ENG1001 Course Notes

WEEK 1. LOAD PATHS,

STRUCTURAL FORMS
AND LOADS
Revised January 2020
 ENG1001 Course Notes
Week 1: Introduction and Loads

Table of Contents
1.1. LOAD PATHS AND STRUCTURAL FORMS ........................................................ 1.3
1.1.1. Outline and Introduction ..................................................................................... 1.3
1.1.2. The concept of a load path .................................................................................. 1.3
1.1.3. How do structures carry loads? ........................................................................... 1.4
1.1.4. Structural Form #1 - Beams ................................................................................ 1.6
1.1.5. Structural Form #2 - Cables ................................................................................ 1.6
1.1.6. Structural Form #3 - Arches ............................................................................... 1.7
1.1.7. Structural Form #4 - Trusses............................................................................... 1.9
1.1.8. Structural Form #5 – 3D Structural Forms ......................................................... 1.9
1.1.9. Modelling of Structures .................................................................................... 1.11
1.2. LOADS ..................................................................................................................... 1.13
1.2.1. Outline and Introduction ................................................................................... 1.13
1.2.2. Types of Loads .................................................................................................. 1.13
1.2.3. Classes and magnitudes of loads....................................................................... 1.15
1.3. SUMMARY .............................................................................................................. 1.19

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 ENG1001 Course Notes
Week 1: Introduction and Loads

1.1. LOAD PATHS AND STRUCTURAL FORMS

1.1.1. OUTLINE AND INTRODUCTION

Before we can analyse a structure, we must understand how the forces move through it.
Structures can be classified into different structural forms, each carrying the load in a different
way.

After working through this Chapter and watching the online videos and attending the associated
workshops and practical classes you should be able to:

 discuss a range of structural forms, both for two dimensional and three dimensional
structures
 sketch the load path for a given load on a given structural form.
 divide a two dimensional structure into a series of members and joints to enable it to be
mathematically modelled

1.1.2. THE CONCEPT OF A LOAD PATH

For a structure to be successful it must carry the applied loads through to the support along a
load path, maintaining equilibrium at every point along the way. One of the skills you should
work at is recognising the load path in a structure.

Consider your current situation sitting in a chair.

1. The load (your weight) acts on the seat of the chair

2. The seat carries the load to the chair legs
3. The legs push down on the floor which transfers the load to the walls
4. The walls carry the load to the footings
5. The footings carry the load to the earth

So the load path is seat-legs-floor-walls-footing-earth. If any part of this load path is not
present, then the structure will fail to carry the load (it will collapse).

For any situation you must be able to trace the

load path from the point of application of the
load, to the ultimate reaction (usually the earth).
It may be useful to think of a structure as a tree.
A bird lands in a tree. The load goes through the
Reaction leaf to the twig to the branch to the trunk to the
earth. This is an analogy for a structure.

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Activity
Consider yourself sitting on a bicycle. Trace the load path from your backside to the ground.
Now start pedalling - this introduces new loads. How are these transferred to the ground?

1.1.3. HOW DO STRUCTURES CARRY LOADS?

Consider again the example of the load path when you sit on a chair.
1. The load (your weight) acts on the seat of the chair the seat carries the load by bending.
2. The seat carries the load to the chair legs the legs carry the load by axially compressing.
3. The legs push down on the floor which transfers the load to the walls the floor carries
the load by bending.
4. The walls carry the load to the footings the walls carry the load by axially compressing.
5. The footings carry the load to the earth the footings and earth carry the load by
compressing.

There are four load paths - two which involve bending and two which involve axial
compression. Bending and axial compression are called the structural actions. All load paths
can be described as one of four types:

All structures on earth can be considered to carry their loads in a combination of these four
ways.

1. When the load acts directly along the axis of the members of a structure, a structure
carries its load by shortening or lengthening - either in tension (pulling) or in
compression (pushing). Tensile axial loads cause the member to lengthen, compressive
axial loads cause the member to shorten.

2. When the load causes an applied moment about an axis perpendicular to the length of
the member, a structure carries its load by curving. Moments can be applied directly to
a member, or more commonly they occur when loads act transversely to the member.
They cause the members to curve, and they set up internal bending moments in the
member.

