Introduction To Business Communications

Business Management
Study Manuals
Certificate in
Business Management
INTRODUCTION TO
BUSINESS
COMMUNICATIONS
The Association of Business Executives

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© Copyright, 2008
The Association of Business Executives (ABE) and RRC Business Training
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Certificate in Business Management
INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Contents
Unit Title Page
1 The Process of Communication 1

Introduction 2
The Communication Cycle 2
Barriers to Communication 5
Overcoming the Barriers 7
Forms of Communication 9
2 Principles of Effective Communication 23

Introduction 24
Planning 24
Acquiring and Organising Information 27
Structuring Communications 45
The Importance of Clarity 49
3 Written Communication 55
Introduction 57
Writing Business Letters 57
Memoranda 74
Using E-Mail 77
Using and Designing Forms 80
Writing Notices 89
Writing to Persuade 92
Internal Company Documents 94
4 Oral and Non-Verbal Communication 101

Introduction 102
Basic Skills of Oral Communication 102
Using the Telephone 108
Face-to-Face Encounters 111
Non-Verbal Communication and Personal Presentation 133
Non-Verbal Communication and the Physical Environment 137
Design and Presentation in Written Communication 139
5 Communicating with Customers 143

Introduction 144
Dealing with Customers on the Telephone 144
Meetings with Customers and Clients 148
Listening to Customers 150
Dealing with Enquiries 153
Supplying Information to Customers 156
Unit Title Page
6 Communication within Organisations 159

Introduction 160
The Role of Communications in Organisations 160
Communications Systems 163
Management Styles 170
The Layout of the Office 171
7 Technology and Communications 173

Introduction 174
An Introduction to the Technology 174
Technology and Communications 186
1
Study Unit 1
The Process of Communication
Contents Page
Introduction 2
A. The Communication Cycle 2

Basic Elements of the Cycle 2
B. Barriers to Communication 5
Key Components 3
Barriers Caused by Sender and Recipient 5
Barriers Caused by Outside Influences (Noise) 7
C. Overcoming the Barriers 7

Defining the Purpose 7
Knowing When and How to Communicate 7
Understanding the Receiver 8
Personal Communication Skills 9
D. Forms of Communication 9
Message, Medium and Channel 9
Types of Written and Oral Communication 10
Written Communication 10
Oral Communication 13
The Characteristics of Written Communication 15
The Characteristics of Oral Communication 17
Using Written and Oral Communication 18
The Importance of Non-Verbal Communication 20
© ABE and RRC

2 The Process of Communication
INTRODUCTION
Communication is something we do all the time, mostly without thinking about it. In
business, though, thinking about it is very important because all forms of interaction between
people and companies are built and maintained through some form of communication. It is,
therefore, vital that communication is effective and the messages between firms and their
customers and clients, and those between workers in the same organisation – especially
between management and staff – are clear and properly understood.
This course is essentially practical – to help you be effective in your communication. Before
we get into the detail of what makes, say, an effective letter or telephone call, though, we
need to examine some underlying principles about the process of communication itself.
Understanding these will enable you to take account of all the various components of the
process when designing your own communications. You need to be particularly aware of the
barriers to effectiveness which arise from these components, and the ways in which you can
try to ensure that they do not affect your communication.
In this first unit, we shall also take an overview of the three main media through which
communication takes place – the written word, the spoken word and non-verbal forms.
A. THE COMMUNICATION CYCLE

Communication may be defined as:
"the imparting, conveying or exchange of information, ideas or opinions by the
use of speech, writing or graphics."
Basic Elements of the Cycle

In any communication process there are three basic elements, though, as we shall see, there
are many other components within this which go to make up the whole of the process. The
three fundamental ones are: the message itself; the receiver's understanding of it; the
receiver's response to it.
A sender sends a message to a receiver in such a way that the receiver is able to understand
it. Note also the way in which the cycle is completed by the element of feedback from
receiver to sender. This element is not always there, but is a key part of the process since, at
the very least, it provides the means of acknowledging receipt and understanding.
This is rather a simple view of the process, however, and the study of communication has
identified a number of further components within this basic cycle. These are crucial to its
success or failure. The following diagram outlines these additional components – look at it
carefully before going any further.
Encoding Decoding
Sender Channel/medium Audience
message message
Feedback to sender if possible or appropriate
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The Process of Communication 3
Key Components
Probably the easiest way to understand how communication works is to define each of the
key terms shown in the diagram and build these definitions back into a complete picture of
the process as a whole.
(a) Information
This is the raw material of the communication – the actual data which it is intended to
convey to the recipient or receiver. Although it is usually called "information", it does
not have to be simply factual. It may be an opinion or an idea, or a combination of fact
and opinion.
(b) The sender
The sender is the body responsible for passing on the information. Although it is most
usually an individual, it can also be a group of people, such as a committee or a
company.
(c) Encoding
This is the process by which the sender puts the information into a form suitable for
sending.
 Usually, this will be language, either spoken or written.
 In some cases, such as non-verbal communication or "body language", it could
be a gesture or sign.
 In others, such as advertising, it could be a photograph or film with an
accompanying slogan.
The way in which the information is encoded is crucial to the correct understanding of
the message by the recipient. Indeed, so important is this that the key element in
encoding is working out the best way for the receiver to understand the information and
then putting it into that form.
(d) The message
Once the information is encoded, it is known as the message. It contains the meaning
that the sender wishes to convey to the receiver.
(e) The medium
The medium is the larger group of communication instruments within which the
message belongs. Generally speaking, there are three main media:
 written communication;
 oral (spoken) communication; and
 visual communication.
(f) The channel
This is the physical means by which the message is communicated:
 for written communication, a postal service or a notice-board;
 for oral communication, a personal interview or telephone system;
 for visual communication, a drawing, photograph or film.
(g) The aim
The aim is the main reason why the act of communication has been undertaken. There
are generally three chief aims:
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 To inform
This is the desire to supply factual information, or an assessment or judgment of the
value of an item or product.
 To influence
This is the desire to persuade the recipient to adopt a particular idea or possible course
of action.
 To initiate action
This is the desire to make the recipient respond by performing a particular task.
Within an organisation, all three aims are often present as part of any individual act of
communication.
It is important to be clear about the overall aim of the communication because this can
affect the way the information is encoded and the media and channels used to convey
the message.
(h) The recipient
This is the person or people to whom the message is directed – an individual, a group
(such as a committee or a firm), or even, as in the case of an advertising campaign, a
specific target group among the general public.
(i) Decoding
This is the process by which the recipient interprets the meaning of the message. Note
that this may or may not be the same as the interpretation originally intended by the
sender – the result of this process is what the recipient understands the message to
mean.
Some understanding of this part of the process by the sender is very helpful because it
can influence the way the information is encoded and the media and channels used to
convey the message.
(j) Feedback
Feedback is the name given to the information the sender derives from the way in
which the recipient reacts to the message. From it, the sender can decide whether or
not the message has achieved its intended effect. However, feedback properly refers
only to indirect reactions of the recipient rather than any message sent in return. It is
thus up to the sender to watch the recipient's response carefully, to look out or "scan"
for such reactions when it is possible for them to be directly observed, for example in a
personal interview.
(k) Motivation
Although it is not shown in the diagram, motivation is a crucial element in
communication. It is the urge or desire to achieve a purpose, alter a given situation, or
satisfy a need. If motivation is strong, it is likely that communication will be effective.
These are the principal elements in the cycle of communication. They are completed when
the process is reversed and the recipient communicates in response to the sender's original
message.
There are, then, many elements involved in the communication process and this makes it
more complex than you may initially have thought. The number of elements means that
there is a lot that can go wrong.
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B. BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Any system which involves the exchange of information, especially when the information is
complex and the distance over which it is exchanged is large, has to overcome many
barriers. These may be divided into two kinds, i.e. those which are found within the sender
and the recipient, and result in part from a difference in attitude or experience between them;
and those which result from outside influences in the communication process.
Barriers Caused by Sender and Recipient

When you are thinking about these, don't forget that they are only very rarely created
deliberately by either party. More often they arise from incomplete understanding of the
information, the situation, or the vocabulary and attitudes of the other party.
(a) Distortion
Distortion is a process which occurs either at the stage of encoding or decoding the
message. It comes about when the information is put into a form which does not
express its true nature in a way that the recipient can fully understand.
We all believe that language is shared by everyone, and that we all use the same
words to express ideas; but this is often far from true. Sometimes we succeed, quite
unintentionally, in offending another person by saying something which was "taken the
wrong way" or interpreted as an insult instead of a compliment.
Distortion in communication can lead to incorrect understanding of the message, or
only partial comprehension of its meaning, by the recipient.
 Where the distortion arises at the encoding stage, the sender is responsible.
This is by far the most likely source of the problem, since every effort must be
made to frame the message in a way which the receiver can understand.
 Distortion at the decoding stage may arise where the recipient is not paying the
necessary attention or interprets the message in a way which the sender could
not have anticipated. In such cases, the failure of the communication is the
responsibility of the receiver.
It could be the result of lack of concentration in either party, or perhaps even that the
ideas are so complex that clear, complete expression of them is very hard to achieve.
The latter is often the case when a specialist in a technical field tries to address a non-
specialist audience: there is no common language for discussing very complicated
ideas, and so the communication fails. However, there are ways in which barriers at
encoding and decoding can be avoided, as a later section will make clear.
(b) Inadequate communication skills
Communication skills are the abilities to send and receive messages clearly and
effectively, with no possibility of misunderstanding. They include the ability to express
ideas clearly in writing, in language suitable to the intended recipient and the intended
purpose of the communication. They also include the ability to read; not only to read
words on a page, but to interpret signs and symbols of all kinds – such as body
language – which are presented in a communication exchange.
A major barrier to communication is created when one or the other party fails to
possess the necessary communication skills. Messages are incorrectly encoded, or
encoded in the wrong medium: alternatively, they may be misread and fail to have their
intended effect.
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(c) Lack of listening ability

The ability to listen is an essential ability for all of us. Unless we have it we are unable
to understand what is going on around us, with potentially disastrous results. In the
study of communication, however, it is even more important to be able to "listen".
The term is used to include the ability to work out the way in which somebody is
responding to an item of communication, with the same meaning as the term to "scan"
for feedback.
 Unless the sender can listen, he or she will be unable to discover the real
response of the recipient.
 Unless the recipient can listen, he or she will fail to grasp the true significance of
the message.
This, then, is another cause of communication breakdown.
(d) Attitudes
All of us have certain attitudes towards daily life which have been produced by our
education, environment and general experience. If they are extreme, they are called
prejudices. Whatever their form, they can distort our awareness of messages in
communications and thus hamper the communication process. Attitudes to moral
questions, and those induced by different cultural backgrounds, are obvious examples,
of the ways in which people may differ. Anyone who wishes to communicate
effectively, therefore, must try to be aware of both his or her own attitudes and those of
the intended recipient, otherwise a further barrier may appear.
For communication to be successful, the attitudes of the people involved must be
positive towards each other. Negative, unco-operative or hostile attitudes will always
create a serious barrier to communication.
(e) Incorrect information
As well as the more complex barriers discussed above, there is one which is more
straightforward but just as disruptive: the fact that the information may simply be
wrong. You could argue that, if incorrect information is successfully transmitted, a
successful communications exchange has been achieved. However, this is only a
short-term view, since the mistake will probably be discovered, and will have to be put
right. This will undermine the recipient's trust in the sender, and may create a barrier in
attitude which can hold up effective communication in later exchanges.
(f) Other barriers
There are three more general elements which can act as barriers to communication.
 Perceptual bias occurs where the recipient has "selective hearing" and selects
what they want to hear. This can result in the wrong message being received.
For example, smokers may see the warning message on cigarette packets but
the message may not be transmitted because a barrier is created which enables
smokers to select only favourable messages about smoking.
 Information overload can occur if the recipient of the message receives too much
information, or information which is too technical. For example, if customers are
given too much technical information about a product the result is that they will
probably not remember or understand the key messages being communicated.
 Contradictory non-verbal messages can occur if the person encoding a message
says one thing but their body language says something else. For example, if a
sales assistant asks if s/he can help you but then yawns and gazes out the
window when you speak, this creates a communication barrier between you.
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Barriers Caused by Outside Influences (Noise)

Noise is the name given to features of the setting in which the communication takes place
which interfere with the accurate transfer of information. In literal terms, it can be physical
noise, such as heavy traffic, constantly ringing telephones or people talking to you while you
are reading a letter. It can also refer to other kinds of interference such as a poor telephone
connection or unreadable photocopying.
The physical environment within which a communication takes place can be very significant,
depending on the circumstances. For example, shops take a lot of trouble over the right
decoration and lighting to ensure they make the right impression on potential customers and
if they get it wrong, it may affect sales. Similarly, the surroundings in a doctor's surgery may
affect the effectiveness of communication between doctor and patient. Think about the
layout and decoration of the reception area to your workplace or other firms' offices – how
does it make you feel even before any form of communication with the receptionist has
begun?
C. OVERCOMING THE BARRIERS

Many of the most important barriers to communicating may be overcome by following a few
simple rules.
Defining the Purpose

Ask yourself what the purpose of this communication is – what are you trying to achieve?
This must be the over-riding consideration. You must make sure that the message achieves
its purpose.
Think carefully about what you want the recipient to do in response to your communication.
 Are you trying to change an attitude, or ask for an order for goods?
 Are you simply trying to find out what he or she thinks, or asking for advice?
Defining exactly the response you are seeking can help a great deal, especially if you put
yourself in the place of the recipient and ask whether you would respond in the way you
want if you were faced with the letter or memo you plan to send. This is always a good
exercise to perform before sending off a written communication, or before adopting a
particular approach in oral communicating.
People in business – from shoppers to senior managers – rarely have time to waste on non-
essential matters. As a result, it pays to make sure that you know exactly how much you
need to convey in your communication. Knowing what not to say is almost as important as
knowing what to say – so cut out all material which is not central to your intentions. This is
really another way of saying that you must define your purpose carefully and exactly.
Knowing When and How to Communicate

It is no use writing a long and complicated letter to a member of a large organisation unless
you know that this person is the one responsible for making the decisions involved. If you
write to the wrong person, or contact him or her in another way, you will only waste time for
both of you. Worse still, you may give an impression of inefficiency, which will bode ill for
future communication, or annoy the firm involved. Always make sure, then, that you are
communicating with the right person.
This also applies to "crossed lines" – the kind of situation where both parties think that the
other is someone else. Such a mistake can cause all kinds of misunderstandings, so do
make sure that you contact the right person.
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Judging the right moment to make a communication is often important in business. Some
people deliberately write letters so that they will arrive on a Friday, when people are
supposed to be feeling happy with the prospect of the coming weekend. In a business
context, making telephone calls first thing in the morning when the recipient is still dealing
with the mail would probably be a mistake.
On a different level, tackling your employer in the corridor when you want to ask him or her a
complicated favour is probably not a good idea.
Choosing the moment for a communication, both in terms of its psychological rightness to the
person involved and in relation to patterns of trade, such as the seasons for ordering
particular kinds of goods, is thus a very important way of avoiding barriers of attitude in the
recipient or noise in the external circumstances.
For some situations, a written communication is essential: for others, it would be too formal
and restricting. Always think carefully about the best kind of communication medium for a
particular situation and recipient.
 It may be simplest to make a phone call, but would a personal visit be more effective?
 A letter has the advantage of being permanent and on record, but is there any
guarantee that the recipient will act upon it?
These are the kind of questions you need to ask yourself when thinking about beginning the
communication process.
Understanding the Receiver

This is the single most important rule for effective communications. We have seen how
distortion may occur at encoding when insufficient care is taken by the sender over meeting
the needs of the recipient. In all forms, the more you know about your target audience the
easier it is to avoid barriers to communication.
By considering how a communication might be received you are more likely to shape a
message that will not be misinterpreted or misunderstood. In other words, the more you plan
to shape the message and consider the effect it might create, the more likely that the
communication will be successful and achieve what you want it to.
Of prime importance is the purpose of your message – how do you want the recipient to
react? You need to consider the best way of achieving that response by using language
appropriate to the purpose, as well as to the recipient's own vocabulary, background and
attitudes.
One way is to think carefully before encoding messages in order to give the full message and
not leave gaps that could leave people to make the wrong assumptions. Accuracy and
precision in the message are important if it is to be decoded correctly. Successful
communication occurs when the barriers of prejudice, bias and unsuitable language are
avoided and the information is transmitted using the most appropriate channel in line with the
needs of the recipient. Avoid jargon or technical words that may not be understood and try to
avoid ambiguity.
It is always important to understand the relationship between the sender and the receiver.
Most effective business communication is based on credibility – the receiver needs to feel
comfortable with the message, to trust in it (and, therefore, the sender). An understanding of
an audience's needs should mean that you are able to have the same "mental picture" of the
subject of the communication.
Issues of status between the sender and receiver can also be relevant – the way in which
something is said or written may be interpreted differently if the sender is in a superior
position.
© ABE and RRC

Following these rules will not guarantee perfect communication on every occasion. There
will be times when external "noise" and internal "distortion" will still erect barriers, and times
when straightforward disagreement or even failure is the outcome of attempts to
communicate. However, if you strive to follow these rules on all occasions, you will find that
communicating becomes far more effective as you learn to consider the other person's point
of view and assess the real purpose of what you are trying to achieve.
Remember, too, that the purpose behind being aware of the theoretical elements of
communication is that you can attempt to avoid the problems and the pitfalls of
communication in practice.
Personal Communication Skills

This is one of the simplest ways in which communication may be improved. Communication
skills cover the ability to write clear English so that a meaning is expressed directly and
without ambiguity. They also include the ability to talk to a wide range of people in formal
and informal situations to achieve a range of purposes.
More important, perhaps, are the skills that are often neglected. These include the range of
reading skills which are needed for the correct understanding of information and to these we
must also add the ability to listen and understand, so that the speaker knows that you are
sympathetic and aware of what he or she is saying. A simple awareness of these abilities –
particularly the last – as skills which can be developed will help you a great deal in improving
your communication at a business and also a personal level.
D. FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
Message, Medium and Channel
You will remember that, when we were looking at the communication cycle above, we used
these three terms above to describe the ways in which information was transferred during the
communication process. These three elements are closely interrelated but they do still
describe different aspects of the process.
 The channel is the physical means by which the information is conveyed.
 The medium refers to the nature of the expression of the information – whether it is
written, spoken or visual.
 The message is the piece of information itself, however it is encoded.
Obviously the last of these three is the most important since the message is the very
essence of the communication process but you can see for yourself that it doesn't matter
how good the message is if the means of transmission is poor or the language used is hard
to understand.
Clarity is essential and this means more than just writing grammatically and spelling correctly
(although both of these do help). It means choosing the right medium and, within that, the
most effective form for the information you want to convey.
In this section we shall principally be concerned with verbal communication – in its written
and oral (spoken) forms. We shall also look at the non-verbal communication and the part it
plays in the communication process. But first we shall consider the various forms that written
and oral communication can take.
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Types of Written and Oral Communication

Table 1.1 sets out the main forms of business communication in roughly their order of
complexity. Obviously it's difficult to be hard and fast about this since much will depend on
the size of your organisation and the particular circumstances existing at the time.
Think of them as a handy reminder to enable you to learn the various possibilities quickly and
to jog your memory as to the range of possibilities.
Written Oral
Informal note Unplanned encounter

Memorandum (usually called a Planned, informal talk
"memo")
Letter Meeting of individuals
Form or questionnaire Job interview
Written telephone message Appraisal interview
Notice Disciplinary interview
Report Persuasive interview
Press release Telephone call
Training and procedure document Group meeting (including briefing
meeting)
Committee meeting
Full staff/workers meeting
Formal lecture or presentation.
Table 1.1: Types of Written and Oral Communication
We shall briefly review the role of each of these types of communication in the following
sections.
Written Communication
(a) Informal notes
An informal note would be sent to a close working colleague to communicate an item of
information very quickly.
Its advantage lies in the speed with which it can be written, and in the fact that it can
be left in a prominent place for the recipient to see when s/he returns to his/her place of
work.
It does, however, have several disadvantages.
 Because it is usually written quickly, extra care has to be taken over expression
and handwriting.
 Because it has to be left where the recipient will see it, it may not be confidential.
 Because it is handwritten, there will most probably not be a copy for the sender to
keep.
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 Because it is left for the recipient to read on his/her return, there is no guarantee
that it will be read soon after it is written.
(b) Memos
The memo is a more formal note sent to a working colleague. Generally typed, it has
the advantage that a copy will be kept by the sender. As it is usually very short,
though, it has the disadvantage that little explanation can be given for the point made
or the instruction given. It is suitable for communicating short, simple pieces of
information, but its value is strictly limited.
Some organisations also use a longer memo. This has the advantage that it allows
more detailed explanation, but the disadvantage that its length may discourage the
recipient from understanding and implementing – or even reading – the full text. The
advantage of expressing a point in full depth in writing has to be balanced against
potential resistance on the part of the recipient. Possible alternatives would include a
telephone call or personal meeting.
Increasingly, E-mail is being used in organisations for both informal notes and memos.
This has the advantage of being more private and also more immediate.
(c) Letters
Letters are used to communicate with people outside the company or organisation.
The great advantage of letters is that they can convey a number of points clearly in
writing, and that the sender can keep a copy. They are cheap when compared with the
obvious alternatives – telephone calls or personal meetings – and they are confidential,
especially if the envelope and contents are prominently marked to indicate this.
The disadvantages of letters are that they may be misinterpreted, as may any written
form of communication, and that they do not allow for complex ideas to be discussed –
it is only possible for a letter to put forward suggestions. For this reason, you would
probably need a series of letters for a full exchange of ideas and this could take up
several weeks. Under such circumstances a personal meeting might be much more
efficient as a means of communication.
Although letters are normally used to communicate with people outside an
organisation, there is sometimes a case for writing a letter to an employee of the
company, where personal matters or issues of confidentiality or discipline are involved.
(d) Forms and questionnaires
The great advantage of these documents is that they allow information to be gained
from a large number of people in a standard format, which makes it much easier for the
data to be brought together and interpreted or acted upon.
There are, however, many disadvantages to them.
 Many people find forms very difficult to complete. For this reason great care is
needed in their design, since a poorly worded question may fail to elicit the
required information.
 Forms also allow little opportunity for the expression of personal attitudes and
individual differences, so many people are reluctant to complete them.
Alternatives to forms include:
 requests for information to be supplied in letter or report form;
 questions asked in person; and
 enquiries by telephone.
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The first of these causes problems because many people dislike writing letters; the
second because it is expensive and time-consuming; and the third because many
people understandably dislike giving information to an unknown voice over the
telephone. In such cases, you will have to decide which method will be the most
effective for your purpose.
(e) Written telephone messages
These are usually recorded on a pre-printed form, giving details of the caller, purpose
of call and action required of the recipient.
The advantages are that the information that the call has taken place is conveyed and
that short simple messages can be transmitted effectively.
The disadvantages are that if the message is taken by someone who doesn't know
the caller or understand the nature of his business, information may be written down
wrongly. In addition, there is no real guarantee for the caller that his message will ever
reach its destination at all.
At best, though, it would be fair to say that they do provide a written record and that at
least an attempt at communication has been made.
(f) Notices
Notices are a clear and direct form of communicating items of importance to larger
numbers of people within an organisation.
They have the advantages of visual impact – if properly designed – and of saving time
and money in making a large number of separate communications to individuals.
Their disadvantages arise mainly from the fact that people may get out of the habit of
looking at noticeboards if they become cluttered and overcrowded.
(g) Reports
Reports can take many forms, ranging from a single page to a bound book of a
hundred or more pages. Their value lies in providing an accurate and full examination
of a particular event or situation.
Their disadvantages include:
 their sheer bulk, which may discourage people from assimilating them;
 the time and cost involved in their compilation;
 the fact that, because of their depth, they may reach no clear overall conclusion;
 their tendency to show bias in their interpretation of data and recommendations
about action compared to other forms of communication – although this is
something which professional communicators would be fully aware of and strive
hard to avoid.
There are no effective alternatives to reports, though they may take various different
forms in details of presentation. Oral presentations may supplement written reports,
but it is unlikely that they can convey data in equivalent depth or clarity so that the
recipients can fully assimilate it.
(h) Press releases
The press release is used to pass on a piece of information to a newspaper or group of
newspapers. Its advantage is that the data it contains is conveyed in the language of
the company, which should minimise incorrect or inaccurate reporting. The alternative
– a press interview – is often less effective unless the interviewee is skilled and
experienced in dealing with reporters.
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(i) Training and procedure documents

