modern digital
computers, because the Analytical Engine was built around the
same five components (input, control, store, Arithmetic and
Logic Unit (ALU) and Output) used in modern digital computers.
Hence, he is known as the Father of Modern Computer Science.
His disciple, a brilliant mathematician, Lady Augusta Ada,
developed the binary number system for Babbage machine. She
is considered to be the first programmer in the world, and the
programming language ADA is named after her. In 1890, Herman
Hollerith developed the punch card tabulator to analyse data. In
1954, the English Mathematician, George Boole, developed two
stage Algebra called Boolean Algebra, which is binary in nature.

The first digital Computer (Z1) using binary arithmetic and

program use control was built by Konrad Zuse of Germany in
1935. This was a mechanical machine. After that Z2 machine
using electromagnetic relays was developed. In 1943, Harvard
University, in conjunction with IBM, produced their Mark I
Computer based on Electromagnetic Relays. During 1943-46,
John William Mauchly and J.P. Eckert, developed the first large
general purpose computer at the university of Pennsylvania, the
‘ENIAC’ –the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer.
Developments followed rapidly, but perhaps the next most
significant event was the production of a paper in 1945. John
Von Neumann who introduced the concept of stored program
use control, included the following architecture:
-An Arithmetic and Logic Unit handles mathematical and logic
operations
-A Control Unit directs the proper sequencing of a computer’s
instructions.
-An internal, or primary memory, temporarily holds data and
program.
-Input and Output devices move into and from the computer
systems.
-An Outside recording, or secondary storage devices,
permanently hold data and program.
The above architecture led to the design of ‘EDVAC’ –The
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer. In the
meantime, Maurice Wilkes at Cambridge University had
developed ‘EDSAC’ - The Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
Computer. EDSAC became operational in 1949 and was the first
machine to have an operating system. From that started the era
of the first generation computers.

In 1951, John Mauchly and J P Eckert formed their own company

to create a commercially usable general purpose computer, the
UNIVAC I. It was the first general purpose computer designed
specifically for business data processing applications. In the late
1950s, both Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at
Fairchild Semiconductor discovered that registers, capacitors,
and transistors could be made from the same same semi-
conductor material at the same time. Any number of transistors
could be etched on Silicon and thus the integrated circuit was
born and refined. It was also during the same time that the
integrated circuit was christened as ‘chip’.
Gene Amdahl’s revolutionary IBM System /360 series of
mainframe computer was also introduced in the 1960s. They
were the first general purpose digital computers using integrated
circuit technology. Coupled with the commercial success of
computers, miniaturisation, which had come through various
technological innovations, led Ken Olsen and his Digital
Equipment Corporation (DEC) to produce first commercial
minicomputer.
In 1970, Intel created a memory chip that could store a kilobit of
information. Another innovation at Intel came from Ted Hoff,
who further improved the integrated circuit by compressing 12
chips into four. The arithmetic and logical functions of several
chips could be contained on one chip called a microprocessor.
The microprocessor, known as Intel 4004 made the development
of a small computer a possibility. However, this chip could
handle only four bits of data at a time. Eventually eight-bit
microprocessor chips were developed and were used in early
microcomputers.
The earliest microcomputer, the Altair 8800, was developed in
1975 by Ed. Roberts, called the father of microcomputers. This
computer used an early Intel microprocessor and has less than 1
k of memory.
At the same time super computers were being developed. In
1976 Seymour Cray’s Cray-I supercomputer was delivered to Los
Alamos Scientific Laboratory in New Mexico, and a control Data
Corporation CYBER-205 was used by the Meteorological Services
in the United Kingdom for weather forecasts.
The market for software was also growing. In 1974, Bill Gates
and Paul Allen developed Microsoft BASIC, a high-level language
for microcomputers and later went and developed the most
popular DOS operating system.
In 1981, IBM presented their first personal computer, using 16-
bit microprocessor. This introduction helped legitimise the
microprocessor’s use in business.
Adam Osborne introduced a truly portable microcomputer in
1981, the Osborne I. It could be manufactured in just over an
hour’s time, using only 40 screws to put together the easy-to-
find parts. By 1984, the IBM PC had become the industry
standard with hundreds of companies designing software for it.
Another benchmark in the microcomputer revolution was the
introduction of the Apple Macintosh in the early 1980s. The
Macintosh was visually oriented, and its mouse made it
remarkably easy to use.
In 1986, the Compaq Deskpro 386 Computer, the first to use the
powerful 32-bit Intel 80836 microprocessor, was introduced. In
1987, IBM introduced its new line, the PS/2 series, which was
based on a new architecture called micro channel architecture.
Apple made its move into the business world with the
introduction of Macintosh II Computer. Microsoft Corporation
also introduced a new operating system for the microcomputers’
multitasking techniques. In 1988, IBM introduced a major new
series of mainframes for business users called the AS/400 series.
In 1989, Intel introduced 25 MHz 80486 chipset and Apple
introduced new Macintosh Portable.
The decade of 90s was full of inventions and introduction of new
technologies from leaders like Microsoft, Intel, Apple, IBM etc.
with substantial browsing. By the end of the century and the
beginning of the new century, AMD came up with 1 GHz
Operating system market with Windows OS and launched
Windows 2000. In 2002, Apple introduced iMac with flat panel
screen. Microsoft launched Windows Vista in 2007.
Technical Evolution of Computers: Over time, computers have
changed a lot; they have improved in speed, power and
efficiency. These changes are recognised as a progression of
generations, each characterised by specific developments.
Generations of computers and their characteristics are given
below:
First Generation –Vacuum Tubes (1939-1959) The first
generation computers were powered by thousands of vacuum
tubes. The Z1, Z3 and UNIVAC I was like vacuum tubes and were
large because of the massive number of tubes that were
required. The tubes themselves were very large in size similar to
the size of electric bulb. They required energy, and in turn
generated much heat. First generation computers were very
slow, consumed huge amount of power with poor reliability and
low accuracy.
Second Generation (1959-1965): The second generation
computers were made of transistors. Transistors controlled the
flow of electricity through the circuits. The use of transistors was
a breakthrough in technology that allowed computers to become
physically smaller and more powerful, more reliable and even
faster. The transistor was developed at Bell Labs in 1947 by
William Shockley, J Bardeen, and W.H. Brattain.