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 ENG1001 Course Notes
Week 1: Introduction and Loads

3. When the load acts transversely to the members of a structure, a structure carries its
load by distorting. This sets up internal shear forces in the member. As we shall see,
shear forces and bending moments are very closely related.

4. When the load causes an applied moment about the axis of the members of a structure,
a structure carries its load by twisting. This type of applied moment will be called a
torque. This structural action will not be dealt with in this unit.

Our next task is to see how these types of load paths are combined to give different structural
forms.

Activity
When you are sitting on a bicycle, what structural action occurs in each of the members which
make up the load path? The alternatives are axial compression or tension, bending moment,
shear or torque.

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1.1.4. STRUCTURAL FORM #1 - BEAMS

Beams are the most common type of structural form, and in this unit we deal mostly with
developing mathematical models to predict the strength and stiffness of beams. Beams divert
a load, thus creating an open space beneath them,

As we have seen, this causes curving of the beam - in this case the top of the beam gets shorter
and the bottom gets longer.

1.1.5. STRUCTURAL FORM #2 - CABLES

Cables are far more efficient than beams - the same amount of material will carry a much
greater load. The problem, however, is that a cable only works in tension, and so the load must
be in line with the cable. Thus cables are not as useful, and hence not as popular, as beams.
The most famous examples of cable structures are suspension bridges, where the main cable
supports many hanger cables,

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Week 1: Introduction and Loads

Another form is the cable stayed bridge (like the Westgate bridge in Melbourne) where the
cables connect directly to the deck.

Cables have the unique property that the shape of the cable changes as the load changes, so
that the cable always carries tension only.

Because cables change shape to suit the load (always carrying the load by tension and never
by bending moment, shear or torque), we give cables a special name - funicular structures. We
will use the concept of funicular structures later in this course.

1.1.6. STRUCTURAL FORM #3 - ARCHES

An arch carries load by compression. It is helpful to think of the arch as the opposite of a cable,
because a cable carries its load by tension.

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Arches have an additional complication when compared to cables. Because the arch is in
compression, the arch wants to buckle. For this reason, an arch can never be as slender as a
cable. To prevent buckling an arch needs to have some bending stiffness. Because an arch has
bending stiffness it cannot change shape to suit the load, as a cable does.

For a given load there is one particular shape of arch which would carry that load by pure
compression in the arch, and this is the most efficient arch shape for that load. This shape is
the funicular shape. The easiest way to find the funicular shape is to put the load on a cable,
and see what shape the cable takes up (this will be pure tension). Flip that shape upside down
and you have the shape of an arch that carries the load by pure compression.

When the shape of an arch is not the correct funicular shape for a given load, the arch will carry
the load by a combination of compression and bending moment. The further away the shape is
from the funicular shape, the more bending moment there will be in the arch.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vTFwTDSYVWI.

Video Link 1: This video discusses how the different structural forms we have discussed so far
can be used to build bridges in different situations.

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Week 1: Introduction and Loads

1.1.7. STRUCTURAL FORM #4 - TRUSSES

A truss can be thought of as a particular type of beam, where all the inner workings of the beam
are exposed. Trusses divert a load, in the same way that beams do, thus creating an open space
beneath them. The truss curves like a beam (with the top in compression and the bottom in
tension for the example below).

The unique thing about a truss is that while the truss as a whole curves, each individual member
carries its load by tension or compression. Therefore, individual members get shorter or longer
(with no curving), but this causes the truss as a whole to curve.

1.1.8. STRUCTURAL FORM #5 – 3D STRUCTURAL FORMS

Beams, cables, arches and trusses are all two dimensional structural forms. They are useful
because when engineers develop mathematical models of real structures we treat them as a
series of repeated two dimensional structures joined together to form a three-dimensional
structure. This makes them easier to analyse and easier to build. None the less, there are times
when a structure is truly three dimensional - a load is dispersed along load paths which exist in
all three dimensions. We will look briefly at some of these.

Slabs and Plates

When a beam is extended into the third dimension it becomes a slab, or a plate. These bend in
two directions at the same time.