Since these represent a form of reference, they must be available in printed form. In
this lies their chief merit; they present a consistent policy or stance with regard to
certain recurrent features of company life which make them an authority in cases of
dispute. The alternative – verbal issue of policies or procedures – is liable to
inconsistency between individuals. Their disadvantage, however, is that if they
become long and complex they are liable to be ignored by employees, which
undermines the structure of the firm and the workers' morale.
Oral Communication
(a) Unplanned encounters
Oral communication in this situation tends to suffer from a lack of control, as we might
expect. This can lead to a failure to communicate the desired information or, at worst,
to the creation of anger or resentment in the recipient. In consequence, you should
use unplanned encounters only for the communication of routine or uncomplicated
information, and leave more complex and sensitive issues for transmission under
circumstances over which the sender has more control.
(b) Planned informal talks
The advantage here is that the sender has more control over the encounter, which
should ensure more efficient transmission of information. An alternative would be a
telephone call, although this would lack the essential directness of personal contact.
(c) Meetings of individuals
This is a slightly more formal encounter, which will often take place between members
of different organisations.
The advantages are those usually associated with personal encounters, such as
flexibility of response to the views of the other individual and the possibility of
discussion leading towards a clear conclusion.
Disadvantages include the lack of a record in writing, but this is usually supplied
immediately after the encounter by a letter or brief report.
(d) Interviews
Interviews may have various purposes – selection, appraisal, the disciplining of an
employee or persuasion, for example in an attempt to secure a contract or sale. Each
needs careful and thorough preparation from both participants.
The advantages of such encounters are the same as those given for meetings of
individuals.
Disadvantages include the fact that, because a high degree of skill in scanning for
feedback is required in both parties for a successful outcome to be achieved, totally
effective interviews are rarely accomplished.
Despite this, however, personal interviews remain very important elements of business
communication, for which no real alternative has been found.
(e) Telephone calls
These have the advantage of speed and immediacy.
They have the disadvantage that all the other signals which form part of a personal
encounter, such as body language and gesture, are absent. There is also the problem
that a call may come at the wrong time for the recipient, which may interfere with the
communications process.
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Alternatives include letters, memos (for internal communications) and personal

encounters, all of which have advantages and disadvantages as noted in the relevant
sections.
(f) Group meetings
These have all the advantages and disadvantages of personal encounters, magnified
by the involvement of a larger number of people.
The main advantage is that several points of view can be brought together and a
conclusion evolved from them.
The main disadvantage is that too many different views may cause confusion and
uncertainty.
(g) Committee meetings
Committees are constituted in a very clear manner, and conduct their meetings in
accordance with formal procedures. This formality allows discussion of quite
complicated matters in a way which is free from personal involvement while at the
same time allowing several opinions to be expressed. Although committees can
become unwieldy, they can, when carefully directed by a skilled chairman or
chairwoman, be a most effective way of reaching decisions.
(h) Full staff/workers meetings
These have the advantage of making sure that everyone involved has the chance to
air his/her views.
Disadvantages are that large meetings are unwieldy, and that many people are
reluctant to speak before their colleagues.
Alternatives include discovering opinions by forms or questionnaires.
(i) Formal lectures or presentations
This form of communication is becoming increasingly popular.
Its advantage is that it allows one person to present a clear view of a particular topic
with considerable immediacy in a manner that is more concise than a written report. It
saves time because a number of people will receive the message simultaneously, and
there is an opportunity to provide immediate clarification and feedback.
Disadvantages are that there is no guarantee that the information will be assimilated
by the recipients, especially where complex statistical data are involved. This
deficiency can, however, be remedied by the use of duplicated "handouts" or other
printed material.
The use of visual aids in presentations should be regarded as almost essential, since
visual media make a greater impact than simply oral, and the two when used together
reinforce each other to make an overall effect which is far greater than simple speech.
You can easily think of examples of the truth of this from your own experience.
Obviously, practical subjects are the ones which benefit most markedly from this dual
approach but even in more academic topics, the use of a few diagrams can often
speed up our understanding of a particular concept.
E. CHOOSING THE MEDIUM

In thinking about the various forms of communication outlined above, you are probably
starting to see some patterns in the advantages and disadvantages between the written and
oral forms. Here we shall pick out the particular characteristics of each.
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The Characteristics of Written Communication

(a) Advantages of written communication
Regardless of which kind or form is used, written communication has some advantages
over the spoken forms, which you should always bear in mind when deciding between
these two media of communication. The main ones are as follows.
 Permanent record
Written communication provides a permanent record of what has been
communicated for both parties. The recipient has the original document, and the
sender will usually have a carbon or photocopy for his/her records. This means
that there can be no misunderstanding over what has been said at a later date,
as is often the case for oral exchanges. This is not foolproof, however, as it is still
possible for the sender and recipient to interpret the same message in different
ways.
 Expression can be controlled more carefully
When speaking, it is often difficult to think of exactly the right words to use at the
same time. In writing it is always possible to cross out one version and replace it
with a better. As a result, it is possible to produce an item of communication
which is more carefully created, in terms of the way it expresses the information,
how it considers the vocabulary, background and attitude of the recipient, and its
general standard and finish.
Of course, an experienced professional communicator is skilled in matching his
or her words, expression and delivery to meet the demands of the situation,
however complex or variable it may be. For most people, though, communicating
in person raises problems of finding exactly the right word which will convey just
the right impression to the recipient.
 Personal feeling is removed from the exchange
Unless you are writing a letter which is a strongly worded complaint, a letter of
sympathy or one of thanks, emotion can generally be excluded from written forms
of communication more easily than from spoken ones.
One of the implications of this is that, if you have a difficult situation to deal with, it
may be more straightforward to handle it in writing. This may suggest avoiding a
confrontation, or "dodging the issue", by refusing to meet and discuss points in
difficult circumstances, but this is not necessarily the case. When feelings are
strong, it is often easy to let emotion override fact. Written documents which
present the facts of a situation are more likely to be accurate and dispassionate
than oral explanations to an interested party, whose strength of feeling may well
cause the sender to respond emotionally instead of remaining rational.
 A meeting is not needed
Because of modern business pressures, the problems of organising a personal
meeting tend to be considerable. If you provide your message in writing, the
recipient is free to read it whenever he/she chooses which should ensure that it
receives his/her full attention.
(b) Disadvantages of written communication
The general advantages of the written form over the spoken form are strong in certain
areas. To balance them, however, there are also some disadvantages.
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 Lacks the personal touch

Unless you are highly skilled, written communication lacks the immediacy and
human contact of a personal meeting. Some situations, indeed, cannot be
handled at all by correspondence because a personal meeting is essential. This
is particularly true for job interviews and other kinds of appraisal, such as
meetings between possible co-operators in a business project.
Some situations demand a personal contact because otherwise they would
appear discourteous. A letter thanking an employee for fifty years' loyal service,
for example, would be a poor substitute for a personal meeting of some kind. So,
too, would be a communication in writing to a colleague or employee injured at
work and currently in hospital.
Often, both a written and a personal communication are necessary on such
occasions. Not only do they display a degree of human feeling and appreciation,
but they make sound business sense in showing that those in authority genuinely
care about the workforce and this can only serve to increase loyalty and
commitment to the company. The same is true for communications with
important clients: the personal touch is both courteous and effective in business
terms.
 Written words can be misinterpreted
As we have seen, it is possible for the recipient, at the decoding stage, to
attribute an incorrect meaning to the message, so that the sender's original
intentions are not correctly or fully understood. Everyone involved in
communications should work hard to avoid such situations, of course, but they
may still occur.
You might argue that misreadings of this kind are the fault of the sender and not
really of the medium at all. This is true to some extent, but the form may play a
part – for example, you may well feel that when you are dealing with someone
you don't know very well it is sometimes "safer" to do so in person. This is
because, since you don't know much about his or her attitudes or approach, you
are more likely to be able to make any necessary modifications to the message
on the spot. This doesn't just save time, it also increases your knowledge of the
person concerned which may well, in turn, make passing future messages easier.
 Lack of feedback
One of the key elements underlying problems with written communication is the
lack of any feedback. We noted above how a message can often be modified
during a spoken communication in order to ensure understanding. This would be
in response to feedback – the sender getting signals from the receiver (either in
spoken form or through non-verbal gestures) that the message is not being
understood. The communication cycle is completed quickly.
With written communication, the communication cycle can be completed, but it
takes time. For example, the response to a letter can take several days. And
during the period in which feedback is awaited (if it comes at all), the message
has been committed to a permanent form and cannot be corrected if it does not
convey the meaning correctly.
Note that the increasing use of E-mail is changing written communication in that
feedback can now be obtained very quickly. This allows much more collaborative
working between individuals or groups, using the advantages of the written form
– particularly in respect of drafting materials before finalising the communication.
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 Written communication is permanent

Even in the most honest businesses, there may be occasions when
communications need to be carried out "off the record", that is with no record
being kept of what was communicated. Examples of this are the early stages of
meetings to discuss contracts or mergers, where written details would give the
impression that ideas advanced as mere possibilities were hard and fast
certainties. Early stages of this kind clearly need to be discussions, so that
everyone concerned can explore possibilities without making firm commitments,
and it is only when a clearer idea of a project or relationship emerges that it
would be appropriate to put these proposals on paper.
Meetings which are supposedly unrecorded can, however, be given a more
permanent form. Many business people today like to make a recording of
meetings using a miniature cassette recorder – so even the most unofficial, "off-
the-record" meeting may end up in a permanent form.
The Characteristics of Oral Communication

(a) Advantages of oral communication
Used properly and in the right place, oral communication has many powerful
advantages:
 Feedback ensures comprehension
Although communicating by letter allows you to state ideas very clearly, it doesn't
provide you with any immediate response from the recipient. True, the reader
can write you another letter in reply; but this takes time and the reader may not
have completely understood the message contained in your letter. The reader
may not lack the ability to understand what you have said in a letter, but however
much you may try to make your meaning clear, it is always possible that you may
leave out a vital element of the message, or take something for granted, or simply
use language which means something entirely different to your reader.
This is where oral communication can be so much better. If something is said
which you do not fully or immediately understand, you can ask questions to make
the meaning clearer. Also, you will be "scanning" the listener – watching for
reactions which show s/he's puzzled, or even hostile. If you see this kind of
reaction you'll obviously try to clarify what you're saying. In this way, the problem
of barriers in communication at the stages of encoding and decoding the
message may be swiftly solved.
In this process of scanning, the non-verbal elements of communication are very
important. These are the aspects of communication which take place without the
use of words – the gestures, movements and other elements popularly called
"body language". We will consider these shortly, but it is important that you get
into the habit of considering them as a vital part of personal meetings. What it
means is that in face-to-face meetings ideas can be expressed accurately.
 Immediacy
Oral communication also has the advantage that all the people involved can
express their views. This means that they can avoid the delay inevitable in
written communication, and views can be exchanged immediately. In a business
context, where decisions may have to be reached quickly, this is an obvious
advantage. It also means that those who take the decisions will be able to take
into account all the points which seem relevant and discuss them, developing
some ideas at the expense of others which are less important, and genuinely
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evaluating the various points of view. This is particularly important in meetings of

committees and larger bodies.
Once everyone has aired their views and all the various arguments have been
put forward and considered, the actual decision-making can take place. Again
you can see how useful this can be, particularly if time is important. You should
also bear in mind that a final decision may rest on information still to be obtained,
but at least you can decide to obtain it!
 Courtesy
Meeting someone in person is a way of showing respect, especially if you have
had to travel some distance for the meeting. A personal meeting shows that you
are genuinely interested in the person, or in the business matter involved, and
this may make all the difference in obtaining an important contract or dealing with
some other business concern.
In addition, personal meetings allow those involved to develop a relationship of
trust and understanding, which is most important when working together. They
give those in positions of authority within a company a chance to show that they
are concerned about the ideas and feelings of their staff if they are willing to meet
and discuss issues with them in person, either individually or in groups.
(b) Disadvantages of oral communication
Not everything about spoken communication is good, however. Here are some of its
disadvantages:
 No written record
Oral communication does not provide a written record of what has been said or
decided. There cannot, therefore, be any reference back to the exact nature of
the message and misinterpretations are less easily resolved at a later date.
 Time-consuming
Personal meetings are time-consuming, and can involve travelling over long
distances. This can be tiring and can defeat your aims in two ways – by wasting
time and by reducing your positive approach to the personal exchange at the end
of the journey.
 Emotional involvement
Oral communication involves a personal element in respect of both the sender
and the receiver. This means that the relationship between the two may colour
the interaction and distort the meaning. For example, a junior member of staff
may not feel able to question or disagree with a senior manager, or there may be
circumstances in which, however hard you try to establish a good working
relationship, it will be impossible to do so because of a clash of personalities.
Using Written and Oral Communication

Written correspondence within or between organisations may take many forms. The crucial
difference between oral and written communications will be the importance attributed to
each. Oral communication will be the basis for almost all negotiations, liaison, team briefings
and project management, but written communication will be viewed as an endorsement of
oral statements, as having a permanence and contractual status. Written communication
can be used as evidence of previous discussions and arrangements. It provides the history
of a project or collaboration. It justifies an activity and provides back-up and proof.
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We attach an enormously high value to written text. Once written down, words are
themselves pinned down, selected, representative, deliberate, permanent and important in
their own right in a way that effective oral communication can never be.
If we consider graffiti, for example, it has a real permanence that a joke or throw-away
comment could never have. Words are tangible, independent of their authors. We pay more
attention to even poorly expressed words in textual form than we ever would if they were
spoken to us. The act of writing renders words "true". It is no wonder that copyright law and
libel are major issues of our time.
Written text makes information immediately available to an almost unlimited audience simply
by dint of reproduction. Photocopying or printing processes can bring news media into our
homes every day which can be referred to again and again.
Whereas oral communication needs to be succinct and clear in purpose, written
communication has the scope to elaborate, to justify and to manipulate information
deliberately into particular phrases so that many versions are available. When we write to
confirm arrangements, we have an opportunity to rephrase and reinterpret meetings or oral
communications in a way which we feel is most suitable. There is a distance between the act
of speaking and the act of writing.
Similarly, in responding to oral communications we have been influenced by body language,
tone and appearance of the speaker, and may not remember all the words spoken but gain
an overall impression of the success of the communication and have noted the key points. A
written communication is bereft of those interpersonal skills and allows us to judge and
interpret the actual words in order to make a considered response.
(a) When to use written communication
We use written communications most frequently to:
 Summarise key issues.
 Invite a response.
 Respond to other written/oral communications.
 Establish a formal basis for the communication.
 Record the process of the communication.
 Provide a source of historical data.
 Express corporate strategy and ideology.
 Lend credibility to our utterances.
 Indicate our intent that the communication be viewed as relevant/important.
 Access a wider audience.
 Ensure the accuracy of the message to all parties concerned.
 Share goals, visions, understanding.
 Present information/data independently of interpersonal skills.
(b) When to use oral communication
Clearly, the times and places where you can use oral communications are large in
number and range. Some of the more suitable occasions are as follows:
 When it is essential to meet the person involved to evaluate his or her suitability
for a particular task. This is especially relevant to selection interviews, to ensure
that you appoint the right person for a job vacancy, but it is also important in other
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areas, such as deciding which member of a group should be delegated to carry

out a particular task.
 When it is important to pool the knowledge of several people to arrive at key
decisions. This is true of various aspects of a company's activities, from the
board of directors downwards.
 Where you are discussing a delicate or personal matter with an individual
employee or client. You may wish to raise matters carefully, while being aware of
the person's reaction, in a manner which would be impossible in correspondence.
 Where you need to persuade listeners of a particular course of action, particularly
if it involves change. People need reassurance in these circumstances and find
discussion comforting even if they can't alter the outcome.
 For a process of negotiation, where a compromise has to be reached between
alternative or rival courses of action. This is particularly important in cases where
possible issues of conflict are involved, such as grievance or disciplinary
procedures, or discussion of conditions of work, rates of pay and other similar
matters.
 For informing members of a company or department about new developments in
company policy where a full staff meeting will provide the opportunity to pass on
information and allow employees to ask questions and discuss the matter.
 To convey information about training or other matters at training conferences,
which involve formal presentations as well as smaller discussion sessions to
exchange ideas and information.
The Importance of Non-Verbal Communication

When you communicate you may not be aware that non-verbal communication occurs and
adds to what you say or hear. For example, the look on your face when you see something
you do not like can communicate your disapproval as effectively and perhaps more quickly
than you could if you put your feelings into words. If you combine your disapproving look
with words that convey your negative feeling, then you can communicate a powerful
message.
Sometimes non-verbal communication can contradict what you say. For example, you may
be told that you cannot take your annual leave when you want to and, to avoid being seen as
unco-operative you may say, "Oh it doesn't matter – I can go on holiday another time", but
you may show your true feelings with a look of disappointment.
Non-verbal communication covers a range of factors.
 Body language – this is the main one and includes gestures and mannerisms
(particularly of the hands, face and eyes), eye contact, body position, etc.
 Appearance – this covers the way in which someone is dressed and generally presents
themselves (their image), as well as the style and presentation of any written
communication.
 Physical surroundings – this is very much concerned with the layout, decoration,
privacy/public nature, etc of the environment within which the interaction takes place.
So, for example, you can project a professional image by using well-designed business
stationery, which immediately signals that you are a professional business person working for
a legitimate company. Before you actually say something you can establish your positioning
by the way you dress, your manner, the appearance of the environment that you work in or
place you decide to meet, or by such things as punctuality and the level of hospitality and
warmth you show people.
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Understanding non-verbal communication is important when you are dealing with internal
and external customers because it is a powerful tool in your personal communications mix.
You can use it to reinforce the message you are conveying and you can use it to conceal
messages you would prefer not to communicate. When you are face-to-face with someone,
watching their body language will help you to understand what they are really feeling.
In addition, you can use it to interpret the messages that others may or may not want to
communicate. For example, suppose you were presenting some samples to a client who
was interrupted by her line manager asking to see her later – if she asked you to continue
with the demonstration but her body language showed that she was pre-occupied, you could
interpret that she would rather see her line manger than continue with your presentation. In
these circumstances, a good communicator would respond to the situation rather than
potentially irritate a client who is too polite to ask you to leave.
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23
Study Unit 2
Principles of Effective Communication
Contents Page
Introduction 24
A. Planning 24
The Importance of Purpose 25
The Importance of the Audience 25
The Importance of Structure 26
B. Acquiring and Organising Information 27

Identifying Sources 27
Consulting Documents 30
Consulting People 33
Note Taking 36
Summarising 41
Drafting and Checking 44
C. Structuring Communications 45
Overall Structure 45
Structuring Devices 46
D. The Importance of Clarity 49

Writing Good English 49
Vocabulary 51
The Seven Cs 53
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24 Principles of Effective Communication
INTRODUCTION
In the first unit, we considered a number of general strategies for communication, designed
to overcome the barriers to effectiveness which arise from the components which make up
the communications cycle. Here we shall develop these strategies further by looking in detail
at the principles which contribute to effectiveness. These principles underlie all forms of
communication – written and oral – and you should be aware of them at all times.
We start by considering planning. Any form of action is generally better for being carefully
planned and communications are no different in this respect. Only by taking the time to plan
what you are doing are you likely to take account of all the necessary considerations.
We then move on to examine the organisation of the information you need to communicate.
Firstly, we look at acquiring and interpreting information through the skills of note taking and
summarising. Both of these are based on careful reading/listening to ensure comprehension
of the message and then on expressing the key elements of that message in your own
words. These are very important skills in business.
Organising the message itself in order to facilitate understanding is based on the structure of
the communication. You need to be able to take the recipient through all the aspects of the
message in a clear and logical way so that he/she follows all the points from start to finish.
There are a number of devices that can be used to aid this process and you need to be
familiar with these in order to structure your own letters, telephone calls, etc. to achieve
effectiveness.
Finally, we come to the way in which the message itself is expressed – the language used
and the importance of getting the form of expression right in the particular circumstances of
the communication.
As you work through this unit, think about the good and bad communications you have
experienced and consider how the points we cover here contribute to effectiveness.
Remember, too, that you need to bring all the elements examined here to bear to achieve
effectiveness in your own communication.
A. PLANNING
Most people, at some time in their lives, will have had the experience of getting up to speak
about a subject which they know well and making a complete mess of it! They do not get
their points over, they get muddled up in the order of presenting things, they forget bits which
they should have covered, etc., etc. The same thing very often happens in examinations
when, under pressure of time, people fail to demonstrate their understanding of a subject.
Why does this happen?
The most common reason is lack of planning. You might say that it is nerves in making a
speech of some sort, but proper planning can go a very long way to alleviating them – giving
you the confidence about what you are going to say and how you are going to say it which
helps to overcome the natural anxiety felt by most presenters.
So, the first thing you must do when faced with any task of presenting information is
formulate a plan for the communication.
One approach to this is known as PASS and it highlights four key elements to consider in
planning. PASS stands for:
 Purpose – identifying the objective or purpose of the communication
 Audience – identifying who you are communicating with
 Structure – identifying the organisation of the material you wish to communicate
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Principles of Effective Communication 25
 Style – identifying the appropriate type of vocabulary, the degree of formality and the
tone of voice to be used
We shall briefly consider the first three of these issues here. Style we shall examine in the
final section of the unit. You will note, though, that organisation and structure make up two
sections to the unit. This indicates the importance attached to them.
The Importance of Purpose

The basis of all organisation and planning is a clear identification of the aims and objectives
you are trying to achieve. Where do these come from?
There are many reasons why you might communicate in business. Generally, in internal
communication situations, you will be informing colleagues, line managers or subordinates
about something, responding to a previous communication, obtaining a decision or
requesting action. In external markets you may be trying to raise awareness in the media,
persuading customers to buy or stimulating some other response, such as ordering a
catalogue or ringing for more information.
By identifying the purpose or objective of your communication it will immediately focus your
mind on what you have to communicate, enable you to accumulate the information you need
for the message and consider the best way to put the message over. Also, by being clear
about your intention, you are more likely to know if you have achieved your objective.
There is a further benefit of being clear about your purpose in that you should be able not to
get bogged down in detail. It is very easy, when bringing together information about a
problem or issue, to get lost in the mass of information that may accumulate. To make sense
of it, you need to keep in mind the central purpose and look for the general themes and key
points which make up your overall approach to achieving it.
The Importance of the Audience

In planning any form of communication – whether it is written or oral – it is essential to start
from an understanding of the communication process itself. Think back to the discussion of
this in the first unit of the course, and ask yourself what is the purpose of communication.
In any form of communication, what you are trying to do is convey information to an
audience. When we say "audience", we mean the recipient or recipients of the message,
whatever form it takes. Whatever is said or written must, therefore, take into account
his/her/their needs – including:
 who they are;
 what they need to know;
 what they are capable of understanding (not just in terms of intellectual capacity, but
also in terms of, for example, the time available);
 what the circumstances of the communication are;
 what will most appeal or motivate them, etc.
It is also important to be aware of your relationship with the audience – how long you have
known the person to whom you are writing, whether he or she is your superior at work, or a
new customer, etc.
Understanding these issues can influence communication in a number of ways.
(a) The form of communication
For internal communications the position of the person you are communicating with
and how well you know them will determine the style of communication you adopt in
terms of the detail, complexity and words used. In order to tell a colleague that you will
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not be available for lunch for another hour, you may just call into their office or
telephone them. In contrast, you may write a memo or send an E-mail to inform staff
about a change in the time and place of the weekly sales meeting. To communicate a
piece of research, you might write a formal report. To notify colleagues about new staff
joining your department you may call a meeting or write a memo.
(Note that, in addition, the purpose of the communication and the urgency of the matter
will determine which communication format and media you will use.)
(b) Vocabulary
Try to match your vocabulary to the reader. Avoid complex and technical terms which
may not be understood, but at the same time avoid giving the impression of talking
down to your reader. If you are writing to a fellow professional who will understand
technical terms, then by all means use them as a way of saving time. Otherwise, use a
simple, clear style to explain points briefly and directly.
(c) Style and tone
If the intended reader is your superior, then clearly you should adopt a formal, but not
obsequious, tone. If he or she is a valued client, then you should be respectful –
though you should always write with formality and courtesy.
We can summarise the above points as follows.
Unless you are writing a circular or standard letter or notice which will be read by a wide
range of people, you should always have a clear mental picture of the reader for whom you
are writing. Be aware in particular of the nature of your reader, but cultivate a simple and
direct style which avoids jargon or expressions which might cause offence. As a general
principle, you will find that this is the best starting point from which to operate when
producing business documents, whatever their intended readership. You should, of course,
be aware of the particular demands of the individual, but adopting this attitude as a general
rule will help a great deal in producing clear, effective communication in writing.
The Importance of Structure

Virtually all communications can be structured along the same overall lines – they need to
have a beginning, a middle and an end. This implies a basic structure of "introduction – body
of the communication – summary/conclusion".
A very basic maxim underlying this, which works nearly all the time, is:
 say what you are going to say;
 say it;
 say that you've said it.
Within the body of the communication, though, there is also a need for structure and order.
This is necessary to take the reader or listener through what you have to say, step by step, in
a way which enables him/her to identify clearly the points you want to make and follow the
progression from one point to the next.
Again, we come back to the basic aims and objectives of the communication – what you are
trying to achieve and put over to your audience. This will give you the key points around
which the information needs to be structured. From there, the next step is to organise those
key points into an appropriate order such that one leads to the next and there is a logical
progression through them.
This, then, forms a plan for the communication of information and should be done for any
and every form of presentation. Note that this holds true even for the shortest telephone
call or memo. It may be done in your head, but will invariably be a conscious process.
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For any but the shortest communication, the outline structure should invariably be written out
to provide a clear, initial framework around which the communication can be written or
presented orally. This is most important in respect of presentations of substance – whether a
letter, a report, an essay in an examination or a speech of some sort.
Lastly, here, you will note that this approach provides you with a framework – the skeleton of
the communication. The flesh on the bones is provided by the evidence and exemplification
you use to support and develop the key points. However, this is the detail and, as we have
noted before, it is important not to get bogged down in the detail before you have established
a clear purpose for what you are trying to achieve.
B. ACQUIRING AND ORGANISING INFORMATION