Transistors were less expensive and smaller, required less

electricity, and emitted less heat than vacuum tubes. In addition,
fewer transistors were required to operate a computer; they
were not as fragile as vacuum tubes, and lasted longer. Because
the components were substantially smaller, the size of the
computer itself could be reduced considerably. These computers
used magnetic core as main memory and card readers and
printers for input and output. Some examples of the second
generation computers are:
-IBM 70, 1400, 1600 Series
-Honey well 400 800 Series
-Burroughs B 5000, 200 Series
-GEC’s GE 645, 200 Series
-UNIVAC’s Univac III
Third Generation –Integrated Circuits (1965-1971): Third
generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs). Integrated
Circuits were also smaller, more efficient, and more reliable as
compared to vacuum tubes and transistors. Memory technology
was improved and by 1969 as many as 1,000 transistors could be
built on a chip of silicon.
The concept of operating system was introduced which meant
that human operators were no longer required and processing
could be done at computer speeds rather than human speeds.
Another phenomenon that was introduced in this generation
was that of families of computers. As a result, the same program,
could be used with other computers of the same family.

Third generation computers used secondary storage devices,

such as magnetic tapes and magnetic disks, which are located
outside the computer. The use of faster input /output devices
contributed to the enhanced utility of these computers for multi-
programming, wherein a number of programs could be used
simultaneously by a single computer. Some of the third
generation computers are:
-IBM 360, 370 Series
-PDP -8 Series
-UNIVAC 1108, 9000 series, etc.
Fourth Generation –PCs and VSLI (1971-1991): Fourth
generation is the generation of Large-Scale Integration (LSI) of
chips with several thousand transistors and microprocessors
(based on Very –Large-Scale-Integration). The development of
VLSI made the development of the microcomputer possible; this
was followed by the Intel series of microprocessors. Application
programs for microcomputers were developed which allowed
home and business users to adapt computers for word
processing, spreadsheet, file handling, graphics, and much more.
The VLSI allowed lakhs of transistors to be placed on one chip.
The Ultra Large-Scale Integration (ULSI) allowed over 100 million
transistors embedded on a single chip.

Fifth Generation –Artificial Intelligence and Internet (1991 till

date): The fifth generation computers are more intelligent and
have high ‘thinking’ power and capacity to take decisions. The
concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI) is being used in these
computers and the processors used are known as ‘knowledge
Processors’. Automatic programming, computational logic,
pattern, recognition, and control of robots are the processes,
which require skill and intelligence. These are some of the
applications of Artificial Intelligence. Although expert systems
are already being used for specialised applications, true artificial
intelligence or computers that can think, are still concepts of the
mind. Grand Scale Integration (GSI) happened, which allowed
over thousand million transistors to be embedded on a single
chip. The GSI, allowed the computer to perform teraflop (trillion
floating point processing per second) of data. Fifth generation
also introduced the concept of parallel processing, which was
necessary for AI to happen.
Another important facet of the fifth generation is evolution of
Internet for business applications. World wide web developed
and the first internet browser called Mosaic was introduced.
Mobile Technology revolutionised this era