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Nets or Membranes
When a cable is extended into three dimensions a net is created if the cables are kept discrete.
If the cables merge together to from a continuum, a membrane is created. Nets and membranes
form some of the worlds most unusual but exciting structures. Because of the efficiency of the
structure (carrying the load in pure tension), these structures can cover very large areas with
very light structures.

Munich Olympic Stadium. Otto/Behnisch (1972)

Shells and Domes

When an arch is extended into three dimensions a shell or dome is created. Like all three-
dimensional structures, shells and domes provide many alternative load paths for any applied
load, and by dispersing the load paths through the structure, thinner and more elegant structures
are possible with three dimensional compared to two dimensional structures.

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Week 1: Introduction and Loads

Space Frames
When a truss is extended into three dimensions a space truss or space frame is created. These
can span large distances because the load is dispersed through many load paths.

Folded Plates
A folded plate is an uncommon three dimensional structure, but it illustrates well the
importance of shape in determining the strength and stiffness of a structural form. A flat sheet
of paper is useless as a beam, but when folded into a series of peaks and valleys it becomes
very much stiffer and stronger. This principle has been used to create long span concrete roofs.

Activity
Think of examples of beams, cables, arches and trusses that you are familiar with. Try to
understand why the engineer has used these structural forms.

1.1.9. MODELLING OF STRUCTURES

Two Dimensional Structural Forms
To create a mathematical model of a structure we need to divide the structure up into a series
of linear members. The members are joined together at nodes. Certain of the nodes will be
restrained against movement - these are the supports. Other nodes are left free to move as the
structure deforms. There is no limit to the number of nodes that can be used when dividing up
a structure, however a node must be provided at the following positions:

 At every point where the structure is supported

 Everywhere that the structure changes direction

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 Everywhere that a member changes shape or size

Two story building frame – 12 members

The process of modelling a two dimensional structure by dividing it up into a series of members
is called discretising the structure - ie modelling it as a series of discrete members.

Three Dimensional Structural Forms

Models of three dimensional structural forms are created by dividing the structure up into a
series of elements. These elements can be plates, shells etc. This process is more complex than
for two dimensional structures, and will not be dealt with in this unit.

The process of modelling a three dimensional

structure by dividing it up into a series of elements
is called discretising the structure – i.e. modelling it
as a series of discrete elements.

Figure 1: Discretising a 3D object – 21 elements

Activity
Where ever you are now, reading these notes, trace the load path from you to the ground. What
structural forms make up that load path?

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 ENG1001 Course Notes
Week 1: Introduction and Loads

1.2. LOADS

1.2.1. OUTLINE AND INTRODUCTION

Loads (forces) on structures are classified on the basis of how they are applied to the structure
(the type of load) and what their cause is (the class of load). Values have to be selected for the
magnitude of these loads. How do we do that?

After working through this unit and watching the online videos and attending the associated
workshops and practical classes you should be able to:

 classify loads by type and class

 calculate values for dead and live loads
 Understand the limit state basis of structural design

1.2.2. TYPES OF LOADS

All structures support loads. Your chair supports itself plus your weight. The floor supports
you and the chair as well as itself.

In order to design a structure, ie the individual beams, columns, trusses etc., you must be able
to quantify the loads acting on them. This unit helps you get started.

For calculation purposes, loads are treated as:

 Point loads (forces)

 Uniformly distributed loads (forces spread along a length or over an area), or
 Applied moments.

Point load (or concentrated load)

A point load is a load that can be considered to be acting at a single point, eg. the load of a
person sitting on a beam. On a diagram of a structure we represent a point load by an arrow.

Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)

A UDL is a load with a constant magnitude along a structural member, eg a shelf supporting a
number of food cans (total weight = 1 kg) along a length of 500 mm.

Load = 1 kg/0.5m = 2 kg/m = 20 N/m (taking g = 10 m/s2).

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Or a beam supporting a number of sitting people! The most common UDL is the self-weight
of a structural member like a beam. This is usually expressed in units of kg/m (mass) or kN/m
(weight).