Communication is concerned with manipulating information – words and numbers which you
wish to communicate to someone else are first of all acquired, then organised to give them
meaning in respect of the needs of the receiver, and finally structured into the message itself.
Think about the process if writing a letter to a customer who has complained about the
quality of goods. You would need to research the background to the problem – at the very
least, probably by asking someone for details of the issue – and then decide what
information you need to include in the letter, before actually writing it.
Here we shall consider the process of acquiring information in the first place and organising it
in the context of what you need to communicate.
Setting out deliberately to research a topic involves three key elements:
 identifying what information you need and where you can get it;
 gathering the information by means of appropriate enquiry; and
 organising the information to make sense of it in the light of the receiver's needs.
Identifying Sources
The first place to start is always to go back a step and ask yourself a seemingly obvious
question – why do I need (this) information?
(a) Defining needs
You might answer "in order to do this assignment" or "to pass my qualification" or "to
prepare a report for management", etc. We could characterise these sorts of
responses as being about achieving certain objectives, or tasks which lead to the
achievement of certain objectives.
Considering exactly what you are aiming to achieve as a result of your research
establishes the "terms of reference" for the work, and it is important to keep this in
mind. Maintaining the focus on the overall purpose will ensure that relevance becomes
the driving force behind the identification of appropriate sources and the gathering of
information from them. Remember that the information you need is not just any old
information – you need the right information for the task or objective you want to
achieve.
(b) The range of sources
So having established a need, how do you satisfy it? Where do you get your
information from?
Suppose you are asked to write a short report on the development of computers. Take
a minute to write down as many sources of information about the subject as you can
think of.
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The list of individual sources is likely to be endless. You might have included such
things as:
books newspapers
journal articles the Internet
reports statistics
TV talking to people
courses
We can, though, group this endless list into two main forms:
 things that are written down – in books, on computers, etc.; and
 things that are obtained directly from other people, whether face-to-face, at a
distance or through the media of television or radio.
This distinction has important implications for the way in which information may be
gathered – in order to acquire information, we need to consult documents and/or to
consult other people. The better we do those things, the more effective will be our
acquisition of information, and we shall examine these below.
(c) Being specific
In terms of identifying exactly what sources are relevant, knowing the range of sources
available is not the end of it. You need to be clear about which are the most
appropriate and how to access them.
Frequently, you will find that whoever has asked you to undertake the particular task
will be able to make suggestions as to appropriate sources. For example, if you are on
a course, your tutors usually provide references to appropriate books or journals, and
even particular chapters, sections or articles for you to follow up what you learn in
taught (or even distance learning) programmes. Or at work, you may be directed to
particular reports or files, or to talking to particular people. In such cases, knowing
where to start is relatively easy.
However, things are not always so clear. In many situations you can find yourself
having to identify information for yourself – at work, on study courses and in your
personal life. Even where you are provided with a number of sources to refer to, it may
be unclear which to go to first. Where, then, do you start?
The first thing you must do is try to be fairly specific about what information you need –
start from your definition of needs and specify the subject of your research in a fairly
broad way. You can narrow it down later if you need to. Depending on the nature of
the task facing you, you may need to give this some thought in order to be clear about
the exact nature of the issue you are dealing with.
Having done this, there are essentially two approaches you can adopt:
 start on your own by consulting written sources (we shall consider ways of doing
this below); and/or
 seek assistance from other people as to where to get the information you need.
This second alternative – involving, essentially asking for help – is often thought of as
an admission of failure and many people are reluctant to do it. This is entirely wrong!
Seeking assistance is a positive step which builds on your identification of needs. You
will find that there are always people willing to help – to share their knowledge with you
and to support you.
We could characterise the approach to asking people in terms of the likelihood of them
being able to provide the assistance you need.
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 Start with people who you know should know – particular tutors or managers
(especially if they set you the task in the first place). You should get extended
lists of either specific document references and/or locations of documents to
explore, or ideas as to other people to consult who are likely to provide what you
want to know.
 You may also ask people you think might know – particularly people who face, or
who may have faced, the same task such as other students or colleagues at
work. Again, you could get some specific references or locations, or ideas as to
someone else who may, perhaps, know more. This time, though, you might get
just a shrug of the shoulders!
 Your last option is to ask someone you think will be able to direct you in general
terms – those whose job it is to know where to find information, such as
librarians.
(d) Types of sources
Lastly, here, we need to make a distinction between primary and secondary sources of
information. This has particular significance in academic study, but can also be
relevant to other forms of research.
 Primary sources
We can think of these as getting the information "from the horse's mouth". It is
not distilled by someone else's interpretation or summary, but comprises original
thoughts, words, ideas, etc. Thus, in considering the development of communist
theory, a key primary source would be the actual works of Karl Marx. In
analysing the development of a particular company policy, the primary sources
might include the committee report which instigated it and the committee minutes
which recorded the decision. In reviewing a customer complaint, the primary
source might be the actual letters written or tapes of a telephone call. In
analysing the impact of redundancy on workers, the primary source would be the
redundant workers themselves.
It is very often the case that you need to consult primary sources in order to be
sure that the information gathered is correct. It is not enough to rely on others'
interpretations. This is clear enough when conducting, say, an investigation into
a customer complaint, but it also holds true in academic research – there are
times when there is no substitute for reading original texts to get the full meaning
and flavour of the author's words.
 Secondary sources
Secondary sources are those which offer summaries and interpretations of the
thoughts, words, ideas, etc. of others. Most text books do this, in that they
essentially synthesise and bring together the work of others in a particular field in
order to present a rounded picture for the student. Whilst they may have a
particular slant which is the author's original concept, the work remains an
interpretation of existing, established ideas.
The same may be said for many other written sources of information. For
example, letters are invariably an expression of company policy (and, indeed,
only certain aspects of that policy). In this case, the letters would be a secondary
source. However, note that, in other circumstances, depending on the subject of
study, letters may be a primary source.
Secondary sources are important in that they can provide a quick and easy way
into a subject, covering a wide range of thoughts and ideas in a reasonably
concise way. It is often the case that this is all that is necessary for a particular
piece of research – just the essence of the original ideas may provide the
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underpinning knowledge that is needed. In addition, it is important to consider

the different interpretations and applications of the original which are offered in
secondary sources. These can often have great significance.
However, remember that to gain a complete and accurate picture, you may need
to consult the primary source itself.
Consulting Documents
Reading is central to the development of our knowledge and understanding. Written sources
of information exist about virtually every subject under the sun and they are the basis for
most of the information we need, if presented with a particular task to undertake or objective
to achieve. Even on a taught course, you would need to do supplementary reading at some
stage.
Written materials are produced in a huge variety of forms and settings. There are books,
journal articles, reports, memos, letters, etc., etc. in paper form and there is a wealth of
information held in electronic form on company information systems and on the Internet. On
virtually any subject you care to name, there will be a vast array of different documentary
material which you can consult.
How can we make sense of this and channel our time and effort most efficiently into
gathering the information we need?
Let's return to the task of preparing a short report on the development of computers.
As we noted previously, the starting point is always to define the terms of reference and, from
there, identify the subject matter in general terms. You should always work from the general
to the specific – building up the general picture before concentrating on the detail. In this
way, you do not allow the details to get in the way and dictate the pattern of your research,
but keep your options open to focus on detail at a later point, as it serves your objectives.
In this case, we could take as our starting point the subject of "computers". From there, we
can either ask someone for specific advice on appropriate references, or start to examine
what is available ourselves.
(a) Seeing what is available
There are basically four options in starting to research written sources.
 The first option is to go to a bookshop and browse the shelves in the section
dealing with the subject under the general terms you identified. This may be
alright if you have a really good bookshop you can get to, but even the best
bookshops do not carry a particularly big stock of books on specialist subjects
like computers.
 The second option is to go to a library, preferably a university or college library if
you are after a specific specialist publication or a big range of publications to
select from in a specialist area. Even if you are not a registered student at a
particular institution, you should be able to use the library facilities there (although
there may be a charge if you want to take books out). We shall say a bit more
about libraries below.
 The third option is to consult the files of information at work. These may either be
written records and reports, or information held in computerised systems. It is
likely that there will be some form of index system which will help you establish
the particular files to examine, but if not, there will invariably be someone who
can point you in the right direction to find what you are looking for.
 And lastly, a vast array of information is to be found on the Internet. Access to
the Internet is becoming increasingly widespread, and for those with an
appropriate connection, it should be possible to find at least some of what you
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need in the pages of the World Wide Web. The normal method of finding
material on the Internet is to use one of the "search engines" which are accessed
from the menu on the screen after you have logged on to your Internet Service
Provider. You simply type in the topic you wish to find information on – for
example, "computers" – and wait for what is usually a huge listing of references
dealing with that topic. You can make the search more specific by specifying a
further search criterion within the first – for example, searching the "computers"
references for those also dealing with "history".
(b) Using libraries
Libraries are extremely well-organised places. They are designed to help you access
the things you want. The basis of this is the index system used – the Dewey Decimal
System. We do not need to go into the detail of this, suffice it to say that each general
subject area has a reference number, say 290, and each more specialist area within
that general subject has a reference number expressed as a decimal of the general
reference number, say 290.692.
All libraries have a comprehensive index of all the publications they contain. You can
search this index according to:
 the subject area, which will then give you both the publications under that
heading and the Dewey Decimal reference of the area (and you can then go and
browse the shelves); or
 the author's name, which will lead you to specific publications by that author,
enabling you to follow up further work by the same author.
In the case of the study skills exercise, searching the subject index for "computers"
would have been the best place to start.
You can always ask for assistance at libraries – librarians should know more than
anyone else about what is in the library (or at least how to find out) and where
everything is located. They can also help to extend the search for what you want
beyond the confines of the particular library, through the "Inter-library Loan" system to
the wider resources of the whole country's network of libraries.
(c) Checking relevance
Having tracked down likely sources of information, you need to establish that the
books, articles, files, etc. are relevant to your research.
You clearly need to determine if the publication is going to provide the right information
for your task, but it would be surprising if this were the only criterion you identified.
Particularly if you have a choice, a number of other criteria come into play. The sorts of
things we would consider include:
 is the topic you are interested in precisely covered by the publication – i.e. does it
provide the right information?
 does it cover the topic at an appropriate level – is it too basic, in which case, you
will not get what you are looking for, or is it too complex or detailed, in which case
you will not find it easy to pick out what you want (and probably won't read it!)?
 is the publication arranged in a way which makes it easy to find what you need?
 is the style of writing such that you would want to read it?
You may identify other criteria. We have assumed, for instance, that the publications
are accessible in the way in which you want to use them (for example, you can take
them away to study). We have also discounted how big the book is – there is always a
tendency to favour something that looks as if it contains the right information in a
smaller form, but well-organised large publications can be just as easy to use.
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The above list, though, contains the main criteria in their order of importance. But how
do you check quickly that the publication does in fact meet them? There are a number
of ways.
 Read the introductory information about the book
There is a wealth of information about the content of a publication contained in its
title, publication details, introduction and contents, etc. For example, the precise
wording of the title and background information about the author can indicate a
particular slant on the subject, the publication details will tell you when it was
written and you can draw conclusions about how up-to-date it is from this, the
back cover and introduction may state its target audience and application
(especially in the case of text books), and the contents page(s) will give you a
better idea of what is covered and how.
 Have a look at any conclusions or summaries
Especially in reports, but in many text books now, summaries are provided to
assist readers in getting an overview of the subject matter.
 Read a few pages
This can give an indication of whether the publication deals with the subject
matter in a way which you can get on with and can easily extract the information
you need. The writer's style is important – whilst your reaction is a very personal
thing, you need to feel comfortable with reading your source material, if at all
possible.
Checking the suitability of source material in this way allows you to concentrate your
time on studying relevant information. However, one last point to state is that most
publications, even reports and work files, usually contain references to other works –
these can provide you with additional sources should you need them, and even books
you discard as not meeting your criteria may be useful in this respect. So check
bibliographies or other references to further reading.
You can try these approaches the next time you visit a library, or even a bookshop.
(d) Approaches to effective reading
Time is the ever-present enemy to reading. Once you have identified the publication(s)
which contain information you need in the form that you want it, you need to use your
reading time as efficiently as possible. There are a number of approaches to this.
 Be selective – you may not have to read the whole publication, or at least not in
the order it is written. Use the contents listing and index to select the most
relevant sections on which to concentrate.
 Skim the text first – get an idea of the general content of particular sections by
flicking through it looking at sub-headings, figures, the first few words of
paragraphs, etc. You can get a good idea of what is in it from this, as a basis
either for determining relevance or for detailed study.
 Concentrate on reading – this may seem obvious, but it is surprising how often
our concentration wanders, particularly when tackling difficult subject matter.
One technique which can help is to use a pen or pencil to track down the page
while you are reading (not marking it, of course!) – this tends to keep you focused
on the text.
 Make notes – very few people can remember everything they read in enough
detail for it to be helpful, and it is easier to refer to notes, rather than the
publication itself, when you start to use the information. Also, unless you have an
unlimited budget and can buy every book you think may be useful, it is likely that
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you will need to return books to a library and will not still have them to refer to.
(Note taking is covered in more detail below.)
People have all sorts of different approaches to reading – from very wide ranging and
exhaustive to highly selective and specific to a particular topic. Both, and all stages in
between, are equally valid. If it works for you – use it. Do not be put off by the
approaches suggested by other people if you are happy with your own.
Consulting People
Written sources for research – books, journals, magazines, this study material, etc. – are our
main source of information when we need to achieve particular objectives and tasks. They
are nearly always accessible and there is a huge range of them about most subjects.
However, we noted previously that information is also acquired from other people. This may
vary from other individuals to groups, or from formal presentations to informal conversations.
It involves, primarily, the spoken word, but also includes the actions of others.
The main characteristic of these sources of information is the opportunity presented for
interaction in the communication process. We can be involved in a dialogue – asking
questions to fill gaps in our understanding and to test interpretations of the information
received. It is, therefore, a powerful medium for learning and, hence, you are encouraged in
certain exercises throughout this course to consult others to help in your learning and
development.
So, how do we identify and acquire information from other people?
(a) The range of sources
When we listed the various sources of information available in researching the topic of
the development of computers, we identified some – but not many – "people" sources.
Examples included lectures and seminars, talking with people, etc.
Remembering that we are concerned with acquiring information in respect of achieving
certain objectives or undertaking certain tasks, we can divide these sources into three
main categories. This categorisation has a number of implications for the method of
enquiry appropriate to eliciting information, and also for the means of accessing the
information available.
 First are those situations which are specifically designed to provide, in some
formal way, for the presentation or exchange of information. These include
lectures, seminars or workshops forming part of a course or programme of study
or training, interviews or meetings, public speeches or lectures given by eminent
people, and even TV and radio programmes.
These events are specifically planned. They include situations set up by you –
as in the case of an interview with a person or persons identified as having
information you need – as well as those arranged by others.
The main advantage of such planned events is that they can be structured by the
organiser or presenter in a way which facilitates the exchange of information. As
a participant, you will have advance notice about the subject and participants,
and can plan your involvement to get the most out of them.
As such, the enquiry methods involved will be observation, listening and asking
questions.
A potential problem with events arranged by others is that they do not necessarily
occur at the time that you want the information – they may be before you
perceive any relevance to the subject, or after your need has passed. Also, you
may not be able to be there for the event – it is too far away, something else is
arranged for that time or you are ill. These types of situations may, then, be
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relatively inaccessible compared with written sources. You may be able to record
TV or radio programmes, but it is unlikely that you will be able to get a record of a
lecture or seminar.
 The second category comprises those situations which exist as formal
interactions for another purpose, but which may be used for the acquisition of
information about the subject(s) of the interaction and/or the interaction itself.
These include committee meetings or operational procedures and working
practices.
These are, then, situations which you turn into opportunities to acquire
information. For example, if you were charged with developing new procedures
for a particular operation, you would need to analyse the existing working
practices. You might also wish to study the procedures used in a different
department (or another organisation) and even attend meetings elsewhere to
gain information about the way in which these work.
A feature of such situations is that you are able to plan and structure your own
involvement prior to the event. You may also need to obtain approval for
attending.
The essential enquiry method is observation and listening, but there may be the
opportunity to ask questions.
 The third category is those situations which arise informally during the course of
social interaction, a by-product of which may be the acquisition of information.
We could include here such interactions as telephone calls, brief meetings and
discussions at work, chats over lunch, etc.
The essence of these situations is that they are invariably unplanned and
unstructured. This does not make them less valuable as sources of information,
but it may make the acquisition of information more difficult to control and puts a
premium on the way in which you organise learning after the event – particularly
in respect of note taking. You also need to be prepared for the other person or
persons not to be helpful. You cannot control his/her situation or knowledge.
The main enquiry methods here are listening and asking questions.
(b) Observation
This is essentially concerned with watching what other people are doing – how they
operate a machine, the patterns of movement (of people or work) through or around an
office, the interaction at a meeting, etc. – as the basis of gathering information about
what is happening.
It is usual to classify observation into participant and non-participant.
 Participant observation is where someone who is not usually part of a situation
actually takes part in it, on a temporary basis. For example, a manager might
spend a couple of days working on the shop floor as a means of gathering
information about, say, the pressures that staff are under. By becoming a
member of the group being studied, an outside observer is able to gain quite a
high level of understanding of the behaviour and personal conditions of those
being observed.
 In non-participant observation, the information gatherer is physically present at
the situation, but does not become involved in it – he/she remains a spectator.
This allows a detached, objective view to be formed, but lacks the depth of
understanding of the motivations, feelings, etc. of the individuals involved in the
interaction.
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It is important to remember that observation, even non-participant observation, is an

active process. It demands preparation and planning, particularly in respect of what it
is you are looking for and the aspects to concentrate on. In carrying out the
observation itself, there are three key points to the skill:
 concentrate, and focus on what is happening;
 ask questions for clarification, if that is possible; and
 take notes so that you have a full record of what happened.
(c) Listening
If you are going to get the most out of a situation where information is imparted by the
spoken word, you generally have one chance and one chance only to acquire the
information. This puts a premium on the skill of effective listening.
We shall look at this in some detail later in the course, but for now we shall briefly
summarise the key points of this skill (and note that these are the same as those in
respect of observation):
 prepare for the event in terms of what you want to get out of it;
 concentrate, and focus on what is being said;
 ask questions for clarification, if that is possible; and
 take notes so that you have a record of the information after the event.
(d) Asking questions
With all other methods of enquiry, the information available is essentially determined by
the source consulted – for example, the information available from simply listening is
limited to what is said. Questioning allows the enquirer to set the terms of the enquiry
and discover (hopefully) the information that he/she wants. It is, therefore, a primary
method of eliciting information.
There are two main methods of doing this.
 Interviewing
This is a personal interaction with the person or people concerned (either face-to-
face or via the telephone). People may be interviewed alone or in groups, and
the process can be done formally or informally.
Interviews may be thought of as being structured or unstructured:
(i) structured interviews are those where the interviewee is taken through a
pre-determined list of questions, in order, albeit with the scope to pursue
issues as they arise within that structure;
(ii) unstructured interviews are where there is no pre-determined order, or
possibly no pre-determined questions, although there may be some key
themes which the interviewer wishes to explore.
(We shall examine interviewing and questioning in more detail later in the
course.)
 By written means
This may be in the form of questionnaires or other forms of written enquiry such
as letters, memos, etc.
Questionnaires allow a number of people to be consulted in a common manner,
with all the questions (and, to some extent, the responses) being structured in the
same way. It is usual for questionnaires to constrain answers to a number of
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choices to simplify dealing with responses, although there are also generally
some open-ended questions to allow respondents to comment in more detail on
certain issues.
As with all other methods of enquiry, it is important to plan carefully in asking questions
in order to maximise the possibility of getting the information you want. This is
particularly true in respect of written enquiry, where there is no opportunity to seek
immediate clarification of answers – you get the answer to the question you ask, so you
have to make sure that you ask the right question!
Note, finally, that asking questions is not simply a primary method of information
gathering – it also serves the purpose of allowing clarification of understanding within
other enquiry methods. This is easy to see in respect of listening and observation
where it may be part of the interaction – as in there being some time allocated at the
end of a presentation for questions, or where questions are asked about what is
happening whilst watching an event. However, questioning should not be ignored in
dealing with issues arising from consulting written sources, for example in following up
what something means or why certain things were done.
Note Taking
The main reason for note taking is often assumed to be to provide a written record of a
spoken presentation or event which can be referred to at a later date to aid recall. Whilst this
is undoubtedly true, it rather misses a key point about note taking. This is that:
the way in which you interpret and record information in taking notes can, in itself, be
an invaluable aid to learning and understanding.
When you make notes, from whatever source, you are necessarily sifting, summarising and
shortening the full information. This is a key aspect of developing understanding. You are
selective about what you record, so you pick out the key points, and then write them down in
your own words. "Your own words" might be similar to the way the information was
expressed by the source, but are very often different to reflect your own individual way of
understanding it.
Thus, note taking serves two purposes:
 to aid understanding; and
 to facilitate recall and/or retrieval of the information.
(a) Note taking and sources of information
It is easy to see the value of note taking in terms of enabling recall or retrieval of
information, in relation to lectures, seminars and discussions, or books and other
documents which have to be returned to a library or file. However, because of the role
of note taking in aiding learning, it should not just be confined to these sources of
information. It has a value in relation to any source of information, even books or
documents which you can keep to refer to.
You should then, make notes from any source where you are trying to acquire
information.
That said, there are slightly different issues in respect of different sources – written and
oral ones – and in respect of whether you take notes at the time or afterwards.
 Taking notes from written sources
The key to effective note taking from a book or other document is to read it in
short sections and then pick out the key points to record. It is often the case that
paragraphs only contain one real point and the rest is padding. You need to
identify the key point that is buried in there somewhere and record that.
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(Reading and making notes in this way also helps to break up material into
manageable "chunks" – aiding both concentration and the following of difficult
arguments or discussions.)
You may also want to pick out certain phrases or sentences that the author uses
as being particularly significant or apt. These should be recorded as quotes so
that, if you use them at a later point, you can attribute them appropriately to the
author.
 Making notes from oral sources
Taking notes from what people say and do – in lectures, discussion groups,
interviews, observations, etc. – has to be a much more instantaneous thing. You
do not have the luxury of being able to pause to consider what has been said
before deciding what are the key points to record – by the time you've done that,
you will have missed the next point. You need to be able to get the information
down as it is presented.
This means you have to try to pick out key points as things are going on. You
need to concentrate, and be able to write quickly.
Many situations – for example, training sessions, meetings and some lectures
and interviews – are structured around a prepared programme or agenda which
can be used as the basis of your notes. At times, particular visual displays may
be used by a presenter to make or record points – handouts, overhead projector
slides, flip charts, etc. These can also be used to help in your recording of the
event.
It is not always easy to make effective notes in discussion groups, workshops
and interviews, etc. where you are a participant. You have to find the time to
make your notes as well as be involved as a speaker. The way in which
discussion can flow within such interactions also means that key points can be
difficult to identify, or keep changing. A good group leader or chairperson will
attempt to structure the flow to keep discussion focused and ordered.
 Making notes after the event
It is always better to take notes at the time of the experience – the reading,
meeting, interview, etc. However, there are often situations which make this
difficult, if not impossible. Examples include casual encounters which result in
acquiring information unexpectedly, some types of interview, working in different
locations, etc.
In such situations it is important to make notes as soon after the event as
possible, so that everything is still fresh in your mind. It is surprising how much
we forget in a short space of time.
Records of an event are often formally produced in the form of reports and
minutes. This doesn't necessarily mean that you don't have to take your own
notes. You may want to check the official record against yours, or at least
perhaps keep your notes together with it.
(b) Note taking techniques
Everyone has their own individual styles of note taking. Some people take a lot, others
very few. Some prefer to make notes after the event, although most elect to make
notes during it (often for the simple reason that they know they'll never get around to it
if it's left until later!).
There is no right or wrong way. Whatever suits you, and achieves its purpose in terms
of assisting learning and facilitating retrieval, should be fine.
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There are a number of general principles behind note taking, and some specific
techniques which you can use.
 General principles
We can identify four general points about note taking which apply irrespective of
the source of information, the nature of the research, or the technique you use.
(i) The fundamental principle is to be selective. Don't try to write everything
down, but pick out the key points, words and phrases.
(ii) Translate into your own words as much as possible. This helps
understanding and ensures that, when you come to use the information
later, you do not simply repeat the original form.
(iii) Use abbreviations – common ones or your own system. As long as you
can understand them later, it doesn't really matter how obscure they might
be to someone else.
(iv) Structure your note taking around the key points in a way which brings out
the connections between all the different points. A number of different
methods of doing this are considered below, but they all involve identifying
and highlighting the most significant issues and linking subsidiary points to
them.
 Linear notes
This is perhaps the most common technique for note taking, mainly because it
mirrors the way in which information is usually presented.
Linear notes consist of headings and sub-headings, often numbered, with
subsidiary information below them, written in a linear fashion down the page.
Particular points may be linked by arrows or brackets, underlining may be used
for emphasis, and the structure or organisation of the notes may be shown by
rough indentation in places.
An example is given in Figure 2.1.
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Government Action To Make London Stop

Growing
1. 1940 Report of Royal Commission on Distrib. of Ind. &

Pop (Chairman Sir A. Montague-Barlow)
a. Ind. had grown too much round London
b. Other parts of country had suffered as a result
c. Siting of new industry would have to be controlled
2. 1945 Distribution of Industry Act
a. Any new factory or factory extension needed permission
from D of T.
b. Used since to direct ind. away from London
3. 1945 Greater London Plan (Prof. P. Abercrombie)
a. Suggested surrounding London by 5m belt of fields
("green belt") to:
i) prevent further growth
ii) provide recreation for Londoners
b. Suggested moving 1m Londoners across "green
belt" to:
i) 8 planned "new towns" where they'd live and
work, not commute to London and
ii) "expanded towns" at a greater distance
c. London would not be harmed by the above if:
i) its declining industries were replaced by new
ones
ii) "The port flourished"
4. 1946 New Towns Act
a. First N.T. Stevenage designated
b. Other 7 "quickly followed"
Figure 2.1: Example of Linear Notes
 Spider diagrams
This approach shows connections in a different way – graphically. The best way
of explaining it is to illustrate it, as in Figure 2.2.
As you will see, the most important point is identified and everything else is linked
to this by means of branches and sub-branches. The technique forces you to be
concise and identify points in one word or very short phrases at the most.
Spider diagrams are particularly well suited to recording unstructured interviews
or discussions where there is no clear linear framework to the interaction.
As the example shows, boundaries can be drawn around particular sections of
the "web" in order to highlight groupings. This can be done at the time or after
the event, as the notes are reviewed. The technique can actually be usefully
applied to linear notes after the event in terms of reorganising and reinterpreting
them, and then expressing them in a more graphic form.
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If you now look at the diagram in detail, you will see that it provides a breakdown
of the advantages, uses and key methods of patterned notes.
Figure 2.2: Example of Spider Diagram
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(c) Common problems with note taking