Classification of Computers
Computers are available in different shapes, sizes, processing
capacities, and weights. Oqing to these different shapes and sizes
they perform different types of jobs and have different
functionalities. A computer that is used in a home differs in size
and shape from the computer being used for business purpose.
Here, we are going to introduce different classifications of
computers one by one. However, the categorical distinctions
among these groups are becoming blurred as technology
progresses. Today, many of the new, smaller machines have the
characteristics and capabilities of the larger machines of
yesterday.
In addition to relative computing power, other factors are also
used to categorise computers and these are:
1. Architecture: Architecture refers to the design of the
computer circuits. It includes the number and type of
central processing units. Architecture also includes the
number and size of the processing registers.
2. Processing speed: It is the number of instructions that a
computer can process per second. It is usually measured in
millions of instructions per second (MIPS). An instruction
specifies the computer operation to be performed and the
data to be used. Generally, the higher classification, the
 more MIPS the computer will have and the faster it will
process data.
3. Primary storage: The amount of primary storage that the
CPU can access and use is also important.
4. Secondary Storage: Generally, the higher the computer
classification, the larger will be the capacity of the
secondary storage device. Secondary Storage permits
permanent permanent storage of instructions and data.
5. Output speed: Typically this factor describes the speed at
which output can be printed. Generally, the larger the
system, the faster the output devices will be.
6. Multi-User: The number of users that that can
simultaneously access the computer is also an important
factor.
7. Cost: Price is usually a reflection of the power of a
computer system. Therefore, the higher the classification,
the larger the price tag will tend to be. The price of a
computer also depends on the options that are purchased.
It is very difficult to exactly draw a line of demarcation
between categories of computers. We have tried to define
here the characteristics expected out of these categories of
computers.

The largest computers are supercomputers. They are the

most powerful, the most expensive, and the fastest. They
are capable of processing trillions of instructions per
second.
Examples of users of these computers are governmental
agencies, the National Weather Departments, the Defence
Agency, etc. The Cray Supercomputer is nicknamed
‘Bubbles’, because of its bubbling coolant liquids. Cray
Supercomputers, the first of which was invented by
Seymour Cray, now maintains 75 per cent of the
supercomputer market. Supercomputers are required for
tasks that require mammoth data manipulation. Multiple
CPUs are used in these computers to achieve high
processing speed. High storage densities are achieved by
using magnetic bubble memories and charge couple
devices. The other computers in this category are CRBER
810 and 830, Appro Xtreme –XI, and NEC SX3.

Large computers are called mainframes. Mainframe

Computers process data at a very high rates of speed,
measured in millions of instructions per second. They are
quite expensive, and truly powerful. Mainframe are
designed for multiple users and process sizeable data
quickly. Banks, Insurance Companies, manufacturers, mail-
order companies, and airlines are typical users of
mainframe computers. Mainframes often act as ‘servers’ –
computers that control the networks of computers for large
companies.
Microcomputer is another category of computers that can
be divided into two groups-personal computers and
workstations. Workstations are specialized computers that
approach the speed of mainframes. Often microcomputers
are connected to networks of other computers. Almost all
the computer users are familiar with the personal
computers. This is the computer mostly preferred by the
home users. These computers are cheaper and have all the
functionalities of a computer required by the home users.

Another classification of computer is notebook computer. A

notebook computer can fit into a briefcase and weighs less
than a kilogram, yet it can compete with the
microcomputer. A larger, heavier version is called a laptop
computer. Notebooks generally cost more than
microcomputers but can run most of the microcomputer
software and are more versatile. Like other computers,
notebook computers are getting faster, lighter and more
functional.

The smallest computer is the handheld computer called a

personal digital assistant or a PDA. PDAs are used to track
appointments and shipments as well as names and
addresses. PDAs are called pen-based computers because
they utilize a pen-like stylus that accepts hand-written input
directly on a touch sensitive screen. You have probably
noticed delivery employees using these gadgets.

Computer Architecture

We have been using the term computer as if it refers to a

single electronic device, but computers are actually
composed of many electronic and electro mechanical
devices. Combination of all these electro-mechanical and
electronic devices are referred to as Computer Hardware.
But hardware, by itself is useless. Hardware must be
directed by information processing instructions, called
computer software.

When people refer to a computer, they are manually

referring to a set of hardware and software systems used as
a single unit. It is more appropriate to use the phrase
‘computer System’. A wide variety of computer systems
exist. The common link of all these computer systems is
however, that they are composed of the same basic set of
hardware and software components.

The basic structure of a computer system consists of five

parts. These five parts are found in one form or another, in
every digital computer, whether it is a main frame
computer system used by an insurance company to keep
track of its premiums, or a personal computer that is used
for simple business applications. The five main constituents
of a computer system are:

1) CPU i.e. Central Processing Unit –This is where the actual

computing is done. The CPU usually controls all the
operations of the computer.
2) Memory –An electronic storage medium used to hold the
program