Applied Moment
As well as transverse forces (point loads or distributed loads), beams can be subjected to
applied moments. Consider two people pushing on the beam shown. There is no net force
applied to the beam (the two horizontal forces cancel out), rather there is an applied moment
trying to rotate the beam about the point of application. An applied moment can be represented
by a curved arrow. In 3 dimensional analysis, applied moments are sometimes represented by
a double headed arrow. The direction of the arrow gives the direction of the applied moment
in accordance with the right hand screw rule.

An applied moment is a bending or a twisting action. It most commonly is caused by another

element of the structure.

Consider a sign board under vertical load. The applied moment M on AB due to the weight of
the sign, M = W x d. This moment acts about an axis at right angles to the page, as shown.

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 ENG1001 Course Notes
Week 1: Introduction and Loads

Activity
Look around you. What would you treat as a point load acting on the floor, and what would
you consider as a UDL? (Don't forget the weight of the floor itself).

1.2.3. CLASSES AND MAGNITUDES OF LOADS

Structures are loaded in many different ways. For example, earthquake load or wind load might
destroy a structure that has safely withstood its own weight and the weight of its occupants for
many years.

So already we can list four types of loads:

 Earthquake loading
 Wind loading
 Dead load (the self weight of the structure)
 Live load (the load associated with the normal use of a structure (e.g. people and
furniture in a building, cars on a bridge)

There are many other types of loading, eg. earth pressure, liquid pressure, thermal loading,
snow loading. In this unit we will only discuss dead load and live load.

Dead Load
This is perhaps the easiest load to calculate, and the one whose value we are the most certain
about. The dead load of a bridge can be obtained by calculating the volume of all of the
materials used in the bridge, and multiplying by the density of the materials. Densities of two
common materials are:

density of concrete 2400 kg/m3 = 24 kN/m3

density of steel 7850 kg/m3 = 78.5 kN/m3

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Week 1: Introduction and Loads

A small problem is this;

In order to design the bridge you need to know how much it weighs (the dead load), but you
do not know how much it weighs until you have designed it! Therefore all design must begin
with an estimate of the size, shape, and density of the structure so that the dead load can be
estimated. This requires experience, and the ability to learn from similar structures that are
already completed.

Example
Let us decide that the bridge will be made of concrete. Each bridge beam (a beam spans from
pier to pier) will be 30 metres long, 1.5 metres deep, and 0.7 m wide.

3 3
Volume of one beam = 30 x 1.5 x 0.7 = 31.5 m density of concrete = 2400 kg/m

Therefore, mass of one beam (dead load) = 31.5 x 2400
 = 75,600 kg
 (= 75.6 tonnes)


Weight of one beam = 75,600 x 9.81 Newtons (say x 10) = 756 kN

OK, we have a number, but how confident are we about that value? For example, concrete is a
variable material, our concrete may weigh 2200 kg/m3, or worse, it may weigh 2600 kg/m3, in
which case our bridge will have a greater load than we have designed for.

All load calculations involve uncertainty, and so we can use the principles of probability to
control the risk that we take when we choose a value for a load. Most data samples approximate
to a Normal (Bell) Distribution Curve. This curve is symmetrical about the mean/average, and
the standard deviation (σ) is used to indicate the degree of spread of values from the mean. In
a normal distribution curve, 68% of values occur within (mean ± σ) and 90% of values occur
within (mean ± 1.65σ). Accepted practice is to choose a value for the density that only has a
5% chance of being exceeded (i.e. (mean + 1.65σ)). Therefore, on average, 1 design in 20 will
have assumed a material density less than that of the actual material used.

This value is called the CHARACTERISTIC DEAD LOAD.

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Dead load probability density curve

Live Load
The calculation of live load is more uncertain than the calculation of dead load, but a similar
principle applies. Think of the case of a domestic house. How much should we allow for the
live load (ie people and furniture)? This obviously varies very much from house to house, and
yet when you are designing the house you cannot know how much 'stuff' the people will put
into it. The large variation in live load values means that the live load probability density curve
spreads further than the dead load one - the standard deviation is higher.