Everyone has problems from time to time with making effective notes. We can divide
these factors into four categories, as follows:
 the structure of the presentation – the clarity with which the information is
organised and presented, particularly with regard to introductory explanations;
 the tone and approach of the speaker – the extent to which this engages you as
a listener and draws you into the topic, or conversely, distances and excludes
you;
 the variety of format within the presentation – the use of different presentational
effects, such as graphics, which help to put the information over; and
 your own interest in the topic under consideration (which may or may not be
helped by the three former points).
Of these, the most significant barrier to effective note taking is the first – if the structure
is poor, it requires you to work harder to establish a structure for your notes. The other
points are mainly to do with the motivation of you the listener!
It is useful to be aware of these points, not only to appreciate good presentation when
you experience it, but also to assist you when you need to present information – in
either written or oral form.
Summarising
Summaries are used extensively in business – for example, as a way of recording
information and ideas contained in newspaper or magazine articles to keep in a file of current
developments in a field of activity in which a firm is particularly interested. They may also be
known as "précis" or "abstracts".
Summarising is a basic skill useful in every branch of study or research. It is closely allied to
note taking in that it uses the same processes of selecting key points, abbreviating the
source material and expressing that material in your own words. It differs in that the object of
the exercise is to produce a coherent communication in its own right – one that can be
clearly understood by others.
We can divide the process of preparing a summary into three stages:
 Reading
 Selecting and making notes of the key points
 Re-writing
(a) Reading
The first thing to do is read the passage which you are going to summarise. Don't write
anything at this stage; concentrate instead on gaining a good understanding of the
material in its entirety. Unless you do this, you will not have the kind of grasp of the
main points which you will need later to become the framework of summary.
You then need to go back, with your understanding of the whole of the material, and re-
read the passage again, this time thinking about the key points, how those points are
made and what material is essential and what is unnecessary to those key points.
Working out what are the main points in a passage, of course, is something which only
you can decide, but you can make the choice easier by adopting certain procedures.
 Decide whether the points being made are really relevant to the overall meaning
of the passage; if they aren't, you should be able to discount them.
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 Look at key elements like the beginnings and ends of paragraphs. These often
contain the topic sentence which really sums up the whole of the paragraph.
(You have to look at both ends because writers often vary the position of the topic
sentence to add interest to what they are writing.)
 Decide whether you wish to include examples – such as statistics – or whether
the underlying point they demonstrate is more important. A clear idea of the
purpose of the passage is once more important here.
(b) Selecting
Any summary must by its nature be selective, and the act of selection implies the
omission of detail, which makes biased interpretation a strong possibility.
The most important precaution which you can take against bias is to be constantly
aware of the danger it represents. If you are, and if you try to remember the need to
remain impartial, you should be able to choose and record material without too much
difficulty. Here are some points to bear in mind.
 Keep an open mind
When you are reading a passage to summarise it, try not to decide what its main
point is before you have read the whole thing. Too often, people judge each
other by first impressions, which later turn out be quite false. Try to avoid falling
into this trap when reading books or articles: if you jump to a particular
interpretation early on, it will colour your reading of the whole text, and may well
give a biased interpretation to your notes or abstract. Always keep an open mind
until you have read the whole passage.
 Separate your own reactions
If you read something which you feel is wrong, or with which you strongly
disagree, do not re-write it according to your own beliefs. Instead, add a
separate section to your notes in which you point out your objections. In this way,
the original article will be presented clearly, avoiding any charges of bias, and you
will also have the satisfaction of presenting your own opinions. This is a far more
scholarly and reliable way of proceeding – and it is also far more likely to
convince the eventual readers that your view is right, since you have presented
the opposing view clearly first, and then put forward your own ideas.
 Use examples carefully
When you have to select an example from a passage, select one which is
representative – in other words, do not pick out the single example which proves
your own interpretation. For instance, if you are making notes on a passage
about trade between the UK and other nations, try to select examples which
show trading interest throughout the world, and not just those with Europe or the
Commonwealth. When you are selecting information, always stop and ask
yourself whether it is really representative.
 Express your points with care
This may seem an obvious point to make and so it is but you may find it harder
than you imagine if you are writing on topics on which you have strong personal
feelings. In these cases it is doubly important that you don't include anything
which suggests a criticism of the source material, either directly or by implication.
(i) Words such as "apparently" or "seemingly" used in abstracts can imply that
the information is unreliable.
(ii) Phrases such as "it is claimed that" suggest that insufficient evidence is
provided to support a point.
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Take care also that the simple mechanics of your expression do not alter a point
made in a passage. For example, let us assume that you come across a
passage which says that 17 million people watch a particular television
programme when you are writing a report about the possibility of mounting a
television advertising campaign.
(i) If you note that "most people" watch it, you are exaggerating the figures,
since 17m is not more than half of the population of the UK.
(ii) If you write "many people", then you are underestimating it, since this could
really be any sizeable number.
In such a case, the only realistic solution is to give the actual number, which
avoids either exaggerating or under-emphasising the figure.
(c) Developing your notes
This is the real essence of summarising, in which you work slowly through the text
recording its ideas in your own words. I stress "in your own words" because, if you
simply borrow expressions word-for-word from the original, you will not be
summarising. Instead, you will end up with a collection of quotations which make little
sense as a sequence or argument when they are read together.
When working through the text though, be on the look-out for short sentences and
phrases which sum up an idea or main point which you can quote. Often, such
expressions will come at the end of a paragraph, to conclude the passage clearly and
precisely. These phrases you can and should quote: they will often express the ideas
of the writer simply and directly, and draw together the other points which you have
made in your own words earlier in the notes. You should, though, make sure that you
enclose such sections in quotation marks, making it clear to the reader that this is a
direct quote.
This process is very similar to making notes. You can use headings and sub-headings,
and begin each point beneath them on a separate line, giving each a number or letter
to identify it. In this way you can see where new points begin, and have a quick overall
grasp of the growth of the writer's argument.
Breaking up the original text in this way will help you avoid the problem of simply
shortening each paragraph of the original and assist in looking for connections between
the points which will allow you to organise the summary in your own way.
When you have taken into account all these factors, you should have arrived at a first
draft of your summary in a fairly clear form, albeit in notes rather than a narrative
passage. With practice, you will find that these notes will need little or no revision or
checking, but at first, and for long complicated passages, it's as well to check your
work. Three elements are particularly important.
 Check that you have included all the points which are relevant to your purpose.
 Make sure that you have included nothing which is irrelevant to your needs –
unless it helps to clarify the main argument or point being developed. Remember
that summaries which are too long take more time to read, and are much less
likely to be remembered, so cut out anything which is not essential. It is
important to keep any word limit in mind when writing your summary.
 Finally, check that you have not altered or distorted anything. This could mean
anything from a simple misreading of a word to a misinterpretation of figures or
statistics, which could seriously alter the meaning of the whole thing. It should
also include a check on spellings of names which are unusual, to make sure that
everything is accurate and exact.
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(d) Writing the final summary

This last stage involves turning your notes into prose – full sentences and paragraphs,
using proper English with correct punctuation and spelling. There are a number of
things to think about in this process.
 Think about the order of the points. Often the book or article will present them in
the best way, but sometimes changes are necessary – for example, the writer
may begin at an exciting point in the middle of a series of events to catch the
reader's attention, and then goes back to the start. For your notes, it will always
be clearer to start at the beginning and keep things in a logical sequence.
 You need to make sure that the points are expressed as complete sentences. To
do this, you will probably need to add verbs, and words such as "the", "a" and
"an" to make it flow more smoothly. Conjunctions – words which link sentences
together, such as "and" and "but" – may also be needed.
 You will probably find that the subject headings for each section of your notes can
be linked to one of the points beneath them to give a topic sentence which will
state a point clearly and simply. The ideal to aim for is a piece of writing which
makes its points very clearly and simply. You should avoid overuse of headings
in the summary itself – it will usually be too short to need them.
 Try always to avoid slang or jargon. Apart from being out of place in a piece of
simple factual writing, such expressions change over a period of time and often
fall into disuse completely, so that someone reading a passage in ten years' time
may not understand what point is being made.
Drafting and Checking

Finally in this section on organising the presentation of information, we should stress the
need to check your work before completing the communication. This is clearly possible for
written communications (although there are many examples of letters, etc. which have not
been checked and contain gross errors), but can also be done for oral communications
where you are able to plan and prepare in advance.
It is often helpful to consider the first attempt at the communication as a draft – not to be
actually communicated before detailed re-consideration.
When considering this draft, use the following procedure.
 If you have time, place the draft on one side for a short while, then return to it. Try to
forget about it and then approach it with a fresh mind. This will help to judge the
material without being influenced by your original ideas and thoughts.
 Place yourself in the position of the intended recipient of the message and then read
through it carefully. Assess the material as to whether it gets its message across.
 Make sure all the spelling – particularly any difficult words – and punctuation are
correct.
 Consider the general tone of the communication. Is it right for the intended audience?
When you are dealing with written communications, a useful trick is to read the material
out loud – this helps to spot problems with its flow.
If there is anything which you find unsuitable, change it, so that the communication is more
appropriate.
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C. STRUCTURING COMMUNICATIONS
Throughout this and the previous unit, we have stressed the importance of structure in
communication. Now we need to address it very specifically in respect of how you actually
organise communications – whether written or oral.
However, before we get into the detail of this, it is worth considering the question "why
structure?". What is it designed to achieve?
The objective of structuring is to clarify what you have to say for the recipients. You need to
lead them through your message in a way which will enable them to understand exactly what
you want to get across, and to follow the development of your points, one after the other,
from the beginning to the end of the communication.
You will also find it very useful to yourself, as you are writing or giving an oral presentation, to
have a strong structure to follow. Planning the framework of a communication provides the
basis upon which you can develop the detail of your arguments and present appropriate
evidence, as you progress through it.
We shall look at structuring in two ways here:
 the overall structure of a communication; and
 the devices used to impose structure throughout the communication itself.
You will find that the points made here will underpin the discussion of effectiveness in report
and letter writing in Study Unit 3, and in respect of oral communication in Study Unit 4.
Overall Structure
All good business communications have a beginning, a middle and an end. They can,
therefore, all be structured along the same overall lines – with an introduction, a body to the
communication and a summary/conclusion.
Note that the way in which each of these elements is applied in a particular situation will vary
according to the type of communication. When writing a formal business letter or report, or
conducting an interview or giving a formal speech, the introductory and concluding phases
need to be clearly defined and often have an important part to play in the message. When
writing an informal memo or E-mail, or making a telephone call to a colleague, these
elements may be almost non-existent – comprising simply a general statement of greeting
and farewell. However, you will find that virtually all business communications have the three
elements to some extent.
(a) Introduction
It is vital to get off to a good start! The first sentence sets the tone and style for the rest
of the communication and you should give it some thought. Often getting that first
sentence right sparks off the flow of language for the rest of the communication.
The introduction sets the scene for the message. It orientates the reader or listener to
what is going to be said. As such, there are two key points which need to be covered.
 Identification of the subject matter
You need to clarify exactly what the communication is about – including, where
necessary, some background to the issue(s) and why it is being dealt with. This
may also require the clarification of certain concepts and technical terminology
where they are central to the message itself.
 Definition of your approach
You also need to summarise the way in which you are going to deal with the
subject matter. This allows you to establish your own particular view of the
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issues raised and the position from which you will analyse them. In academic
terms, it is, in effect, the hypothesis against which you will develop and justify
your arguments, evaluate the evidence and, finally, draw conclusions.
You should also give an indication of the way in which the communication will
take the reader/listener through the subject matter, possibly by reference to its
structure. This sets up the main body of the communication so that the receiver
has an overview of how you will approach it.
Whilst there seems a lot to cover, you do not want to spend too much time on this
element – it is, after all, only the introduction. As a general rule, it should only be
approximately 5% of the total length of the communication. This means that you need
to be reasonably succinct in covering the above points.
It should also be clear where the introduction ends and the main body of the
communication begins.
(b) Main body of the communication
The main body of the communication is where you convey all the information of the
message. Here you should establish, develop and justify your key points, detailed
analysis and/or arguments in relation to the subject matter. Supporting evidence and
examples may be used to clarify what you have to say.
It needs to have a logical progression and order which enable the reader to follow your
thinking, and this should be supported by structuring as discussed in the following
section.
(c) Summary/conclusions
The final phase of any communication should draw together your themes, key points
and arguments in making final comments about the subject.
This is a critical element. It will often be the part of the communication which contains
the lasting impression – particularly so in respect of oral presentations – and needs,
therefore, to be clear, succinct and positive. It should provide a review of the key
points and, if appropriate, the reasoning and approach underpinning them. Any
conclusions you draw – and any recommendations or statements of action necessary –
must be supported by the discussion in the main body of the communication.
Most importantly, you must not introduce anything new at this stage.
As a general rule the conclusion should be no longer than 5 – 10% of the whole
communication, so you will need to be very succinct in drawing things together and
making your closing statements.
Structuring Devices
Aside from the overall structure, there remains a need to consider carefully the way in which
you approach the main body of the communication. This, after all, contains the information
which you have to convey.
The structure of any communication – whether long or short, simple or complex, formal or
informal – exists to guide the reader or listener through what you have to say. It helps to
make the information and arguments being presented more accessible and clear. Even a
short report which is written in a continuous flow of text, like a chapter in a book, can
discourage even the well-motivated reader. People feel at a loss with a mass of words and
are reluctant to start reading at all. If they do "take the plunge", it can be difficult to follow
arguments and to check out and refer to points at a later stage.
Therefore, the structure must be inviting to the reader, and help them to follow the discussion
throughout.
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There are four key aspects to consider here:

 the flow and development of points;
 headings;
 numbering; and
 layout.
Note that, whilst these relate primarily to written communications, the underlying principles
are equally applicable to oral communication.
(a) Flow and the development of points
All communications need to have a logical flow from one point to the next. This does
not necessarily have to be linear, in that point A follows directly after point B which is
then followed by point C. It may be that, for example, there are some points arising
from B which are best developed there and then, so the flow may go A, B, D, E and
then back to C. What is important, though, is that the reader or listener is able to follow
the flow and know exactly where they are.
In this context, never be afraid to "flag" the progression of your argument throughout
the communication. This helps both you, as you are writing/speaking, and the
reader/listener to maintain a focus on the direction you are taking. For example, you
can note the relevance of topics to the stage you are at in your discussion, refer back
to previous stages, and even to the introduction, to provide an appropriate context to
new ideas, or refer forward to where a particular theme may be picked up again.
Structure your work into clear and intelligible paragraphs, each with a coherent theme.
Each new line of argument needs a new paragraph, and there should be a clear
progression from one paragraph to the next.
Drawing out the development and connections in this way makes the communication
flow from point to point in a smooth way. You can also assist this by directly linking
paragraphs to each other – for example, setting up the next paragraph by the way in
which you end the preceding one, or beginning the next one with a point raised in the
previous one, which is then developed further.
(b) Headings
Headings and sub-headings act as signposts to the reader. They orientate the reader
to the specific subject under discussion, but they also indicate the relationships
between different topics by the way in which they are brought together under particular
headings. Sub-headings bring out the hierarchical relationships between information –
as in this section of the unit, where overall structure and structuring devices are
considered as subsidiary aspects of the importance of structure. (This is considerably
helped by the numbering, as we discuss below.)
Headings should be concise and as explicit as possible. They are often used to scan a
report in order to pick out particular information and vague headings do not make this
very easy.
Decisions about what headings to use can be an important part of planning the overall
framework of a communication. Establishing the headings may, therefore, be an early
step in preparing the communication.
Note that headings are rarely used in business letters with the exception of an opening
"title" to the letter.
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(c) Numbering
Numbering has two purposes:
 it helps to show the relationships between pieces of information – so, for
example, sections numbered 1.1, 1.2, etc. are clearly subsidiary to a section
numbered 1; and
 it facilitates reference to particular parts of the communication, either internally
within the text or by readers in discussion of it – as in, for example, "see
paragraph 4".
There are many different methods of doing this. For example, main section headings
may be numbered 1, 2, 3, etc. with sub-sections numbered 1.1, 1.2, etc. Further sub-
headings could also be numbered, although the length of number (say, "1.3.7") can
tend to get excessive and be distracting.
Some organisations number the individual paragraphs of formal reports in order to
facilitate discussion. There are, again, various ways of doing this, including:
 numbering paragraphs sequentially from 1 to 999 or whatever, with headings
either not being numbered or being differentiated by using letters;
 numbering the paragraphs as subsidiaries of the headings – so that, for example,
paragraphs under section 2 would be numbered 2.1, 2.2, etc.
Whatever the system used, it is important to be clear and consistent throughout.
Note that, as with headings, numbering is not used in letters.
(d) Layout
The way in which information is set out on the page can be a considerable aid to the
structuring of a document, as well as assisting readability and emphasising meaning.
There are a number of rules and guidelines about laying out material, of which the first
is perhaps the most important.
 Be consistent
If you use a particular device for a particular purpose – for example the use of
capital letters for main headings, or the use of bold text for emphasis – stick to
that use throughout. Do not switch to another device for the same effect, or use
one effect for several different purposes.
 Be sparing
There is nothing worse than reading a document prepared by someone who has
just discovered the range of different fonts, sizes and text effects now available
with word processing packages. The overuse of these is very common, but
invariably does nothing to enhance either the readability or attractiveness of the
document. Large amounts of text in italics or in capital letters are particularly
difficult to read quickly.
Effect is gained by the occasional use of these devices.
 White space helps
The introduction of white space around text helps to differentiate between
sections of text and show relationships between information.
You will be aware of the first of these by the use of paragraphs, where the single
blank line between them helps to break up the density of text on the page and
make the distinction clearer. Additional space around headings can also make
them stand out.
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Indentation is another device which can assist structuring – indented text is

subsidiary to the text which precedes it.
 Take care with bullets and numbered lists
Again, these devices can be used to show the subsidiary nature of certain
information. However, you should be very careful about using them in business
communications, or indeed in academic work. They are, essentially, informal
devices which are not generally accepted in these settings.
D. THE IMPORTANCE OF CLARITY

In both spoken and written communication, the way in which we choose our words and the
way in which we construct sentences, paragraphs and our speech will have great impact on
the successful receipt of our messages. Clarity of language is important in three specific
ways:
 the need to convey ideas precisely;
 the need to establish a suitable and positive relationship;
 the need to create a favourable impression – of yourself and/or of the organisation you
represent.
The production of well-balanced and accessible material, whether spoken or written, can be
facilitated by the clarity of the language – sentence construction, grammar, syntax, and
spelling. A number of rules can be identified.
Writing Good English

The English language has immense vigour, range and vitality. It owes these qualities largely
to its great flexibility since, as an instrument of communication, it has far fewer rules and
patterns than most other European languages, including French and German. However, an
inevitable side-effect of this flexibility is that it can become vague or ambiguous unless used
carefully.
(a) Keep it simple and precise
The writer George Orwell, in an essay called Politics and the English Language, gave
six essential rules for precision in language which you should constantly bear in mind:
 Never use a metaphor (e.g. "a lion of a man", "a dream of a car") or a simile (e.g.
"as brave as a lion", "it goes like a dream") which you are used to reading in
print. It could become a cliché, and if you gave it a bit more thought you could
probably come up with a better description.
 Never use a long word where a short one will do.
 If you can leave a word out, do so.
 Never use a foreign word, scientific word, or jargon word or phrase where a
simple, everyday English equivalent will give the same meaning.
 Never use the passive where you can use the active.
 Break any of these rules rather than say something which is downright
barbarous.
We can summarise these as follows:
Always write as simply and directly as you can, in language which will
be clearest to the largest range of possible readers.
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All Orwell's points are clear enough, but the fifth perhaps needs expansion if you're
unused to the language of formal grammar. The passive is that kind of expression
which tells you that something was done, not that somebody did it.
 "Action was taken early in the morning" is passive.
 "I took action early in the morning" is active.
Why did Orwell prefer the active to the passive?
 It is far more direct and forceful, making clear that people initiate actions, rather
than suggesting that actions somehow happen by themselves.
 It is more honest. The active voice leaves no doubt as to who is responsible for
a particular action. When you avoid this in business correspondence, you may
give the reader the impression that you wish to conceal something, or to deny
responsibility. This can seriously endanger a relationship of trust between writer
and reader which is so essential in business communication.
Expressing yourself clearly is important not only in conveying your ideas but also in
establishing trust between you and your reader – a vital element in business.
(b) Use short sentences and paragraphs
Short sentences are nearly always more effective than long sentences. To be
persuaded of this, look at one of James Joyce's most famous books, Ulysses. One
chapter is written as a single sentence. As a consequence it is extremely hard work!
Some suggest that sentences of 12 – 15 words are ideal for business communications.
You may have to work on this if your natural instinct is to use longer sentences.
Graduates, for example, have been found to use longer sentences than non-graduates.
This is probably a consequence of using a great many reference books, which
themselves tend to use longer sentences.
To be effective, keep punctuation to a minimum. Use commas only where you need a
pause to make your meaning clear. Pay particular attention to the proper use of full
stops instead of commas. Full stops divide text into sentences and each sentence
should only contain one idea or related ideas. Often you may see a comma used
instead of a full stop to link two units of expression which are really separate
sentences. This is wrong, and an example will make it clear to you:
Always make sure that fire doors are closed at all times, failure to do this
will allow fires to spread very rapidly.
This passage is wrongly punctuated. It should be punctuated as follows:
Always make sure that fire doors are closed at all times. Failure to do this
will allow fires to spread very rapidly.
Paragraphs should also be short. It has been suggested that for successful business
communications, the ideal paragraph length is 6 – 8 lines.
One useful technique for conveying meaning quickly is called signposting. This is
where you deliberately aim to get to the point of the paragraph as quickly as possible.
For example, take the following sentence, which might open a paragraph:
"In response to many letters and telephone calls, and following extensive
discussions, we have decided to introduce the new product in January."
The important part of the message – the introduction of the product – is right at the end
of the sentence. Far better to signpost as follows.
© ABE and RRC

"The new product will be introduced in January. The decision has been
taken following many letters and telephone calls and extensive
discussions."
Signposting is effective because when the reader first looks at a piece of writing, he or
she often "skims" over the opening lines of each paragraph. In this way it is possible to
get the meaning across much more quickly.
Vocabulary
Whatever channel of communication you use, the effectiveness of the message will be
largely dependent on the individual words selected to reflect your meaning.
We have a word-based culture which is used for us to communicate all our feelings,
thoughts, attitudes and prejudices; or which can be deliberately manipulated to produce
puns, double meanings, poetry or prose. We also have perceptions which we use to help us
describe events, people, and scenery.
We use an internal selection process based on our education and experience to choose the
right word or phrase for every context in which we find ourselves. Often our vocabulary will
change according to that of the person with whom we are communicating. We may adopt
mannerisms or accents subconsciously in particular situations. What is certain is that we
take words for granted and believe that the meaning we attribute to them is the true meaning,
our pronunciation the correct one, and the context in which we use them appropriate.
There are a number of basic rules to use in ensuring that this is true.
(a) Avoid colloquial language and slang
This kind of language is used by members of particular groups of people. It is a
relaxed, informal language, used mainly in speech and personal letters. In such
contexts, the language is appropriate, as it is clear, vigorous and confirms that the user
is a member of the group.
In business communication, however, such language is usually unsuitable, mainly
because it is imprecise. It's perfectly acceptable when leaving a friend to say "See
you" or "I'll give you a buzz", but in a business communication you need to give a
clearer indication of when the next meeting or contact will take place. Additionally, if
you use slang in business documents you will give an impression of laziness and a lack
of respect for your reader, which in turn suggests a lack of care for detail and accuracy
in business matters. It is best to avoid colloquial language in business communication.
(b) Avoid clichés
Clichés are words or phrases which have been used so frequently that they have
effectively lost any force which they once had. To speak of "leaving no stone unturned"
or "establishing a meaningful dialogue", or to refer to "this day and age" or "the calm
before the storm" is to use a pattern of words which has really become exhausted.
Instead of clichés, try to use fresh, direct expressions which convey the same ideas but
in a more straightforward way. Saying "I will do all I can" is more forceful than "leaving
no stone unturned", for example, because it stresses a direct personal intent.
(c) Avoid redundant expressions
Many people feel that expressing a simple thought in a complex group of words makes
it sound more respectable or more impressive.
 "At this moment in time" has become a very popular expression, but in fact it
means nothing more than "Now".
 "Due to the fact that" is far less effective than "Because".
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 "Conducted a full and frank exchange of views" says nothing more than
"Discussed" or "Talked".
Always be aware of such expressions. We all fall into the trap of using them at times,
simply because, in an age when oral communication through broadcasting is such a
dominant influence, it is hard to avoid hearing them. Make a point of rooting them out
when reading through any item of business communication which you have drafted.
You will greatly improve your communication if you do.
(d) Avoid jargon
There are two types of jargon:
 There is the expression which members of a particular group use simply because
it has become the custom. Such phrases include foreign expressions such as
"inter alia" instead of "among other things", or fashionable words such as
"parameters" instead of "limits" and "discrete components" instead of "separate
parts". Expressions of this kind serve only to obscure rather than reveal your
ideas, and you should avoid them.
 The second kind of jargon is more positive. In any specialised occupation or
area of interest, new concepts will emerge which people refer to by specific
groups of words. If a theatre critic talks of an "alienation effect" or a psychiatrist
refers to "sensory deprivation", other members of the same group will know what
he or she is describing. Those outside the group may have difficulty in
understanding, and they will have to learn the special meaning to participate in
the group. Language of this kind is acceptable where it is the clearest way of
expressing the idea or phenomenon it names and where it is used to other
members of a group who will understand it without question.
However, where you are writing as a specialist to a lay person – for example,
when explaining a legal aspect of accountancy to a client – you should always be
careful to explain such terms when you first use them, or translate the terms into
ordinary language.
(e) Avoid discriminatory language
We should always ensure that we do not allow prejudice to show in our choice of
language, either in spoken or in written communication. This is a basic requirement in
showing consideration for the recipient of the message, whether you know them or not.
Problems can occur especially in the field of discriminatory language. This derives
from the making of assumptions about the individual or group to which we are referring,
based on stereotypical attitudes. The use of sexist or racist language is extremely bad
practice, and in some situations may be actually contravening the law. Usually it is
easy to see the pitfalls, but indirect discrimination – as the following examples show –
can also occur with remarkable ease!
Consider the following statements which are only too common:
 "Let me speak to Mr. Brown's secretary – I am sure that she will be able to help
me."
 "Please tell the doctor that he should call as soon as possible."
 "I want to advertise a vacancy for an office junior. She should have good
keyboard skills."
In these examples, it is quite possible that Mr Brown's secretary is a woman, and that
the doctor is a man. However, it may well not be the case, and the assumption that
they are is very offensive. Many office juniors are female, but this is not necessary
(and such discrimination in recruitment is unlawful).
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The Seven Cs
This approach sets out a range of practical points which will help you to convey the content
of messages effectively.
(a) Clear
If the message is ambiguous or otherwise unclear, then the communication itself will be
a waste of time and effort. Careful thought needs to be given to the composition of the
communication, so that the ideas are ordered and the words and phrases used are
clear in expression and meaning. This may mean defining particular technical terms or
lesser known concepts or procedures. Short, simple, structured sentences help, as
does the use of headings (particularly in reports and memoranda, although there is no
reason why they cannot be used in letters to help clarify different topics or, even, in oral
presentations).
One problem often encountered is the need to refer to other documents (or, at least,
extracts from them) or to background information. The inclusion of such material in the
main part of the communication can be extremely confusing. If it is necessary to
supply extra detailed information to support a point, this is best placed in an appendix
at the back of a report, attached as an enclosure to a letter, or given as a hand-out to
support an oral presentation. This ensures that the recipient focuses on the central
messages of the communication and does not become distracted by too much
extraneous detail.
(b) Concise
Sometimes it will be necessary to spend time explaining a particularly important issue,
but brevity – compatible with the complexity of the information being conveyed – will
help to get the message home. This does not mean that you should cut corners in
conveying the information. It means that you should give careful thought to the most
effective and most economical way in which you can express your ideas.
Often, we are tempted to dress up our language to make it sound "important". If we
can resist this, we will still be able to produce professional and appropriate
communications which are not full of "verbal padding".
(c) Correct
In most business communications, accuracy is of paramount importance. The
implications of inaccuracies can be very serious indeed, particularly when recorded in
official documents. It is, therefore, vital that all facts and figures should be checked.
And, do not lose sight of the need to check the text for errors, especially in figures,
names (there is nothing worse than misspelling someone's name on a letter!) and
addresses.
(d) Courteous
In any form of communication, it pays to consider it as a personal address to the
recipient(s). This applies to communication across the board – to customers or clients,
to colleagues, or to subordinates alike. "Tone" conveys much about the organisation,
and perhaps about you as an individual, and this can have a great influence on future
relationships. Thus, in trying to be brief, do not be curt, do not be afraid to introduce
personal references where appropriate (using "I" or "you"), be polite and use friendly
language rather than formal "officialese", which is a barrier to communication.
(e) Complete
It can be very frustrating to be on the receiving end of a communication – perhaps
something which you have been awaiting with some eagerness – only to find that it
gives only half the picture, or half the answers to your questions! It is important,
therefore, to ensure that you deal with each piece of information fully.
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There may, of course, be occasions when it is impossible to give a complete answer –

for example, if you are awaiting information yourself. If this is the case, you need to
state that clearly, so that the recipient knows when and how to expect a full response.
Being complete may mean going beyond what were your original terms of reference for
the communication. Other information may need to be brought in, in order for the
complete picture to be presented.
(f) Consistent
The flow of language is considerably aided by consistency in its use, such as
standardising the person and tense used, and sticking to a particular style and tone
throughout. There are a number of issues involved in this:
 adopting a consistent and clear usage of non-gender specific phrasing (to avoid
the use of "he" all the time which you will find in most older texts), although this
can mean using rather convoluted phrasing or an overuse of "he/she" or "(s)he",
which can look and sound clumsy;
 choosing between "I" and the more anonymous "we" in formal presentations,
both of which have their advantages at different times;
 the convention of business letter and reports being written in the passive voice ("it
may be seen that ....") can give rise to phrasing difficulties and also conflicts with
the more direct and courteous use of active voices ("you will see that ...."), but it
can be confusing to switch between the two too often.
Where there is a particular "house" style which needs to be followed for all
communications within an organisation, this can constrain choice, but there remains
the need to be consistent.
(g) Convincing
This last point is often overlooked. It is very important to show confidence and
commitment in what you communicate, even though there may be times when you do
not actually feel that in what you have to do at work. Doubt, ambiguity and vagueness
come through very clearly in all forms of communication. Messages need to be
conveyed with conviction or they will not be taken seriously.
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101
Study Unit 4
Oral and Non-Verbal Communication
Contents Page
Introduction 102
A. Basic Skills of Oral Communication 102

The Importance of Planning 102
Verbal Skills 103
Effective Listening 104
Questioning 107
B. Using the Telephone 108

Understanding the Equipment 108
Making Telephone Calls 108
Answering a Call 110
C. Face-to-Face Encounters 111

Unplanned Meetings 111
Planned Meetings 113
Giving a Presentation or Speech to an Audience 119
Formal Interviews 128
Types of Interview 131
D. Non-Verbal Communication and Personal Presentation 133

Body Movements 133
Head and Face Signals 135
Vocal Signals 136
Dress and General Appearance 136
E. Non-Verbal Communication and the Physical Environment 137

Arrangement of Furniture 137
Office Design 138
F. Design and Presentation in Written Communication 139

Text Enhancements 139
Page Design and Layout 141
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102 Oral and Non-Verbal Communication
INTRODUCTION
Communicating with others through speech comes naturally to us all. We learn the skill at a
very young age and rarely have to think too much about the processes involved. However, in
business, the various forms of oral communication place particular demands on the
participants and it is important to understand both the requirements of the form and the
processes which underlie this type of communication.
Again we shall be stressing throughout the essential principles of effective communication
discussed earlier in the course. You really should know these by now! However, there is no
getting away from the importance of being clear about the purpose of the communication,
understanding the audience and organising and structuring the content to best effect. The
first part of the unit considers the application of these principles in relation to different forms
and aspects of oral communication.
Oral communication is invariably a two-way process involving an interaction of some sort
between two or more people. Personal interactions are driven as much by non-verbal
communication as the words that are spoken. These non-verbal cues which we all give and
are very well attuned to interpreting include body language, appearance and tone. There are
other non-verbal elements which also intrude on the communication process. In respect of
oral communication, these are the physical surroundings within which the interaction takes
place, but we can also characterise elements of presentation and tone in written
communication as being non-verbal signals which give their own messages alongside those
contained in the text.
You should note that one of the reasons that using the telephone is given so much attention
is that it is the one form of oral communication in which there is no intrusion of body
language and most other forms of non-verbal communication.
A. BASIC SKILLS OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

Obviously speaking – verbal skills – is a key part oral communication, but this is only one
element. Allied to speaking is listening. Further, since most oral communication takes the
form of an interaction between two or more people, there is also a feedback aspect to the
process. This comes via questioning.
Before we consider these specific skills, though, we need to remind ourselves of one
neglected part of the overall principles of effective communication – planning.
The Importance of Planning

You need to plan all kinds of oral communication where you know in advance that the
interaction is going to take place. We realise this in respect of having to make formal
presentations like speeches, but tend to ignore it for less formal communications. This can
be a mistake. Even telephone calls need to be planned in some way if you are to make the
communication effective.
The demands of preparation will vary between different kinds of oral communication, but
there are certain principles which are basic to all such occasions:
 Clarify your ideas
Make sure that you know exactly what you have to communicate. If it is actual in
nature, check that it is accurate. If it is an opinion, make sure that it is completely
defined in your mind, and that you have all the necessary evidence to support it.
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Oral and Non-Verbal Communication 103
 Know your purpose

Set yourself a realistic aim for the meeting or discussion. Knowing what you are aiming
to achieve in an encounter will make the whole process far more efficient – although
you should take care not to overlook the importance of human contact in your desire to
achieve the goals you set.
 Consider your audience
In the same way as you have to make sure when writing that your style is suitable for
the reader, you have to try, in speaking, to use language which is accessible to your
listener or listeners. Age, background, relationship and other factors have to be taken
into account before you start the session, and you should scan for reaction and modify
your language where necessary when it is under way. If the audience has trouble
understanding a speech, then it is of little value.
 Cut out irrelevances
Make sure that you do not confuse the listener(s) by talking about irrelevant matters.
Think carefully, and make sure that you keep to the point.
 Consider non-verbal elements
These are something else you must be aware of, so that you convey the right attitude
throughout the meeting or speech. (We'll discuss them in more detail later in the unit.)
 Define actions to be taken
Think about what action will be necessary after the meeting and who should take it.
You may be unable to do this precisely until the meeting is over, but try to have it in
mind as you go along.
Verbal Skills
How we express ourselves with language and respond to others is an important aspect of all
oral communication – in face-to-face encounters or over the telephone. We speak to make
ourselves understood – to convey our thoughts, ideas and proposals. But verbal
communication is also an activity through which we form an actual and immediate
relationship with those with whom we communicate in a way that written communication
cannot. This immediate and personal relationship with our audience is the arena where
much business takes place.
Accuracy in, and an appropriate choice of, language are obviously central to conveying
meaning in the way intended. Thus, you need to beware of using jargon or unnecessary
technical words, and not using language which either is beyond the understanding of your
audience or appears to "talk down" to them. You also need to be thoroughly in command of
the language which should be used and be able to articulate your meaning properly at all
times.
Verbal communication is not, though, just about which words we choose, but also
encompasses a number of other factors.
(a) Pronunciation
Clarity of speech, for example using the correct pronunciation for words and taking time
to say words and phrases properly, is essential.
Accents can play a part in this. Take care to speak slowly if your audience do not have
the same accent as yourself or may be unfamiliar with it. Affecting particular accents –
either "posh" or working class, or even regional – always sounds insincere and should
be avoided.
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Failure to speak clearly results in ambiguity and misunderstanding. Avoid the following
problems of articulation:
 Mumbling
 Hesitancy
 Reading every word like a "robot"
 Missing off the beginning or ends of words
(b) Structure of argument
If you plan what you have to say and understand both the points you intend to make
and the potential responses to them, then you ought to be able to express your ideas
and proposals clearly and simply.
Your ideas should follow a logical sequence and allow the listener the opportunity to
consider each point in turn. A circular or apparently random argument can be difficult
to follow in oral communication where there is no opportunity to refer back to previous
ideas without constant interruptions for questions.
(c) Stress
You may choose to stress important words or syllables, much as you may highlight or
underline written text.
Stress may change the meaning of an entire sentence. For example, consider the
effect of changing the stress in the following expression:
We may need to improve sales by 10%.
They way in which you emphasise meaning will have a profound impact.
(d) Tone
The tone of your voice indicates your emotional response and enthusiasm for what you
are saying. Consider the following sentence and say it to yourself as if you are
amazed, curious, angry, disapproving or sympathetic. The words don't change but
your tone and the stress you place on particular words will.
"When did you get back?"
(e) Volume
Make sure that people can hear you, but don't shout or heckle them. The volume of a
person's voice usually depends on the distance between speaker and listener and the
nature of what he/she is saying.
(f) Rhythm and pace
There is no need to rush any oral presentation. Plan what you have to say for the time
allocated and adopt a pace which allows you to achieve this. Similarly, lengthy pauses
between points or phrases are extremely irritating.
Effective Listening
Listening is the other "end" of the communication process to speaking and the process
needs both ends to be working for the whole communication to be effective. However, we
often pay little attention to the need to develop our skills in listening.
Many people imagine that listening is something that just happens. However, it is important
that you distinguish between hearing and listening. Hearing is what might happen when you
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have the radio playing in the background whilst you do something else. Listening is an
active rather than a passive function. This means engaging your mind and your memory,
concentrating and being active in seeking information from the speaker and then organising,
interpreting and storing it.
Developing your listening skills puts you in a better position to obtain the necessary and
relevant information in business situations. It also helps you avoid time-wasting by asking
unnecessary questions and shows interest and understanding to the speaker. Combining
these benefits will help you to maintain good relations with both internal colleagues and
external contacts. This is particularly important when a customer is trying to air grievances.
(a) Problems in listening
Poor listening invariably results in misunderstanding. The reverse of this means that
good listening must promote understanding. We need, therefore, to identify what
causes poor listening.
The major problem in listening is not paying sufficient attention.
Everyone is capable, consciously or otherwise, of "switching off". Your thought
processes operate four times faster than most people speak and as a listener you may
allow your mind to wander. It has been estimated by some researchers that as much
as 80% of a message can be lost in a formal presentation situation.
The causes of inattention include several that are external to the listener:
 The presentation by the speaker – whether in a formal speech or a casual
meeting – seems to you to be dull or irrelevant.
 The information being presented uses language which you cannot fully follow –
for example it is too technical.
 Information overload – where there is simply too much information to take in.
 Distractions/noise – either physical noise or any other form of disruption to the
communication process from the outside.
To some extent these problems are outside the control of the listener, although we
could always say that they indicate a need to concentrate harder. However, there are
some problems which are under our control, arising from the state of mind of the
listener.
 Many breakdowns in communication occur because people do not listen to what
is actually said. Rather a process known as filtering or filtering out occurs
where we hear what we want or expected to hear.
 Prejudices or fixed ideas about things may intrude – if you are listening to
something with which you disagree, you may react by pretending to listen but
may tune out of the communication and become angry and distracted from the
message. Going into a conference with the preconceived idea that the speaker
will be boring or predictable is not likely to promote careful listening to his/her
message.
 Lack of time – if you are in a hurry or under pressure, your ability to understand a
message "first time around" will be affected.
 Emotions and having "other things on your mind" – an anxious, excited or
distracted person cannot usually concentrate effectively.
In many instances it is possible to overcome these problems by consciously working on
them.
© ABE and RRC

(b) Principles of active listening

The basis of active listening is to develop and maintain a positive relationship with the
person or persons speaking. This applies even where there can be no personal
relationship as such – for example, when listening to a speech at a conference. Where
there is such a personal relationship – say, in one-to-one encounters – it is important to
keep the information flowing and this requires action on the part of the listener as well
as the speaker.
This type of active listening involves two elements:
 Attentive listening in order to be able to identify, select and interpret information
and meaning; and
 Empathetic listening to attune oneself with others and to seek common ground
on attitudes, feelings and emotions (empathy is "putting oneself in someone
else's shoes").
(c) Techniques to improve listening
There are a number of techniques available to enable you to focus properly on the
communication and develop empathy with your partner(s) in the communication.
 In situations where it is possible to plan ahead, such as a telephone call which is
expected or a training course, write down your objectives or preferred outcomes
in advance and make a note as each is addressed or discussed.
 Actively concentrate on what the other person is saying and make a conscious
attempt to understand. This means actively listening for key facts or points, trying
to identify and interpret the message in your own words and committing the
interaction to memory. Being a patient listener and letting the person speak
without interruption helps this.
 Listen for feelings and emotions on the part of the speaker – this helps in
understanding the speaker's point of view. As well as listening to what is actually
said, you also need to pay attention to what is not said and to observing non-
verbal signals. These all provide clues about the speaker's attitudes, etc.
 Shut out your own emotional response to the message if that seems to be
interfering with understanding. You need to be open-minded and guard against
prejudice and stereotyping.
 Take notes where possible – this combines the benefits of oral and written
communication.
 Be positive in your responses. This involves looking to advancing the
communication rather stalling it by disagreement. In dealing with complaints, it is
particularly important not to argue and, instead, look for solutions.
 Provide feedback to the speaker. This can be done either by verbal responses or
through body language and has a number of effects.
(i) Asking questions allows you to check or develop your understanding or
seek clarification, as well as letting the speaker know that you are
concentrating on – and, at least attempting to follow – his/her remarks.
(ii) Summarising your understanding at what seem to be key points or breaks
in the communication – perhaps by paraphrasing the message as
understood in your own words – allows you to check that understanding as
well as providing the opportunity for the speaker to correct
misunderstandings.
© ABE and RRC

(iii) Using appropriate body language to provide a stream of positive signals

back to the speaker. This shows, continuously, that you are being attentive
and empathetic with the speaker. The techniques include making eye
contact, nodding your head in agreement or making encouraging
sounds/statements, such as "mm-hmm", "that's interesting" and "I
understand", etc. Remember also the opposite of this – if you sit in a
meeting and lean back with your hands behind your head, this conveys lack
of interest or lethargy. If, on the other hand, you sit forward and
deliberately show interest by eye contact and facial gesture, your listening
capability will almost certainly be enhanced and you will develop your
relationship with others.
Questioning
We noted briefly above the role of questioning in active listening. It enables you to seek
information as part of the interaction involved in oral communication.
The quality of questioning is important. One way of considering this is to note the difference
between open and closed questions:
(a) Closed questions are those which have only a very limited range of responses – often
only "yes" or "no". For example, asking someone if they have done something invites
just those two alternatives. These types of question tend to close down opportunities
for discussion. They should be used sparingly, if at all. They can be useful, though, for
determining the other person's position on an issue as a prelude to a follow-up
question which does open up the discussion.
(b) Open questions invite a more developed response, often involving the speaker's
opinions or feelings as well more information or evidence in support of an argument.
These questions are of the form:
 Why is a course of action being adopted?
 Who will be carrying out such a task?
 When will actions be carried out?
 What has to be done?
 Where will we act?
 How will a task be approached?
 What if certain circumstances arise?
Asking open questions such as those above opens up the conversation to bring about a
greater two-way flow of information – remember that communication always works better
when the two-way flow can be enhanced as much as possible.
You should also beware of leading questions. These are questions which, in their wording
or their tone, suggest a particular answer and, again they do little to take the communication
forward. In fact, they are usually inviting confirmation of the questioner's position, rather than
opening up the discussion.
Questions are more effective when used to clarify (i.e. to explain or make easily understood)
rather than justify (i.e. prove or show to be right) a point of view or preferred approach to a
problem or issue.
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B. USING THE TELEPHONE

Telephones are now an integral part of business communications, but they are complex
pieces of equipment which you have to use carefully to benefit from their full potential.
Understanding the Equipment

Telephone systems used by businesses are becoming increasingly sophisticated. It is
possible to:
 Transfer a call internally from one extension to another.
 Divert calls to another extension either if you are busy or do not wish to be disturbed.
 Put calls on hold while you speak to another internal extension or even take another
outside call on the same line.
 Arrange for several extensions or outside lines to be connected for a conference call.
 Programme a computerised phone to dial numbers you have to call frequently by using
a single digit code, and carry out other similar functions.
 Set up tailored messages to greet callers if you are away from the phone and unable to
take the call. Messages may be left and these can be sorted and stored if necessary
after listening to them.
New facilities are being added to office phones all the time, and there is also the
development of mobile phones to consider. These obviously allow you to take and receive
calls away from your usual telephone. Another feature of these phones is the ability to send
text messages, which although not particularly easy to use in constructing anything more
than very brief messages, can be very useful for sending or confirming short pieces of
information such as meeting times. Some mobile phones offer access to the Internet and
hence to E-mail facilities, although the lack of a fully functional keyboard limits the use of this.
It is important that you know how to use the various facilities of your telephone. This will
enable you to help callers efficiently, and convey a favourable impression of your firm. It will
also enable you to carry out business quickly and effectively.
Making Telephone Calls

Wherever possible, you should adopt the same approach to making telephone calls as to
other forms of formal communication. Most business calls have a clear purpose and
planning is the most effective means of enabling that purpose to be achieved. The planning
framework we considered before is most helpful in this respect – PASS.
(a) Purpose
Sort out the specific purposes of the call in your own mind before even thinking about
making it. Write down the overall aim of the call and note the various key points that
you need to make to get this overall aim across.
This will also help in gathering all the relevant information necessary. It is important to
have that information to hand during the call as you do not want to go off and find it
during the course of the conversation – leaving the other person hanging on is very
discourteous and off-putting (even a few seconds silence waiting for the caller to return
can seem like ages). Thus, if the subject of the call is to arrange a meeting, make sure
you have your diary with you, or if you are calling about a particular invoice, have the
invoice and any other information relating to it next to you.
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(b) Audience
Think carefully about who you are calling as this will influence a number of factors in
the call. For example, you need to think about when would be the best time to call – at
a time when the other person will be available, one which suits the other person or
even possibly at a time which you know will not suit them.
One thing you must remember about telephone calls is that there is no body language
to provide signals and cues about the other person and their reaction to you (or,
indeed, the same on your part). You need, therefore, to think carefully about what is an
appropriate style to adopt for the particular person.
(c) Style
In the absence of any non-verbal cues from body language, the way in which you
speak – tone, pitch, pace and volume – and the form of expression used are very
important. You should always try to sound interested and enthusiastic by varying the
tone and pitch of your voice (speaking in monotones can give the impression of
boredom) and add affirmative remarks into the conversation to keep the flow going and
provide feedback to the other person.
Other aspects of style include:
 Speaking clearly, in your normal voice – there is no merit in putting on an affected
"telephone voice".
 Do not try to speak too quickly or too slowly, as the listener may lose track of
what is being said.
 Be careful with pronunciation. Telephone connections can be very poor at
transmitting certain sounds at the best of times and confusion can occur
between, for example, "fifteen" and "fifty". It can also be difficult to make out
words which you have not heard before, such as names and addresses. To
avoid these problems, you can spell such words.
 Always be courteous. Remember that you are representing the public face of
your company when making telephone calls outside the organisation and you
need to give the right impression. Avoid being abrupt as this can seem very
disrespectful of the other person.
 Ensure that you are not going to be interrupted during the course of the call.
(d) Structure
The same principles apply as we have seen before – the telephone conversation
should have a beginning, a middle and an end.
 The opening section should be used to ensure the other person is aware of the
subject of the call, is the right person to deal with it (if you were not certain
beforehand) and the two of you are at ease with one another by exchanging
some general chat before getting down to the real business.
 The middle section should concentrate on covering the detail of the subject
matter clearly and concisely, allowing for any discussion to ensure complete
understanding. Having some notes of the points you need to get across, in order,
can be very helpful here.
 The concluding section of the call should ensure that you are both clear about
what courses of action have been agreed and that there is a common
understanding of the subject matter. It is also always good practice to end a call
with some general pleasantries so that you part on good terms.
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You will generally find it helpful to take notes of telephone conversations as they occur,
and these notes may be written up afterwards in a more formal way to provide a record
of the conversation. It is sometimes necessary to write a letter formally setting out the
content of the call so that it is a matter of record for both parties.
The first part of a call can sometimes seem the most difficult, so the following notes are
designed to identify the correct procedure.
 First of all you have to dial the number. Whoever answers the call should identify
him or herself, or give the company's name. If this is not the case, you should
check that you have the correct number.
 If you have not got straight through to the person you knew beforehand that
wanted to speak to, you need to ask for that person. If you do not have a named
contact, you need to explain briefly the nature of your call and ask to be put
through to an appropriate person who can deal with the subject.
 Once you are through to a specific person, if you do not know them, you must
give details about yourself – name, company, company business and your role in
the company – and then outline the nature of the subject you are calling about. It
is always best to check that the person you are speaking to is indeed the person
who deals with this subject.
 Always make sure you are clear about the name of the person you are speaking
to – you may need to contact him/her again or refer to him/her in any written
follow-up.
Answering a Call
When you answer the telephone you are, to all intents and purposes, the public face of the
company (or at least its voice!). You do not necessarily know who is calling and what the call
may be about, so you need to be prepared for anything.
The most important point to make is that you convey a friendly, courteous and efficient image
to the caller. This will start the call off in the most advantageous way and make things as
easy as possible.
You should always answer the telephone by giving your name and, generally, the
department/section's name. This helps to orientate the caller to you and your work, helps
him/her know if they have got through to the right person or section and opens the
conversation on a personal note. Few things are more irritating than to be kept waiting for
several seconds for a phone to be answered, only to be met with a curt "Hello"!
If you do not know the caller, you need to establish who they are, the company they
represent or in what capacity they are ringing, and the subject of the call. These are the very
same things that we noted above should be given by the caller, but as the receiver, you need
to clarify these things at the outset.
From there on, you should try to deal with the call in the most efficient and friendly matter.
The following points are relevant.
 If you cannot help the caller, say so, and suggest someone else who can. Try and
connect them to that person if possible, and if you cannot, take a message and arrange
for the other person to call them back.
 If you can help, do so quickly. Calls are expensive – and apart from this, rapid service
will impress a caller with your firm's efficiency.
 If you cannot give any information required immediately, but think you may be able to
find it, suggest that you call back. This will save time and money for the caller, and
also allow you time to find the relevant material. As in the case of making a call, it is
bad practice to leave callers hanging on whilst you go looking for information.
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 If you did not get the caller's name, position and number (including extension) when he
or she called, make sure that you get them before you ring off. This will ensure that
you know whom to contact should the need arise.
 Make notes as the call is progressing and write these up into a formal record of the
conversation if necessary.
Whenever you take a message on behalf of someone else within the organisation, ensure
that you make a written record of the message and pass it on to the person concerned. Most
organisations have a standard form for recording telephone messages (see the last unit) and
this should always be used.
C. FACE-TO-FACE ENCOUNTERS
Personal face-to-face encounters may be planned or unplanned. Planned encounters may
be formal or informal. In this section we shall go on to look at examples of planned
encounters later, but we shall start by reviewing the nature of informal, unplanned
encounters.
Unplanned Meetings
Although most business communication with other individuals takes place at planned
interviews and meetings, much still occurs at times when two people meet by chance – in the
corridor, at lunchtime, or at any other time during the working day. These encounters provide
just as much opportunity for effective oral communication to achieve a purpose and convey
information or opinions of some sort.
There are certainly good reasons for using such encounters in this way but there are also
factors which argue against it.
(a) Advantages
Chance meetings have a number of benefits.
 Speed
The great advantage of seeing someone by chance is that it allows you to by-
pass "the usual channels". You can say what you have to say directly, without
making an appointment or waiting until the other person is free. This may enable
you to clear up a matter straight away, which can only help efficiency.
 Directness
The lack of time for chance encounters can help those involved to reach a
decision speedily – although, as you will see later, this may not always be a good
thing.
 Informality
Some points would appear too important if you were to make them the subject of
a special meeting. By raising them in passing, you can avoid appearing
mistrustful or inquisitive.
A related advantage is that, because there is no record of such meetings, they
are a useful way of informally gauging people's reactions to new ideas.
 The human touch
Having a few words with someone in passing will maintain contact at a human
level, which is important when dealing with staff on a lower level than yourself.
Simply chatting about the weather will help to develop a relationship of trust, and
© ABE and RRC