Live load probability density curve

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Week 1: Introduction and Loads

With live loads, the accepted practice is to choose a value of the load that has a 5% chance of
being exceeded once in 50 years. 50 years is chosen, because that is the design life of most
buildings. This is called the CHARACTERISTIC LIVE LOAD.

There is an Australian Standard which recommends values for the characteristic live load for
many situations - take a look at it if you are interested, it is in the library. It is Australian
Standard AS 1170.1-2002 Part 1: Structural design actions—Permanent, imposed and other
actions.
Some characteristic live load values from the standard are:
2
 Domestic Houses: 1.5 kPa (150 kg/m )
2
 Car Parks: 3.0 kPa (300 kg/m )
2
 Offices: 3.0 kPa (300 kg/m )
2
 Grandstands: 5.0 kPa (500 kg/m )

Activity
Visit the library or try online and find the location of Australian Standards. Locate AS1170.1-
2002. Look at the live loads for different situations, and compare values.

Load Factors
We now have a rational basis for choosing values for the dead and live loads:

 Dead load: choose a characteristic value for the density that only has a 5% value of
exceedance.
 Live load: choose a characteristic value of the load that has a 5% chance of being
exceeded once in 50 years

Should you design your structure for these characteristic values? If you do, then on average
one structure in 20 will be designed for less than its actual dead load, and one structure in 20
will receive more than the design live load during a 50 year period. There would be structures
collapsing everywhere! To maintain an acceptable level of safety, we apply load factors to the
characteristic dead and live load. These vary depending on the circumstances, and the limit
state that we are designing for.

Video Link 2: Dead and live loads.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PnGINjO9Ljc

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 ENG1001 Course Notes
Week 1: Introduction and Loads

Limit States
When we design a structure we must think of a 'checklist' of things to design for, e.g.

 Is it safe against collapse?

 Will it deflect too much?
 Will it vibrate annoyingly?
 Will it withstand a fire?

These different conditions are called 'limit states'. If, during its lifetime, the limit state of
'collapse' is exceeded, the consequence will be severe - loss of life usually. If the limit state of
'deflection' is exceeded the consequence is not so great - people may not feel comfortable, or
cracking might occur. Because the seriousness of the consequences varies, the acceptable risk
of exceeding the limit state varies also. This variation in risk is achieved by using different load
factors for different limit states.

For example, the load factor for the limit state of collapse (commonly called an ultimate limit
state) is typically in the range 1.2 to 2. This reduces the chance of the design load being
exceeded from 1 in 20 to say 1 in 100,000. The load factor for the limit state of deflection
(commonly called a serviceability limit state) is often less than 1.0 With this limit state we are
concerned about 'average' rather than 'extreme' load events. Using a load factor less than 1.0
will increase the chance of the design load being exceeded from 1 in 20 to say 1 in 5 or 1 in
10.

Activity
Consider the following list of structures
 Your house/flat/hall of residence
 Monash University lecture theatres
 Military communication headquarters
 Houses of parliament
 Football grandstand
 Hospital

 Carport

As a designer would you design each structure to have the same probability of collapse? Rank
the structures in order of importance and if a carport has value 1.0 allocate a relative factor of
safety that you as the designer, would use for each structure.

1.3. SUMMARY
1. The main types of loads are point loads, uniformly distributed loads, and applied
moments. A point load is a load that can be considered to be acting at a single point. A

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 ENG1001 Course Notes
Week 1: Introduction and Loads

uniformly distributed load (UDL) is a load with a constant magnitude along a structural
member. an applied moment is a bending or twisting action applied at a single point.

2. Dead loads and live loads are the two main classes of loads. There are many other
classes (wind, thermal, ...) Dead load is the self weight of the structure.
 live load is
the load associated with the normal use of a structure.

3. Characteristic values for loads are determined based upon an acceptable risk of
the design load being exceeded. The characteristic load is the value that has 5%
probability of being exceeded.

4. Limit states are a 'checklist' of conditions to design for (collapse, deflection, ...)

5. The design loads are different for the different limit states. This is achieved by
multiplying the characteristic load by different load factors. Load factors are
applied to change the probability of the load being exceeded.

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