discussing work-related issues will show that you have a genuine interest in the
people who work for you.
(b) Disadvantages
There are, though, real problems with relying on unplanned encounters to achieve a
particular purpose.
 Lack of time
Because such meetings have not been scheduled, both parties will probably be in
a hurry. This means that messages can be wrongly expressed and understood,
and any decisions you take might not be the best ones. Always be wary of trying
to do too much in a situation like this.
 Lack of preparation
This is the largest single disadvantage. Even if you have all the information at
your fingertips, it is unlikely that the other person will. This means that any
discussion will be very limited. In addition, it may well prejudice the listener
against a fuller, later discussion if the matter was raised in an incomplete way in
the first place. The best rule is to avoid raising complicated issues at meetings
like these.
 Lack of privacy
Discussing confidential matters in public places – which is where such
encounters will often take place – is not a good idea. It may encourage rumours
if snippets of the conversations are overheard out of context. This is never a
good thing, so avoid it if you can.
 Lack of control
In a planned meeting there are various ways in which you can structure the
discussion, moving on to new points at the best times. In an unplanned
encounter, you cannot do this, and inaccurate or incomplete communication may
well result.
 Striking at the wrong time
For most people, there are good and bad times to discuss certain issues. You
may be lucky and raise the issue at just the right time; on the other hand, you
may have chosen completely the wrong time for such a matter. The only way to
avoid such a problem is to stick to clearly defined meeting procedures unless you
are sure how the person will react. Gauging this is something you will only learn
by working with people and getting to know their personalities and general
attitudes.
You can see that there are points in favour of chance meetings, and points against them. In
general, try to use them only sparingly, when there is real urgency or a point has to be
cleared up quickly.
One way of avoiding problems is to mention to the person concerned that you would like to
see him/her about something, and then wait to see how this is received. If he/she seems
interested, you might begin to develop the subject a little more, but defer a lengthy
explanation unless you are sure that the time is right for it.
Overall, chance meetings should be approached with caution. If you are in any doubt, use
the more formal channels. They may take a little longer, but they are better planned, and
allow you to put across ideas and information more clearly and precisely.
© ABE and RRC

Planned Meetings
Planned meetings are an essential type of communication within a business, and it is
essential to know how to organise and conduct them effectively.
The main functions of meetings may be summarised as:
 allowing the exchange of information, views and opinions between members;
 generating ideas or solutions to problems;
 monitoring and evaluating performance or progress;
 making policy and other decisions.
Meetings don't just happen – they have to be organised. This can be considered in three
stages:
 before the meeting – the planning of what will happen;
 at the meeting – the conduct of business during the course of the meeting itself; and
 after the meeting – wrapping up the proceedings by producing the record of the
meeting and following up on the issues discussed and decisions made.
(a) Preparation for meetings
Meetings have to be planned. Efficient undertaking of the necessary work prior to any
meeting – whether it is for the AGM of a public company, a local government
committee, or a work group – will invariably smooth the conduct of business at the
meeting itself.
The starting point is the preparation of an agenda. This is fundamental to any meeting
as it sets out, in order, the business to be transacted. It provides, then, not only the
statement of what the meeting will consider – its content – but also defines its structure.
However, prior to that, perhaps the first step is to determine if the meeting is really
necessary! Many of us will have felt the frustration of spending two or three hours in a
meeting where no progress has been made, or there was nothing of substance to
discuss, or even where it was evident that decisions had already been taken
elsewhere. Meetings are an expensive way of using staff time and effort, so they need
to be cost-effective. Therefore, if it is not a required meeting of a formal committee, its
appropriateness or necessity should be questioned and alternatives considered for
achieving the desired outcomes.
(b) The conduct of business
The proceedings of a meeting may be considered as a sort of structured discussion. At
the meeting itself, it is the chairperson who actually controls the meeting. This is the
key role in any meeting, setting the tone and style of the meeting and generally
ensuring that the business of the meeting is efficiently and effectively conducted.
However, this role is not simply one of a passive, neutral referee of proceedings. It is
invariably a very powerful position, giving the holder the ability to control what is
discussed and how that discussion progresses.
The secretary's role is to ensure the effective administration of the meeting, including
all work before and after the proceedings, and to advise the meeting on the application
of the rules of business. This is a key role. The secretary will have a close working
relationship with the chairperson to ensure that the proceedings go smoothly and the
desired outcomes are achieved. The secretary also carries out the work of agenda
preparation and writing the minutes; that is, taking notes of proceedings at the meeting
itself. These minutes will become a matter of official record, so it is important that they
are taken accurately.
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(c) Work after meetings

This breaks down into two areas – the preparation of the record of the meeting, and
ensuring that decisions taken at the meeting are subsequently implemented.
The formal minutes of proceedings will provide a record of all essential information,
particularly what has been decided; and a statement of who has to take what action.
This preserves a record of information that can be circulated to all participants and
others who are involved or interested. It is important to remember that the information
must reach all those who need to know – either for general awareness or because
action is required – rather than just those who were present. All of this work will
normally be undertaken by the secretary.
Finally, it is worth noting that the purpose of meetings is to help to get work done. It is
sometimes tempting to think of them as talking shops which have no relevance after
the event. However, if they are to have any meaning, the discussions and decisions
must be followed up and put into effect. They then form a key participative element in
the decision-making and operating processes of the organisation, rather than just a
distraction.
(d) The agenda
The main purpose of the agenda is to set out, in order, the business to be transacted at
the meeting. An agenda should normally include the following elements:
 the date, time and place of the meeting;
 apologies for absence;
 provision for confirmation of the minutes of any previous meeting, and for
consideration of matters arising from them (where the issues are not included as
items elsewhere on the agenda);
 provision for the reporting and consideration of any correspondence received
(where the issues are not covered by items elsewhere on the agenda);
 a subject heading for each item of business to be transacted, together with a brief
explanatory comment, if necessary (often by reference to attached reports,
correspondence, etc.);
 a final item of "any other business" to allow for discussion of any issue which has
arisen since the production of the agenda; and
 a final, final item to determine the date of the next meeting.
For most formal meetings, it is the job of the committee secretary to prepare the
agenda. It is important to remember that, if a meeting is to be effective in its
deliberations and decision-making, members will need time to familiarise themselves
with the agenda and any supporting papers. This means that the agenda must be sent
out some time prior to the actual date of the meeting.
Agendas may appear in a variety of formats. The example below combines the notice
of the meeting with the agenda, and the agenda contains all the usual necessary
elements.
© ABE and RRC

HAMSHIRE ASSOCIATION OF PARISH COUNCILS

SALEM AREA COMMITTEE
Chairman: Mr.J.Tobey Hon Sec.: Mrs J. Pride
Bragdale Farmhouse 16, High Street
Bragdale Road Lower Allwood
Feversham LX53 8XY Settingly LX95 7DY
Tel: 01878 555555 Tel: 01878 888888
7 February 20..
Dear Sir/Madam,
The next meeting of the Salem Area Committee will be held on Monday
March 2nd 20.., at 7.30 pm in the Council Chamber, Salem House,
Settingly.
The agenda and supporting papers are appended. If you have items for
inclusion under "any other business", they should be with the Secretary no
later than 5.00 pm on Friday 27 February.
Yours sincerely,
J. Pride
Secretary
AGENDA
1. Apologies for absence.
2. Minutes of the last meeting.
3. Matters arising.
4. Correspondence.
5. Reports from representatives on:
(a) Police Consultative Committee
(b) Executive Committee
6. Rural Lanes Survey – see Report AB/123 attached
7. Any other business.
8. Date and topic for next meeting.
You should note the following points about this example:

 The headed paper clearly gives the contact number for the secretary, so that
apologies for absence can be sent, and discussion about items of urgent
business can take place.
 The agenda has been circulated almost four weeks in advance of the meeting,
giving participants plenty of time to familiarise themselves with it and the attached
documentation.
 The date, time, and place of the meeting are clearly set out. Here, they are
included in the letter which gives notice of the meeting. If the agenda was sent
on its own, this would need to be included at the top of the agenda.
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 Members are specifically reminded about considering "any other business" in

advance of the meeting.
 The first four items are usually fixed for all regular meetings and generally appear
in this order. Items 7 and 8 are also fixed.
 The items which form the variable subject matter of any meeting should include
sufficient detail to enable members to understand the nature of each item.
Where appropriate, there should be a reference to any relevant documentation.
(e) The minutes
It is generally the case that, after any meeting, a record of what transpired is made.
The proceedings of meetings are recorded by the minutes.
Minutes are the factual record of the proceedings and resolutions of a
meeting. They constitute a true and impartial record of the events.
The prime function of minutes is to place on record the proceedings of a meeting as the
basis for subsequent action. The minutes constitute the authorisation for such action to
be taken.
(i) The format of minutes
The way in which the events at a meeting are recorded in the minutes is likely to
vary between organisations. However, there are a number of general principles
which can be identified.
As noted above, the primary purpose of the minutes is to provide authorisation
for actions to be taken. As such, then, the key element which must be recorded
is the decisions taken at the meeting.
This may be done by simply stating the motions passed by the meeting, using the
exact words of the motions as voted on. For example:
Resolved: That the Treasurer's Report (ref. FD.045) be adopted, subject to
the assumed Government funding becoming available for development of
the new site by the end of the financial year.
This may mask considerable debate about the issue, including the proposing of,
and voting on, various motions and amendments. However, at the simplest level,
the only important point is the final decision at which the meeting arrived.
Whilst this is the essential element of minutes, it is often the case that they need
to go further than this in order to accurately convey the sense and meaning of a
meeting. Indeed, this may be necessary since, in the event of a dispute as to
what transpired or was agreed, the minutes may be cited as legal evidence.
Thus, it is quite possible that the minutes will record all motions and amendments
put to the meeting (with their proposers and seconders), together with brief
details of the discussion and subsequent vote. It is also sometimes necessary to
record details about the voting on particular motions – either as totals "for" and
"against", with abstentions, or even the way individual members voted.
Finally, in addition to decisions taken by the meeting, it is normal for the minutes
to record events in respect of each item on the agenda, including:
 those members present, together with absences for which apologies were
made at the time;
 agreement about the minutes of the previous meeting(s), together with any
changes made to them;
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 brief notes about items or issues introduced to the meeting, but not
specifically referred to on the agenda or in supporting papers – as in the
case of reports or discussion about matters arising from the previous
minutes, correspondence and any other business;
 the start and finish times.
(ii) Minute writing
The production of clear and accurate minutes is an exercise requiring many of
the communication skills we have considered previously. It is important to listen
effectively and consistently, to take accurate notes, and then to translate these
into a coherent and comprehensible written statement.
There are a number of points of good practice in minute writing, as follows.
 The essence of minutes is that they are a brief note – i.e. a condensed
statement – of the proceedings at a meeting. As such, they are not the
same as a report. They are designed, basically, to record the decisions
taken, and that is all. On the other hand, they need to be sufficiently
detailed and complete to convey what transpired at the meeting and to
provide clear instructions and authorisations for action.
 The minutes should be positive, free from bias and ambiguity and capable
of standing on their own. For example, resolutions should not merely say
"resolved accordingly" or "resolved as agreed", but state precisely what the
decision was, using the exact wording on which voting took place.
 Minute writing requires accurate, concise and objective language. The
minutes should be written in the third person – i.e. using "he/she", "they",
"them", etc. – and in the past tense.
 It is important to emphasise the word "factual" in the definition above.
Minutes must not express opinions or give interpretations of what has been
said. They should be a simple statement of fact. Thus, it would be wrong
to write:
"The Treasurer displayed such excellent persuasive skill in putting forward
her argument that she took all the members with her."
This should be expressed as:
"There was unanimous agreement to accept the Treasurer's report."
 Minutes should be completed as soon as possible after the meeting. It is
surprising how quickly your understanding of your own notes can fade, and
your memory of a certain discussion grow cloudy.
 It is normal practice in many organisations for the accuracy of the minutes
to be checked with the chairperson before circulation.
 The following example of an extract from the minutes of a meeting
illustrates many of the points made above.
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SALEM PARISH COUNCIL

GENERAL PURPOSES COMMITTEE
Minutes of the meeting held on 9 January 20.., between 7.00 pm and

9.00 pm in the Assembly Room at Salem House.
1. Members present: Councillor Green (in the chair); Councillors

Brown, Black, Cyan, Grey, Maroon, Purple, Red, Tan and
White.
2. Apologies were received from Councillor Jones.
3. The minutes of the meeting held on 12 December 20.. were
approved and signed as a true record.
4. Pay rise.
After a full discussion, it was proposed by Cllr Red and
seconded by Cllr White that the opinions of all employees be
sought by means of a questionnaire. An amendment that the
questionnaire should also ask if employees would prefer a one-
off or staged arrangement was proposed by Cllr Cyan and
seconded by Cllr Black. This was passed by six votes to three,
and the motion that the questionnaire be produced and
circulated was then passed unanimously.
(f) Procedure in meetings

As we have seen, there are a number of specific roles within all meetings.
At the meeting itself, it is the chairperson who actually controls the proceedings. This
is the key role in any meeting, setting its tone and style and generally ensuring that the
business of the meeting is efficiently and effectively conducted.
His/her role can be summarised as being:
 to ensure that the meeting is properly constituted and that there is a quorum;
 to control the meeting in accordance with the standing orders and any other legal
requirements that apply;
 to take the business in the order that it appears on the agenda, by opening the
discussion and guiding the debate such that all those who wish to speak may do
so;
 to ascertain the sense of the meeting at the conclusion of the discussion on an
item (by reaching common agreement or by voting on a specific motion) and to
ensure that the decision reached is properly recorded.
In all these matters, the chairperson is assisted by the committee secretary.
In many meetings, the secretary is not a formal member of the body itself and,
therefore, has no voting rights or any formal role in discussions. However, his/her
contribution is likely to be sought (or provided) on the issues involved in the agenda
items and the implications of proposals and decisions.
All members have a general responsibility to participate actively in the proceedings of
the body. This requires a commitment to the work of the committee and careful
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preparation by all concerned so that each member is knowledgeable about the topics
under discussion.
It also means that each member has a responsibility to other members to allow
contributions to be heard and to enable discussion to flow freely and positively. Thus,
order is not just the responsibility of the chairperson – it resides in all participants! They
must show respect for each other.
In order to ensure that chaos does not reign, there are a number of conventions –
general rules of behaviour – which need to be followed, including:
 acknowledging that the chairperson is in charge;
 speaking through the chair – waiting for permission to speak, and always
addressing remarks to the chairperson, not directly to other members (although
this may not be so necessary in less formal, smaller meetings);
 keeping to the point – avoiding digression or pursuing one's own particular
agenda to the detriment of the consideration of the items before the meeting;
 interrupting other speakers for procedural reasons only – for example, to seek
clarification through a "point of order" or to seek to give a "point of information".
Obviously, the degree of regulation of formal committee or board meetings is far in
excess of that applying to most other types of meeting. However, the principles
discussed here apply to all meetings. There will always be some formal or informal
rules about what the meeting is competent either to discuss or to decide, and how it
should go about it. There will always be a chairperson with a role to ensure the proper
conduct of the meeting in accordance with the points outlined above. There will also
always be someone responsible for planning the meeting and recording the
proceedings.
Giving a Presentation or Speech to an Audience

Presentations may be five minutes or two hours long, but the basic precepts will be the same
– the conveying of a specific message to an identified audience at a designated time and
place. Similarly, the purpose and content of each presentation you make will vary
tremendously, but the skills needed to ensure that it is effective will be the same.
Presenting information, proposals or ideas to someone else should be easy. After all, you
just need to talk to them, reach agreement and take appropriate action. If only it were that
simple! As you have seen from Study Unit 1, there are many barriers to effective
communication and the most important one is people themselves. Too often we assume that
because we understand the importance/relevance of our plans or proposals, then so does
everyone else. We forget to introduce the stages or processes of our thinking, which would
illustrate how we reached the conclusions we are presenting. We get bogged down in a
mass of detail which disguises the simplicity of an idea. Sometimes we are overawed by our
audience, or we lack commitment in our ideas or judgement.
In order to present ourselves and our information effectively, we need to follow the 6 Ps of
presentation:
 Planning
 Purpose
 Political sensitivity
 Personal commitment
 Personal communication skills (ability to persuade)
 Polish
© ABE and RRC

We shall examine these in detail later, but first we shall look at some of the key elements of
making a presentation and the different demands of different types of presentation.
(a) Key presentational elements
The main elements which make up an effective presentation are summarised in the list
below. You should consider this as a checklist to be directly and carefully addressed
when planning the delivery of any presentation.
 Understanding the difference between written and spoken communications
 Oral communication skills (style, delivery, rapport)
 Using non-verbal techniques
 Understanding your audience's requirements
 The ability to interact with an audience
 Preparation and planning
 Knowing your subject
 Presenting enough, but not too much, information/data
 Careful selection of information/data
 Summarising salient points
 Using appropriate visual aids
 Timing
We shall be concerned, in the following parts of this section, with illustrating these skills
and how you can make your presentations more effective by using them.
(b) Types of presentation
Not only does the size of the audience, the subject matter, time-scale or location vary
from presentation to presentation, but also the purpose – which determines those
factors – will vary enormously. The key to making a successful presentation is
understanding this context, so you need to ask yourself:
 What is the purpose?
 Who are the audience?
 How will it be judged? By whom?
 Are there any specific requirements/criteria which have to be met?
We can categorise the types of presentation you are most likely to have to make
according to the audience and/or context. Thus we could identify the following types:
 to prospective employers at a job interview
 to senior managers
 to colleagues
 to actual and/or potential clients – product launches, etc.
 at exhibition stands/trade fairs
 at in-house training/staff development activities
This form of classification provides a useful means of starting to analyse the impact of
the context on the form of presentation. In each of these instances, the context will
determine how you approach the planning, design and execution of your presentation.
Thus, it will not always be appropriate to use audio-visual aids, and sometimes you will
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be alone, whereas at other times you may be part of a team of presenters. Note, too,
that your status will vary in the different situations and this will affect how each
audience perceives you, your organisation and the validity of your
arguments/presentation. The degree of predictability of how the presentation will go
may also vary with the context – for example, if you are presenting specific information,
as at an interview or trade fair, you will have to be prepared for non-scripted or
apparently unrelated questions/requirements from your audience.
The chart overleaf illustrates some of the considerations involved in these presentation
types.
(c) The 6 Ps of presentations and speeches
(i) Planning
Being well prepared for a presentation affects how the audience perceives you
and your organisation, and how confident you feel about your presentation. It will
result in you using any technical equipment more effectively and being able to
react quickly and accurately to any questions posed by the audience. Presenters
who apparently "think on their feet", and engage in an almost social interaction
with their audience, usually do so as a result of very careful and detailed
planning.
As part of your planning, do not forget to practise delivering your speech so that
you become familiar with it, and you can see how long it lasts.
So, what are the elements of a presentation that require planning?
 Background
You will need to know the location, the timing, the running order, and the
position from which you will be presenting (e.g. on a stage, in a meeting
room, etc.). What technical equipment will be available to you? Who will
be co-ordinating the presentation should you require additional assistance?
What is your status, and what is expected of you in this context?
 Personal preparation
Is it necessary to adopt a particular dress code?
Are you physically prepared with relevant data and things like spare pens?
Do you need to rehearse in the chosen location to maximise your impact
and to feel comfortable with your surroundings?
 The presentation itself
Does your argument follow a logical sequence?
Is the language clear enough and appropriate for your audience?
Have you researched all your data thoroughly? Are your "facts" facts or
fiction?
Have you timed the length of your presentation?
Will your presentation be lively and varied or delivered in a dull monotone?
Will you make reference to the audience? (Ask questions, allow
questions.)
Do you understand what you are presenting?
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Have you considered all the potential implications or perceptions of your

material? This will ensure that you can respond to any criticism or query
adequately rather than defensively.
Are your visual aids easily visible, relevant and properly produced?
Check who will be available to offer technical support if necessary.
The planning should allow you to take control of your presentation. In fact, you
can even set the scene by preparing information about yourself and your
presentation, with which the co-ordinator can introduce you.
(ii) Purpose
The first element of the planning stage is concerned with identifying the purpose
of the presentation and your role in fulfilling that purpose.
Clearly the purpose varies from presentation to presentation, but some
presentations are for the benefit of internal audiences, and others for external
audiences. In every case they are a medium for corporate strategy, objectives or
ideas to be revealed, discussed and communicated.
Type of Purpose
Presentation
Product launch Communicate to external market; generate sales.

Job interview Illustrate empathy and understanding of corporate
objectives.
Exhibition stand Raise awareness; communicate to external market;
generate sales.
To senior managers Generate support for an idea/proposal; test market for
an idea; establish presenter as the expert.
To colleagues Share ideas/proposals; establish team hierarchy.
"Pitch" to potential Communicate corporate ethos and attitudes to
clients external market with the objective of making future
sales.
(iii) Political sensitivity

Why political sensitivity? Quite simply, presenters need to be aware of the
potential impact and ramifications of the content of their presentations. Some
issues are politically sensitive in the largest sense (e.g. nuclear waste, closing
hospitals or schools). In other instances there could be internal politics which
need to be considered (e.g. reallocating workloads from one department to
another). These include:
 Political presentations which represent local or national politics (e.g. party
conferences, union meetings, local government meetings).
 Presentations which are politically sensitive and need to take account of
legislation or political change in the external sense (e.g. new processes for
food production, chemical emissions, education).
 Presentations which in their planning and execution need to reflect
sensitivity to internal political issues.
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(iv) Personal commitment

If you have no interest in the planning, writing or presenting of the material then
the presentation will be a disaster.
However, if you have too much commitment to the subject matter you may be
unable to see potential pitfalls or problems, and may also come across as
overzealous or "preaching".
Too much personal involvement can also result in an excess of nerves and over-
planning which destroys the impact of the presentation.
Your commitment should be to extensive and relevant preparation, professional
delivery and your own sanity!
(v) Personal communication skills
It is extremely important to establish a rapport with your audience. Obviously you
can't retain eye contact with a hundred people, but you can make sure that your
physical appearance, body language and style of presentation contribute to,
rather than detract from, what you are trying to communicate.
The following tips may come in useful:
 Wear clothes which are smart (and clean) in which you feel comfortable.
Avoid being fussily dressed or too formal.
 Try to control your nerves and the general nervous "tics" which we all have
– fiddling with pens, scratching, etc.
 Use the space you have available to you; move around it so that the
audience have to follow you and stay attentive.
 Look directly at your audience, not at your notes, the floor or the ceiling.
This is actually easier with a large audience. As before, if you are not
comfortable looking people in the eye, look at the space between their
eyebrows. This gives the appearance that you are looking directly at them.
(vi) Polish
This is the most difficult element to achieve; it rarely comes naturally and is
usually a result of practice, rehearsal and experience. A truly polished presenter
can attain professionalism with friendliness. Don't mistake being polished for
being slick or over-rehearsed. ("It sounds like he's said this a million times
before.")
Even if you have to give the same information to a variety of audiences, vary your
presentation. Remember to present the identified benefits to each particular
audience. Avoid clumsy phrasing, jargon or rambling.
It's worth looking at news bulletins to see how professional presenters use their
material and respond to the unexpected. Live morning shows are an even
greater test of presenters and reflect polish to varying degrees.
(d) Knowing your audience
As indicated above, you also need to consider your audience carefully. As with all
methods of communication, you need to start from the point the audience is "at". You
will find it helpful to ask yourself the following questions:
 Who will make up the audience? Are you addressing a group of directors or
senior managers, or a group of work colleagues, or a group of strangers?
 How big will the audience be?
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 What is the level of their existing knowledge and awareness of the subject?
 At what level can you pitch the complexity of your presentation?
 What is the likely reaction to the presentation? Is it likely that there will be
anxiety or resistance to the subject matter, and can you get any ideas about the
reasons for this?
 What are the audience's own objectives for the session likely to be?
Whilst the needs of the audience should not be allowed to dictate your overall aims,
they will almost certainly influence the specific objectives and the way in which the
presentation will be delivered.
So how do you set about finding out this information?
Much of it can be obtained from careful consideration of the attendance list which is
usually produced for a formal event, such as a training programme. This will certainly
give an indication of the size of the audience and probably information about their
background and experience. There may also be information about the audience's
individual objectives in attending.
You should also consider past events of a similar nature. For example, you can find
out about a particular committee or how the last presentation went.
Finally, it is useful to put yourself in the audience's shoes. Once you have some sort of
profile of the possible audience, think about it from their point of view. What will they
be looking for and what will grab their attention? Make sure that the tone, style, speed
and vocabulary of your speech all contribute to its effectiveness.
(e) Subject knowledge
In oral communication generally, it is essential to "know your stuff " – you can't look it
up as you go along. It all has to be at your fingertips – or more precisely, perhaps, on
the tip of your tongue.
This means that you have to thoroughly research the topic and gather as much
information as possible about it. Whilst you obviously need to focus on information that
is directly relevant to your objectives, it is good to get as wide a perspective about the
subject as possible. This will help you to deal with additional issues or alternative
approaches which your audience might raise in questions. Make sure, too, that your
information is up-to-date.
To a large extent, this is the same as any information gathering exercise. However,
there are certain aspects which are of particular relevance to presentations, as
opposed to other forms of communication.
 Exemplification
It is always helpful to illustrate the points you make by providing examples, but
during presentations examples provide a welcome opportunity to add life and
colour to what may be a dull subject. Any exemplification needs to be carefully
researched and developed to ensure it is accurate, relevant and supportive of
your main themes.
Anecdotes – short stories about real incidents – are also particularly helpful in
illustrating practical implications or applications. Putting a humorous slant on
them can be very effective in adding life and colour to the presentation.
Depending on the type of presentation, it may also be appropriate to involve the
audience in some way by getting them to contribute information or examples from
their own experience. You need to be very clear about the type of information
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you want them to contribute and how you will use it. (We shall return to the issue
of getting audience input and participation below.)
 Exercises
If the presentation you are involved in deals with skills development, it is likely
that you will want to include some practical work – in the way of exercises – for
the participants in the session. For example, this would be the case with the
introduction to a new accounting system, where it would be important to give the
audience some practical experience in trying out the procedures.
Any such exercises need to be carefully worked out in advance. They should be
relatively simple so that participants can understand what is involved
straightaway, and you, as the presenter, can easily explain what is required.
They must also be absolutely correct and capable of being completed in the time
available.
(f) Structuring your material
If you have done your research thoroughly, you will undoubtedly have far too much
material to include in the presentation itself. You need, then, to organise that material:
 determining what should be used, so that you are able to cover all the objectives
in the time available; and
 structuring the session and the material so that the audience can be effectively
led through it in a way which enables them to meet the stated objectives.
One approach to organising a mass of material is to consider it under three categories:
could include
should include
must
include
This concentrates attention on those key elements which must be included – those
that are central to meeting the objectives and will, therefore, form the core of the
presentation. Anything else is supplementary to the main points. This may be divided
into those elements which should or could be included:
 material that should be included is that which is supportive of your main points –
it is important material, but not essential and could be omitted without detracting
from the exposition, if there is not sufficient time;
 material that could be included is that which extends your central material into
further areas, not central to the main theme of the presentation. If there were
unlimited time, it would be good to include and it would add to the sum of
information relevant to the objectives. However, the objectives can be met
without it.
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The point of this exercise is to focus on the core. It is this core – not the supplementary
material – which needs to be organised to give the structure to the presentation, and
this is far easier when you have stripped the content down to the essentials. It is
important not to let detail get in the way of the overall structure.
It is better to have a well-rounded argument based around the core points of a
presentation than to try to include too much of the supporting detail.
In doing this, you need to think carefully about the order in which you wish to present
your points. The aim is to develop the presentation in a logical fashion, starting from
the basics and developing complexity as you work through it. Make sure that your
speech has a clear introduction, a detailed body, and a memorable conclusion. This
ensures a coherent progression to the whole, and helps to make your arguments
persuasive.
Structuring the presentation to work, step-by-step, through your subject also helps to
divide the session into a number of "chunks" and provides natural break points. These
allow both you and your audience periodically to take stock of progress through the
subject, and make it easier for you to keep track of where you are.
(g) Making and using notes
Very few speakers are able to remember everything they need to say at the time. You
will need, therefore, to have some notes to help you remember all your points and to
guide you through them in the correct order during the presentation. When we say
"notes", we mean notes – you do not need to produce a full script for the presentation.
There may be a temptation to write it all out, but this will only encourage you to read
the words out to your audience, rather than speak to them.
It is best to use cue cards, rather than sheaves of paper. These are small cards which
simply state the key points to be covered – main and sub-headings, with a number of
subsidiary points underneath. Cards have the advantage of being small and easily
handled, they do not rustle if you are nervous and can be easily bound together to keep
them in order.
The words on the cue cards need to written clearly and boldly so that they can be
easily read while you are standing up and speaking. The cards should be numbered to
keep them in order and to help you know where you are during the presentation. They
can also be usefully annotated to show where you will use any visual aids. Colour
coding can be used to clearly identify different elements or to separate topics.
(h) Non-verbal communication
Body language is very important in delivering presentations, as this conditions the
rapport you establish with the audience. You need to adopt an open stance and style
which engage with the audience, rather than distance you from them. You also need,
as far as nerves may permit, to be as natural as possible.
Depending on the particular situation (formality, size of audience, size of room, etc.),
you may be able to make a decision about whether you should stand or sit to make
your presentation. Whichever way you do it, do not hide yourself away behind a desk
or lectern, or feel that you have to remain motionless throughout the session – a certain
amount of movement will be more natural. For example, if you are using a lectern, it is
quite acceptable to move away from it and, indeed, such movement may help to
engage the audience.
If you are the sort of person who would naturally use your hands as you express
yourself, feel free to do so, but beware of over-expansive gestures, as this will detract
from what you are saying.
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It is important to maintain eye contact with the audience as a whole. This helps to
show interest in, and engagement with, your audience. Let your eyes move over the
audience and avoid fixing your gaze on one particular individual. This is where you will
see the importance of using only cue cards rather than a full script – you will be able to
glance at your notes without losing the impact of eye contact.
Eye contact is also important because you should be watching for feedback from the
audience all the time, and assessing people's level of concentration. Try to vary the
intensity of your delivery to take into account the need for individuals to refocus.
In using any visual aids, it is important to remember that you need to maintain contact
with your audience. Do not turn your back for too long, and never speak without
turning to face the front.
(i) Participation
The final point to consider in the delivery of a presentation is the way in which you
interact with the audience. Oral communication is essentially a two-way process so,
although you will be doing a lot of one-way presenting of information, do not lose track
of the need for some participation.
At the least, you need to consider how you deal with questions. There are, basically,
two alternatives:
 leave them until the end, when you can set some time aside for them – this
provides you with more control over the running of the session, but can reduce
the audience's involvement; or
 take questions as you go along – this has the advantage of resolving any issues
as they arise, but may throw your timing out or disrupt the order in which you
planned to deal with topics. This method allows for a higher degree of audience
involvement and works best with smaller, less formal groups. However, even in
larger, formal presentations, it is best to allow some degree of questioning on
points as they arise; do not be afraid, though, to cut the discussion short and
defer consideration of particular points to a later stage, or the end, of the
presentation.
Whichever method you use, you need to take control over it and make clear in your
introduction how you intend to handle questions.
Formal Interviews
The word "interview" refers to any meeting between two people. Generally, however, we use
it to describe a meeting between people of different status in an organisation, or, perhaps
most often, in connection with selecting the best candidate for a job.
There are many other purposes for interviews, as we'll see in this section. Whatever their
purpose or aim, though, they all have certain elements in common, most particularly in terms
of their organisation and conduct.
We can sum up the basic principles of conducting a successful interview in six key words –
preparation, activation, attention, structure, summary, action. Let's look at these in more
detail.
(a) Preparation
An interview is only effective if it is thoroughly prepared for by both parties involved.
If you are organising an interview, you need to prepare for it in the following ways.
 Ensure you have the necessary information
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(i) Make sure that you have all the necessary data, by going through your files
and reading carefully all the relevant matter.
(ii) Make notes about matters which are particularly important.
(iii) List the main areas you wish to discuss, or note down specific questions
you will ask.
(iv) Keep the information with you, and make sure that you know it really
thoroughly.
If you do this, you will have a good factual basis for the exchange, which will give
you confidence as well as ensuring a secure foundation for any decisions or
action which may be taken as a result of the meeting.
 Take account of both setting and atmosphere
(i) Plan a time for the interview which suits both people.
(ii) Make sure that the room is suitable. It should be quiet and well-lit, and
arranged properly for the task. If it is a formal interview, you may prefer to
sit behind a desk. If it is less formal, you may prefer to sit at a table with
the other person involved.
(iii) Make sure that there will be no interruptions from the telephone or other
visitors, by giving instructions that no calls should be put through and using
an "engaged" sign on the door. Remember that the interview will only be
effective if both people can concentrate and feel at their ease. This is
impossible with a constant stream of interruptions.
 Find out what you can about the person you are meeting and the subject
matter
This is essential before conducting an interview – especially if you are
interviewing someone for a job; but it is also useful in interviews of other kinds,
where you may be appraising an employee's performance over the past year,
discussing a new business venture, or something similar. Knowing what kind of
person you are dealing with will make things much easier. It also shows that you
have taken the trouble to find out something about his or her background, which
is in itself a sign of courtesy.
(b) Activation
Your task in an interview is to activate the interviewee. This means making him or her
communicate openly, freely and honestly. You can do this in at least two ways.
 Always try to be encouraging to the interviewee, as he or she may feel nervous.
It is up to you to put the interviewee at ease, so that he or she can relax and
concentrate fully on the meeting.
 Secondly, remember that questions may be asked in two distinctly different ways.
A closed question can only be answered in a very limited way, usually by "yes" or
"no". This limits the response which the interviewee can give, and also makes
him or her think about what answer is expected; neither of these will encourage a
free and honest response.
Instead, try asking open questions which invite a larger response. "Did you like
my proposal to change the accounts procedures?" is a question which can really
only be answered by "yes" or "no". If you say instead "What did you think of my
proposals?", you are giving the interviewee the chance to express his or her
opinions freely (if tactfully!).
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You can practise turning closed questions into open ones yourself. You'll find that
closed questions always start with a verb, like the example above.
(c) Attention
It is, of course, most important to make the interviewee feel that he or she is enjoying
your attention.
As we noted above, the skill of effective listening is often overlooked. We are so eager
to think about what we are going to say next that we do not pay attention to what the
other person is saying, and sometimes we may interrupt before the point is complete.
You should always make an effort to listen carefully, making sure that you understand
what has been said, and asking further questions to make quite sure if there is anything
you do not understand.
Non-verbal communication can play a significant part here too. Our body language –
particularly gestures and expressions – can show whether we are really listening to
what is being said. You also need to ensure that your body language responses
reinforce your verbal ones, not cancel them out or contradict them.
(d) Structure
Your preparation should include planning the contents and order of the interview – the
points you wish to make, and the order in which you want to make them. There is no
reason why you should not make clear to your interviewee at the start of the meeting
what you want to cover, where the best place to start is, and also ask whether there is
anything further he or she would like to raise.
It is a good idea to decide how much time you can afford to spend on each of the
points you have listed. Arrange for a clock to be clearly visible, and try to stick to your
"time-table" unless important matters are being raised which you feel should be allowed
to run their course.
(e) Summary
As you complete each point on your list, summarise briefly what you have decided.
Make clear what action is to be taken, if any, and who is to do it. This is a very
important exercise which takes little time, but greatly increases efficiency: it is very
easy to think that the other person is carrying out an important task, while all along he
or she is thinking that you are doing it.
Your final summary will bring together all the decisions you have made at the
intermediate stages described above, and conclude so that you both know exactly what
is to happen, who will carry out what action, and when you will meet again if necessary.
(f) Action
Before you start an interview, you should have a clear idea of what you want to achieve
at it. Sometimes this will be fairly obvious as in the case of a job interview. At other
times it will be less clear. Decide what you think it is reasonable to achieve in the time
available, and state this as an aim at the outset of the meeting, when you talk about the
points you wish to cover.
Make quite clear, as stated above, what action is to be taken, and who is to take it. If
there are any letters or reports to be written as a result of the meeting, try to do them
as soon as possible, before you have had time to forget what has been decided. In this
way you will make the fullest use of the time spent in the meeting.
The above are the key principles of good interviewing. Make sure that you learn the six key
words, and what they stand for, and that you apply their principles whenever you have to
conduct an interview.
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Opinions vary on the practice of note taking during an interview. Many feel that taking a few
quick notes helps them to remember what has been said, especially in a selection interview.
Others feel that writing of any kind is out of place, as an interview is a spoken form of
communicating, and writing things down interrupts the contact between the two people and
may also make one person feel uneasy.
It is for you to decide what you feel is the better path here. If you feel that note taking during
an interview is inappropriate, you should make full notes at the close of the meeting, while it
is still fresh in your mind. The knowledge that you are going to do this will also help you to
concentrate harder in the interview itself.
Types of Interview
Formal planned meetings between two or more people are a regular occurrence in business
as a means of discussion, planning and decision taking. Here we are concerned with,
essentially, one-to-one meetings. Only these can be really characterised as interviews.
There are many types of interview, but again we shall be concentrating on just two here.
These are situations which you are more than likely to encounter in most types of work.
(a) Selection interviews
These interviews are concerned with selecting the right person for a job. The general
principles discussed above still hold true for this type of interview, but there are a
number of specific characteristics which we shall explore.
 Additional planning tasks
There are certain tasks which have to be completed before the interview takes
place – a long time before in some cases. These include the following.
(i) Preparation of a job description and person specification
The job description tells you exactly what the person appointed will have to
do. It will list the tasks, make clear to whom he or she will be responsible,
and over whom he or she will have authority. It will also make clear points
of salary, conditions of employment and other necessary details, such as
length of holiday, pension scheme etc.
The person specification describes the essential and desirable knowledge,
skills and other attributes required for performance of the job.
These two documents form the basis of the interview in that the interviewer
should attempt, by questioning, to determine whether or not the interviewee
meets the specified criteria.
(ii) Obtaining suitable candidates
The vacant post needs to be advertised and interested candidates for the
job will need to complete an application form or send in a CV (curriculum
vitae – a summary of their educational and employment history). There will
then be an initial selection process – known as shortlisting – to reduce the
number of candidates to a certain number who will be called for interview.
Shortlisting is done by comparing the evidence about the candidates from
their application forms, etc. with the job description and person
specification. As far as possible, the aim will be to select for interview those
candidates who appear, on the evidence of their application, to have the
potential to do the job.
 General arrangement and conduct of the interview
All the points made in the general section on conducting interviews are important
in selection interviews. Two initial points should, however, be made:
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(i) The aim of the interview is to enable the candidates to make the best
possible case for themselves. They need, therefore, to be relaxed and
comfortable with the arrangements and conduct of the interview. This
should start from the moment they arrive – giving them somewhere to wait
and providing refreshments. The general aim should be carried on into the
interview by making the questioning as encouraging as possible.
(ii) A selection interview also gives the candidates an opportunity to assess the
organisation to see if they want to work there. The arrangements and
conduct of the interview need, therefore, to make a good impression on the
interviewees. Opportunities should be provided to enable the candidates to
ask their own questions and find out about the exact nature of the job and
the organisation.
 Questioning
(i) Ask open questions to obtain the fullest answers from your interviewee.
(ii) Do all you can to put the candidate at ease. Begin by asking general,
straightforward questions to establish trust before going on to more
complex ones.
(iii) Listen carefully, and show the candidate that you are involved in what is
being said.
(iv) Always encourage the candidate to expand or develop points made and
give time for him or her to ask about the job.
(v) Keep what you say to the minimum. Avoid lengthy, ill-defined questions
and anecdotes. Remember that it is the candidate who should be doing the
talking – not you.
(vi) If a group of people is conducting the interview, make sure beforehand that
they all have copies of the application forms and other relevant material.
Divide the areas of questioning: one can cover the education and family
background; another working experience; the third suitability for the present
post.
(vii) If you make notes, keep them short.
 The decision
Once the interview is over, make sure that your thoughts and impressions are
recorded in some way as soon as possible. If several interviewers took part,
arrange a meeting with them to discuss the candidates. Finally, don't forget that
the candidate will be anxious to know your decision! Let him or her know the
result as soon as possible.
(b) Appraisal interviews
Appraisal interviews are held by many companies on a regular basis. Often called
"update interviews", they provide employees with an opportunity to discuss their
progress within the company and their performance at their job during the past year.
They are likely to cover the following topics.
 Possible future steps
The idea of promotion, transfer and the general place of the employee within the
company is another important area which must be discussed. Without this,
employees will feel that no one takes an interest in what they are doing; morale,
and consequently efficiency, will fall.
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 Personal development
This area will generally cover staff training, in particular the introduction of new
procedures within departments. With information technology and other forms of
computerisation becoming widespread, it is important that all staff keep up-to-
date with new developments. Update interviews provide an opportunity for the
individual employee to discuss his or her place within these new circumstances,
and for managers to arrange necessary training.
 Suggestions
Appraisal interviews are not simply a one-way process, and if you have to
conduct any, do take care to let workers put forward their own suggestions about
improvements in the way tasks are carried out.
When you are conducting an appraisal interview, you should make sure that facilities
are available for a relaxed, uninterrupted discussion. Do all you can to put the
interviewee at his or her ease, and make clear that it is not simply a case of being
given an "end of term report" on performance. If praise is due, make sure it is given, as
this will encourage and renew motivation. It is unlikely that an appraisal interview will
be the occasion for disciplinary action, or complaints about the standard of work of the
individual. Such matters should be dealt with as and when they arise, so that any
ineffectiveness can be quickly remedied before it has a chance to grow and possibly to
spread to other employees.
In general, appraisal interviews should be seen as a chance to talk in an informal,
friendly way about the past year at work and how its achievements can be built on by
the individual and the manager to ensure a consistent development and growth in the
future. Make sure that your conduct of the interview reflects these aims, so that the
employee feels that management are genuinely interested in what he or she has done,
and how his or her career can be developed to mutual advantage in the future.
D. NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION AND PERSONAL

PRESENTATION
By non-verbal communication we mean the process of communication without words. When
we consider this, we tend to think of it in terms of the signals we read from the way someone
behaves and expresses themselves during a face-to-face encounter. We can groups all
these types of signals together and call them body language, although they encompass
aspects of speech which are not strictly of the body in the same way as, perhaps, the amount
of eye contact made. Body language sends out very powerful signals and we all learn to
recognise them and their meaning at a very early stage in our development – before we can
even speak as infants.
However, we should not ignore other non-verbal influences on the communication process
and we shall be going on to consider aspects of the physical environment and the
presentation of written communication in terms of their impact on the effectiveness of
communication.
Body Movements
Although body language does not refer specifically to the whole body, we shall start our
discussion of non-verbal communication by considering certain aspects of the way people
behave with their bodies as a whole.
© ABE and RRC

(a) Contact
The amount of bodily contact between people tells us a lot about their relationship.
Clearly, it will be minimal during a business encounter, but it is still important. A good,
firm handshake can signal the beginning and end of a meeting, and also signify trust
and good faith between the two people involved. The form and strength of such
contact can also be taken to indicate confidence and reflect status divisions between
people.
Approach other forms of contact with caution. While some people will respond to a pat
on the arm or slap on the back, others may find it intrusive or even offensive, even
though you intend it as a sign of friendship.
(b) Proximity
Proxemics is the study of how people use space and movement. For example, by
going to the top of the table or the highest seat you can indicate to others how you
relate to them. Similarly, how people use your and their personal space, moving closer
to people they like and away from people they dislike, is also a strong body language
signal.
People need to have their own personal space and feel it disturbing or threatening to
have others intrude into this by approaching too closely. However, everyone has
different limits about this, and it can vary between different circumstances. You need,
therefore, to assess what is acceptable for others and respect their wishes.
By breaching someone's personal space you can intimidate him or her and be
perceived as overbearing and insensitive. One acceptable move into someone's space
is getting up from your chair to shake someone's hand, which is seen as a sign of
respect.
Proximity to others can have important consequences for the arrangement of seating
and the layout of rooms where people are going to interact, such as in meetings.
(c) Orientation
By this we mean the direction in which your body is facing. If you face the person who
is speaking to you, you give the impression that you are really listening to him or her.
On the other hand, if you face away, then it looks as though you have no real interest in
what he or she is saying.
Be aware of important signs like this when conducting oral exchanges. If someone
gets up and walks over to the window during a conversation, it may suggest that he or
she is bored with the conversation; but it may also suggest that he or she is upset or
angry and does not want to let you see it.
Look for such responses throughout oral exchanges – and be aware of your own
orientation, too. Once again, they can reveal a great deal about your attitudes and
opinions.
(d) Posture
This is one of the clearest signs of a person's feelings or response. If you sit forward
and look at the speaker, you are showing involvement and active interest; by contrast,
if you sit back looking at the carpet, you are indicating boredom or anger.
A person sitting with hunched shoulders and folded arms is being defensive, resisting
any new ideas; someone leaning back comfortably, with hands on the back of the
head, is thinking in a free, relaxed way, which shows complete trust in the other people
present.
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(e) Gestures
Some gestures, such as twitching, scratching, doodling and jingling change in your
pocket are irritating gestures that could be the sign of a number of things, such as
boredom or even nervous self-consciousness. Some gestures, such as yawning,
sighing and shifting from side to side on an uncomfortable seat, are almost innate and
must be controlled. Similarly, a shrug of your shoulders when someone asks you a
question may not only convey that you do not know the answer but also that you do not
really care.
Tapping your fingers can indicate impatience and a clenched fist can indicate anger.
You should avoid gathering up your paperwork when someone is talking to you as it
can be seen as a rude gesture, although sometimes this can be a useful signal to
people that the conversation is over and that you must leave.
Some gestures do not translate the same way in all cultures; for example, nodding your
head in some countries can mean "no".
Head and Face Signals

The face is the most expressive part of the body and the signals that are given through facial
expressions and movements are very important.
(a) Nodding and shaking
These are fairly obvious, intentional forms of communicating. However, as well as the
usual meaning, shaking the head with a frowning expression may suggest puzzlement
or, accompanied by closed eyes, it can suggest anger and frustration.
Nodding and shaking are also important techniques when listening to someone speak.
It shows that you are listening carefully and responding to what is being said. Try to
develop the habit of using these signs in an unobtrusive way to indicate that you are
interested in and understand what is being said. It will give the speaker confidence and
help him or her to express ideas fully and freely.
(b) Facial expression
This is another obvious sign of feeling – and one which is very hard to control. When
listening, try to adopt a neutral expression, smiling in a friendly way to encourage the
speaker. When speaking, look for responses shown by expressions:
 Smiles reveal pleasure
 Withdrawn, vacant expressions suggest boredom
 Frowns may suggest anger, but also concentration or deep thought.
(c) Eye contact
It is generally accepted that a person who looks straight into your eyes is honest and
trustworthy. This may or may not be the case but, in any event, it is a good idea to look
directly at the person you are talking to. Doing this suggests an open, honest nature,
although it is wise to avoid an unwavering stare, as many people find this disturbing. At
important stages of the conversation – at the beginning, certainly, and at the end – it is
a good idea to look at your listener directly, in the eyes if possible. We have already
noted the importance of this when delivering a speech.
In a business context, avoiding eye contact can convey lack of interest while making
positive eye contact shows that you are relating to and connecting with your audience.
Sideways glances can show that someone is wary of you and is making a judgement
about you.
© ABE and RRC

When you are talking to a group of people, however, make sure that your eyes travel
across the room, so that you can look at each person in turn. Arrange the room so that
you can maintain eye contact with everyone who is there. Without this, people quickly
become bored, as they feel isolated and left out.
Vocal Signals
The way in which we express the words we speak can give many signals about what we are
feeling and can either enhance or diminish the impact of the message.
(a) Tone and volume
The tone of voice, volume and pitch that are used can affect the message being
conveyed.
If you speak calmly and clearly with a reasonable volume and pace, you will give the
impression of being in control. On the other hand, if you talk very quickly in a high-
pitched voice, and frequently run out of breath, you will sound nervous.
Excessive volume can be overbearing, but too quiet a voice will just irritate people
because they will not be able to hear you.
A high-pitched voice can be irritating to listeners but it can indicate distress or tension.
You should avoid using a monotone voice as it can stop listeners paying attention to
what you say. A slow pace can be used to add emphasis and importance to what you
are saying. If you speak too quickly, listeners will find it hard to keep up, but too fast a
pace can signal your nervousness.
Always listen carefully to the tone of someone's voice – it can be as important as what
he or she is saying in conveying a mood or response. Make allowances, too, for
people who are nervous or upset, and try to speak calmly to them.
(b) Paralinguistics
This is a long word for the noises people make when they are listening to someone
else speak and wish to show agreement – "uh-huh", "mm" and "oh", for example. Like
nodding and smiling, these are a useful way of showing somebody that you are
following what they are saying.
Remember that it is not enough simply to listen to what is being said – you must
provide feedback to show that you are listening (and that you understand) if the
communication process is to be fully effective.
(c) Movement during speech
A more general kind of non-verbal communication concerns movement of any part of
the body. If someone is constantly fidgeting with their hands, crossing their legs,
tapping their feet, drumming their fingers or getting up to walk around the room, it is a
sure sign of nerves or agitation. Learn to recognise such signs and deal with them
sympathetically.
When you are talking yourself, try to remain still. Movement is distracting, and other
people's mannerisms can be extremely annoying – head-scratching, chin-stroking or
similar movements can be very disturbing when you are trying to listen to a
complicated argument.
Dress and General Appearance

The way in which you dress says a lot about the way you regard the people you are meeting.
There are invariable "dress codes" – usually just understood, but sometimes actually written
down – under which you are expected to dress in a certain kind of way for the situation.
Breaking these codes can convey a strong message about attitudes towards the situation.
© ABE and RRC

If you wear smart, clean clothes and in general look the part in terms of the dress code, you
will make it clear that you value the company of the people you are meeting and have done
them the courtesy of conforming to their values in appearance.
Conversely, wearing dirty and untidy clothes will suggest that you are not concerned about
either the other people or their values. It may also suggest a lack of efficiency, since an
onlooker might think that, if you take so little care over your appearance, you may be
similarly unconcerned about your work.
Dressing formally, but without ostentation, is an important element of non-verbal
communication, to convey a smart and efficient image to the visitor.
Other aspects of appearance include being prepared for the encounter. This can be seen
through examples where behaviour gives signals that imply discourtesy and disrespect.
 If you keep someone waiting for 20 minutes, you are really communicating that you
regard him or her as a fairly low priority in your day's work.
 If you make it clear during the course of the meeting that you have not prepared or
researched the subject under discussion, you are showing that it is not important to
you.
All these matters reveal your attitude, just as clearly as what you actually say. They are
unspoken and subconscious acts of communication. If you overlook non-verbal elements
like these in the way that you prepare for and conduct meetings with others, you will lose the
advantages of oral communication because of the bad impression you create by your
underlying message.
E. NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION AND THE PHYSICAL

ENVIRONMENT
The characteristics of the physical environment within which interpersonal communications
take place can have a significant impact on the way in which the encounter proceeds. In
simple terms, the design and layout of the room and its contents can either help the
communication process or hinder it.
Arrangement of Furniture
The layout of a room can be a very important determinant of the way in which meetings of all
sorts are conducted.
If you set out a room as a series of separate tables and chairs, with a single desk at the front
facing the others, you will create the impression of a very formal setting in which one person
– the person at the desk – dominates the meeting, rather like a school classroom.
However, if you arrange it so that all the participants sit around a single large table, you will
suggest a coming together of equals. This in itself can make the atmosphere far more
relaxed, so that the meeting will proceed in a far more effective manner.
In offices, it is often the case that managers will sit in a large big chair behind a large desk.
People who enter this type of office have to sit on a lower chair opposite the desk, thus
creating a barrier and signalling the difference in status and authority. It is likely also to
suggest a level of formality that is expected from the visitor. You can remove the barrier by
changing the position of the desk and placing a chair beside you for visitors, or by having a
horse-shoe shape layout of chairs for use when having discussions.
In office situations people sometimes often place objects or furniture to create a barrier or to
lay claim to space, in the same way that holidaymakers put their towels on chairs.
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Office Design
The aims of office design are to:
 Meet legal requirements in respect of space available per person.
 Minimise the costs of floor space rental, heating, lighting, rates, telephone, etc.
 Use the most appropriate office technology.
 Respond to any status or hierarchical structures within the organisation – for example,
there is a long-standing tradition that the more senior the member of staff, the bigger
the desk and office space he or she requires.
 Prevent customers, visitors or staff overhearing confidential information.
 Provide an area to meet and greet clients/visitors, etc.
 Have designated meeting areas.
 Reflect the corporate image and status of the organisation (i.e. in decor and general
appearance, cleanliness, etc.).
 Seek to achieve a stress-free environment – through such features as providing natural
light, relaxing colour schemes, maximising space for staff to work or move around in,
etc.
There is, though, a constant tension between the space available, the needs of staff and
visitors for space and the cost. However large the space allocated, you are sure to fill it.
Offices need, therefore, to be designed to fulfil several sets of requirements at once, and
these needs are then quite visibly prioritised.
Some of the factors which must be weighed in office design, and their implications for
communication, are as follows.
(a) Accessibility
How easy is it for people to be able to meet the people that they need to communicate
with? This applies to the way in which staff interact – particularly the accessibility of
senior staff to junior staff – and the provision of facilities specifically for meetings,
briefings, training sessions and presentations, etc. It also applies to the way in which
reception areas are organised to facilitate visitors obtaining the service they require.
(Reception areas are particularly important since they constitute the first impression
visitors receive of the organisation and the way in which they are received can either
impress or put them off.)
We also need to recognise the needs of staff for access to information. Increasingly,
this is available at the desk through computers, but the dream of a paperless office
through such technology has never materialised. Most offices still have large filing
systems and these need to be arranged so that the information they contain can be
retrieved quickly.
(b) Space
People need sufficient space for them to be able to access and use all the materials
and equipment necessary to carry out their jobs. Thus, desks must be capable of
holding a telephone and computer, with enough space left for all the documents and
other materials that are used. It is easy to underestimate the amount of room
necessary to achieve this.
We mentioned previously the need to allow people their own personal space and this
must be reflected in the layout of offices. There is also the question of allowing the
quiet and privacy necessary to allow staff to concentrate without extraneous noise and
interruption, and to be able to discuss confidential matters without being overheard.
© ABE and RRC

Offices are not just places where people sit at their desks and work. They need to be
able to move around comfortably, relax and meet others – either for business purposes
or simply socially. These needs must also be met. Again the issue of reception areas
needs consideration. If visitors have to wait (which they very often have to do), there
must be suitable areas set aside for this where they can sit comfortably and do not feel
they are interfering with or intruding on the work of the office.
(c) Ambience
By this we mean the general atmosphere created by such features as noise, lighting,
colour schemes, decoration and furnishings. These features all contribute to whether
the environment feels a relaxed and comfortable place in which to interact with other
people, or a harsh and stressful place which makes communication difficult.
Factors which can influence this are listed below.
 the use of restful colours for both decorations and office furniture – pastel shades
and deep colours are better than bright, strong primary colours;
 soft furnishings and carpets can absorb sound and create a less harsh ambience;
 natural light is better than electric light, but there must be sufficient light available
throughout the office and for each individual desk;
 seating of the correct height and support for office work ensure staff are
comfortable at their desks;
 offices should be kept clean and tidy – again a feature which is particularly
important in reception areas.
F. DESIGN AND PRESENTATION IN WRITTEN

COMMUNICATION
In the last unit, we examined different types of written communication and their particular
requirements. However, the impact that such documents have is not simply a matter of the
words used. Just as in oral communication, the way in which the words are presented can
enhance and develop meaning. In written communication, the use of various devices to
achieve this has a similar effect to volume, tone, pitch and pacing of the voice in oral
communication.
The ability to employ these presentational devices used only to be available to professional
designers and printers, but the widespread use of word-processors has meant that they are
now available to nearly all office staff. However, you need to be careful with their use. It is
not uncommon to see documents in which the writer seems to have gone wild with different
typefaces, bullets and other forms of text enhancement, to the extent that they lose their
meaning and result in a document which just appears messy and is actually more difficult to
read.
Text Enhancements
The purpose of the enhancements considered here is to provide emphasis and stress to
particular words or phrases, and to give some physical form to the structuring of the
document. Note that they should be used sparingly if they are to achieve these purposes –
just as you would only occasionally raise your voice when speaking, rather than talking at
high volume all the time
(a) Use of bold, italics and underlining
These are used to stress or pick out particular words and, occasionally, phrases. For
example, throughout this course we have used bold and italics to identify key words
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within the text. They should not be over-used as their significance will be quickly lost
and if applied to large blocks of text tend to make it difficult to read.
Italics are often used for quotations or Latin expressions, such as quid pro quo or per
se.
It is usual to embolden headings to make them stand out from the main body of the
text, thus enhancing the structure.
(b) Indentation
Indentation refers to moving in the left hand margin of the text for either a particular
phrase or paragraph. It serves two purposes. It separates the indented phrase or
paragraph from the surrounding text and lends it additional impact. For example,
consider the following extract from an economics textbook:
John Maynard Keynes was challenged by the policy-makers of his day who
felt that his ideas were a recipe for disaster. By borrowing from the banking
sector and putting money into large-scale public projects, his opponents
believed that serious long-term problems could arise if the government
pursued the proposed policies. Keynes was dismissive of this, stating
simply:
"In the long run, we are all dead".
By indenting the quotation, it carried additional impact, and could even help the
reader to remember it.
This separation of the text from its surroundings can also help the structure of the
document. It signifies that the indented section forms a sub-section of the
section which precedes it. You can see this throughout this course.
A word of caution, though. Too much indentation, or indentation which does not serve
the stated purposes will make the document extremely difficult to read and give it a
clumsy appearance.
(c) Capital letters
Putting certain words or phrases into capital letters can be used to emphasise them in
much the same way as you might use bold text.
It is a mistake, however, to believe that capitals throughout a document will give it
greater force. The average reader can read lower case text much more quickly than
text which is in capitals throughout. The reason for this is that the eye follows the
upper part of each letter when you are reading. If you mask the lower half of a
sentence with a sheet of paper, you will probably still be able to read it. If, however, it
is in capitals, it is unlikely that you will read it with ease. The lesson here is to use
capitals only occasionally when you wish to stress something.
(d) Typefaces and type size
Modern word-processors usually have a very large number of different typefaces
(called "fonts") available, as well as the ability to put any of these fonts into sizes
ranging from the very small to the huge.
The general rule for most types of document is that you should use just one typeface
throughout. There is little reason to keep changing the font and a consistent typeface
makes the whole document easier to read. The one exception to this is the title for
large documents like reports or for notices. Here it is possible to use a different
typeface for effect and to distinguish the heading from other parts of the text.
You should use a typeface which is easy to read. For documents with a lot of text, this
should normally be a "serif" font like Times New Roman (serifs are the little tails on the
© ABE and RRC

letters and these tend to make it easier to read at speed). For notices and other
documents which need to be eye-catching, other types of font may be used – "sans
serif" fonts like Arial are popular for these.
The size of the font should be determined by a combination of readability and the
impact it has on the size of the whole document. The size of text is measured in
"points". Most letters, memos and reports are produced using a font size of 11 or 12
points. This course uses 11 point text. For most fonts, anything below 10 point starts
to become difficult for all people to read comfortably. Text larger than 13 points uses a
lot more space and gains nothing in terms of readability.
Using a larger font size for headings can help to emphasise the structure of a
document. For example, the title could be in 16 point, with main headings in 14 point.
Page Design and Layout

This refers to the way in which the whole of the text appears on the page. It is not concerned
with the structure of the document, but rather with the overall impact of the message.
(a) Text alignment
Text, as in this course, is normally "left aligned". This means that it has a consistent left
hand margin and appears straight on that side. The right hand edge of paragraphs or
blocks of text is ragged.
Text may also be right aligned – the opposite of left aligned where the straight edge is
on the right hand margin and the left hand edge of paragraphs or blocks of text is
ragged. This is rarely used in normal text, but is common for the sender's address in
letters.
Justification refers to the setting out of text blocks so that there is a straight edge to
both the left and right hand margins. This is common in newspapers. It is achieved by
varying the spaces between words – something that used to be done only by trained
printers, but is now done automatically by word processing software. The appearance
can seem very neat, but some odd results can occur where only a few long words
make up a line and they end up being spread out widely.
(b) Centred text
Centring text in the middle of a line or a page gives it impact and is often used for the
title of a document and for title sections. It can only be applied to small amounts of text
since it is not easy to read. It may be used, though, for notices and for the whole of a
title page for a report.
(c) Bullets
Bullets are the little symbols inserted before a line or paragraph of text. Word-
processors offer a number of options for these – you will notice that we have used a
small black closed circle.
They are used to give emphasis to a series of points and as such are common in
notices and other documents using lists.
(d) Colour
Printing in colour can add impact to short documents such as notices. You must be
careful not to overuse variations in colour since this can confuse as easily as
emphasise.
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(e) White space

White space on a document serves to give emphasis to the black of the text. Such
space includes margins at the top, bottom and left and right hand sides of the page,
and the space between paragraphs and lines of text.
Allowing plenty of space around the title of a document or the main heading of a notice
can make it stand out. Similarly, you should leave space between points in a list.
However, beware of leaving too much space. It is important to maintain the link
between lines and paragraphs and too much space can make them seem
disconnected.
(f) Use of graphics
Illustrations, logos and other visuals can add impact to a document. The graphic
should relate to the subject matter of the communication. You must, though, be careful
not to make them a distraction from the main body of the text or the message it seeks
to convey.
Graphs and diagrams can sometimes convey a message more quickly than words or
numbers. They are particularly appropriate for showing statistical information in an
easily accessible form and for illustrating the relationship between things – as in an
organisation chart.
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143
Study Unit 5
Communicating with Customers
Contents Page
Introduction 144
A. Dealing with Customers on the Telephone 144

The Role of the Telephonist 144
Receiving Telephone Calls 145
Making Telephone Calls 146
Referring Customers to a Higher Authority 147
Maintaining Customer Confidentiality 147
B. Meetings with Customers and Clients 148

Social Contacts 148
Receiving Customers at your Premises 148
C. Listening to Customers 150

Personal Meetings 150
Customer Satisfaction Surveys 150
D. Dealing with Enquiries 153

Generating Customers 153
Dealing with Initial Enquiries 155
Assessing a Customer's Requirements 156
E. Supplying Information to Customers 156

Types of Information Supplied 156
Delivery of Information Requested 157
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144 Communicating with Customers
INTRODUCTION
In the last three study units we have been considering effectiveness in communications –
firstly through general principles and then in both written and oral communication. Here we
shall look at a practical example of these issues through a study of dealing with customers
and clients.
The first part of the unit examines the ways in which businesses relate to customers through
telephone conversations and face-to-face. We shall then consider how you can establish
their needs and requirements. We move on to look at how organisations generate enquiries,
the nature of those enquiries and the different ways of responding to them. Finally we
consider the provision of information to customers and clients.
The case study draws attention to the importance of purpose and audience in
communication. These elements have been given a specific focus in respect of dealing with
customers through the concept of customer care. This forms an underlying theme
throughout the unit.
A. DEALING WITH CUSTOMERS ON THE TELEPHONE

It is important to remember that customers are people. They may be individuals or large
companies but at some point the contact you will have is with an individual person. People
respond to being treated courteously and this is the most significant factor in all dealings with
customers.
The Role of the Telephonist

We have said before that first impressions are very important and often the first point of
contact for a customer is an organisation's telephonist. Many commentators believe that the
words spoken by telephonists have as much effect on the reputation of an organisation as
anything else that the company does!
Telephonists should greet customers in a friendly and helpful manner. However, this should
not extend to over-familiarity, but should keep within the limits of politeness. It is also very
important that calls should be answered as promptly as possible – long delays can be
frustrating for the customer and can reflect on the overall efficiency of the organisation.
A typical opening remark by a telephonist might be:
"Good morning. This is Redreed Supplies Limited. Can I help you?"
This approach has the following effects:
 It makes the customer feel that their call is welcome.
 It helps him/her to establish that he/she has called the correct organisation.
 It gives him/her the chance to state the reason for their call.
Telephonists can be helped to convey a positive image for their organisation by:
 Receiving training in telephone techniques.
 Being made to feel part of the organisation – for example, by visiting and becoming
familiar with the various sections or departments.
 Being told what the people on the various extension numbers actually do – this can
help in routing calls to the appropriate person if the caller does not know who to ask for
or if the person requested is not available.
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Communicating with Customers 145
You will find it interesting to think about the way in which organisations greet you when you
call them, or even to make a call into your own organisation to see how they treat callers.
Think about the following points.
(a) What does the telephonist say when he/she answers your call?
(b) How long did you wait before your call was answered?
(c) Was the telephonist's manner polite and helpful?
(d) Do you feel that any improvements need to be made in the way calls are answered?
Receiving Telephone Calls

We looked in the previous study unit at how you should answer the telephone and what your
opening remarks should be. You should refer back to the study unit on oral communications
now in order to refresh your memory.
Some important points that you should remember when receiving telephone calls from
customers are:
 If the customer is already known to you, make sure that you greet him/her by name in
an appropriate and friendly manner. For example:
"Hello, Mrs Jones (or Susan depending on the relationship). John Smith
speaking. It's a while since we last spoke. How are you?"
Whether you use the formal Mrs Jones or the first name Susan will depend upon the
relationship between you and the extent of formality you perceive Mrs Jones/Susan to
require. With some customers you may move on to using first names very quickly,
whereas with other customers it is more appropriate to use formal names until they
refer to you by your first name. Overseas customers often prefer to use formal names
for a long time.
 If the customer is not known to you, your response will obviously be more formal
although you should still try to appear warm and polite. It may be more appropriate to
use "Sir" or "Madam" when addressing the customer in this situation. For example:
"Good morning, Sir. This is John Smith, the Accounts Clerk speaking. You have
been put through to me by the Sales Department. How can I help you?"
We can summarise the telephone contact between a customer and an organisation as
follows:
Customer/client
Telephonist:
Prompt and polite response
Known customer Unknown customer
Greet by name in polite Formal but polite

and friendly manner response
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Making Telephone Calls

You will remember that we looked at how to make telephone calls in a previous study unit.
The preparation of a call plan is particularly important when you are making a telephone call
to a customer. You do not want to waste the customer's time so you need to have all
documents which you may need to refer to ready for easy reference before you make the
call.
(a) Calling a customer known to you
The call plan will be based around the following pattern for the call:
 Ask for him/her by name.
 Greet him/her by name (Mr Smith or John as appropriate).
 Give your name and company.
 State the reason for your call.
 Give any facts clearly and concisely.
 Always remain polite even if you get a hostile response from the customer.
 Make notes during the call.
 Thank the customer at the end of the call for his/her time and help.
 Confirm in writing, if necessary, points agreed during the call.
(b) Calling a customer not known to you
The procedures will be similar to those above but remember that you need to adopt a
slightly more formal approach to the call. Your opening approach will have to be
different.
 State your name and company.
 You may need to ask the customer's switchboard operator who you need to
speak to. State the enquiry you need to make and ask to be put through to the
relevant person. For example:
"Good morning. This is Karen Brown of Treadmill Plastics Limited. I would like to
speak to the person responsible for bulk purchasing of disposable tableware.
Could you please put me through to the appropriate person?"
 When your call is put through you need to repeat your name, position and
company and the nature of your enquiry. It is particularly important that you
check that you are speaking to the correct person before giving details of your
call. For example:
"Good morning. This is Karen Brown, Senior Accounts Clerk for Treadmill
Plastics Limited. I have been put through to you because you might be able to
help with an enquiry relating to bulk purchasing of disposable tableware. Could
you please tell me whether I am speaking to the correct person?"
 If the person confirms that you have been put through to the correct person you
can then give the details of your enquiry. For example:
"Right, Mr Dean. Perhaps you could help me with a query on an order we have
received from your company? It relates to your order number P9372 dated 20
June 20.. for 400 cases of disposable knives and forks. I don't know if you are
aware of the fact that we offer a 20% trade discount on orders of 450 cases and
above. Perhaps you might like to consider increasing your order to take
advantage of our discount terms?"
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 If the person is unable to help you should ask whether he/she knows who might
be able to help you. If he/she does, you should ask him/her to transfer you to the
correct person. For example:
"I'm sorry you can't help. I wonder if you know who the best person is for me to
speak to?"
and then
"Perhaps you could transfer me to Ms Robinson in your Purchasing Department.
Thank you very much for your help."
Referring Customers to a Higher Authority

It is important to know the limits of responsibility for your particular job and, therefore, when
to refer a customer to a higher authority and who the appropriate higher authority will be. In
the majority of cases this would be your immediate supervisor or manager, but some
organisations may have specific policies on the referral of certain matters – for example,
complaints about the quality of goods supplied.
When referring customers to a higher authority, it is important that you:
 Explain politely and clearly to the customer that you are not authorised to deal with the
matter.
 Inform the customer who the appropriate authority is, letting them know the person's
name and title if possible.
 Offer to transfer the customer to the appropriate person and give an indication of their
availability if you can.
For example:
"I'm very sorry Mr Mason, but I am not authorised to negotiate raising credit limits. The
person to speak to would be my supervisor, Mrs Jane Clark, the Accounts Manager.
Would you like me to transfer you to her? She should be in her office this morning."
Maintaining Customer Confidentiality

To promote and retain customer trust and goodwill it is very important that you pay attention
to confidentiality. It is not easy to keep telephone calls confidential if you are making or
receiving them in a crowded office. Some important points to consider are:
(a) Making telephone calls
Consider the nature of the call before you make it and ask yourself if it is confidential.
If it is, you can then plan accordingly
 Is the telephone the best method of communication to use? Would it be better to
request a private meeting or put your points in a "Private and Confidential" letter?
If you decide to hold a meeting, you might consider using the telephone to
arrange the meeting, but you need to take care not to disclose too much over the
telephone.
 Do you have a separate office from which confidential calls can be made?
Remember, though, that your customer may not be receiving the call in a place
which aids confidentiality.
 If you have to make such a call, refer to the fact that the matter is confidential and
ask the customer if it is alright for him/her to speak.
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(b) Receiving telephone calls

Try to discern whether the call from your customer is leading to matters of a sensitive
nature. Again, this allows you to plan as the call progresses.
If it is not appropriate to speak because of a lack of privacy, tell your customer this
politely. You will then need to suggest either a meeting or that you will ring him/her
back from a more private office.
Make sure that you do not discuss the affairs of another customer unless you have
their permission to do so or the matter is one of general knowledge.
B. MEETINGS WITH CUSTOMERS AND CLIENTS

Meeting customers on both a formal and informal basis is essential in order to develop and
maintain good business relationships. Again, remember that customers are people and
respond to being treated courteously.
Let us now look at how to deal with customers in the various types of meetings.
Social Contacts
Many businesses arrange social events in which their staff and customers meet together in a
relaxed atmosphere. "Corporate entertaining", as it is often called, can involve visits to
Wimbledon, the races, the theatre or major sporting events. On a simpler level, it may
involve taking customers out to lunch on a regular or less frequent basis. Often business
relationships are improved by these social contacts and business deals may even take place
because of the contacts established.
However, the cost of providing this hospitality needs to be balanced against actual and
potential benefits to be achieved. This is particularly relevant where overseas customers are
involved.
Receiving Customers at your Premises

Meeting a customer in person is a way of showing your respect for him/her. It is important to
remember that you are meeting a person and to focus on that person's needs and feelings.
Too often the business matter involved is given priority at the expense of dealing properly
with the person involved.
(a) Planned meetings
This type of planned meeting, between individuals, is very different from the formal
planned meetings that we discussed in the previous study unit. The key point when
meeting with an individual is to prepare properly for the meeting. This involves the
following elements:
 Clarify its purpose and the outcome you wish to achieve.
 Prepare a suitable meeting place. Ensure it has privacy and is warm and
comfortable. Arrange the furniture in a suitable way and make sure that coffee or
tea will be available for your customer shortly after their arrival.
 Ensure that you are suitably dressed and your overall approach is smart.
 Be on time to meet your customer. If you are not meeting him/her personally at
Reception, ensure that the receptionist knows of his/her intended arrival and can
direct him/her to you.
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 Consider the manner in which to greet and talk to your customer. Will it be formal
or does he/she prefer a more informal approach which allows for some light-
hearted exchanges? For example:
"Welcome to our offices, Mr Thompson. Did you have a pleasant journey?
Would you like to follow me to my office where coffee or tea is available?"
or
"It's good to see you again John. Was the M4 as bad as last time? I'm sure you
can't wait for your usual three cups of coffee before we start!"
 Consider your customer's personal needs. If he/she has travelled a long distance
he/she may need a little time to unwind before the meeting starts. He/she may
also need to use toilet facilities and you should point out where they are so that
customers do not need to ask.
(b) Unplanned meetings (see also Unit 4C)
Customers may visit your premises without any prior warning. These may be existing
or potential new customers. Despite the fact that they may be interrupting you, it is
important that they are treated with courtesy and not kept waiting longer than is
necessary.
The role of the receptionist is central to ensuring that the situation is dealt with
smoothly. The requirements are very similar to those of the telephonist as we
considered earlier. The main difference is that receptionists are visible to the visitor, so
it is important that a receptionist is well-groomed, smart and fresh at all times.
 Receptionists should be trained to greet all callers in a polite and helpful manner.
For example:
"Good afternoon, Sir (or Madam). How can I help you?"
 Receptionists should smile, make eye contact, and offer a warm welcome to all
visitors.
 Receptionists should try to establish whether there is a particular person that the
customer would like to speak to.
 If receptionists are well informed about the duties of staff at their premises, they
should be able to suggest an appropriate person to speak to if the customer has
no particular person in mind.
 If the member of staff that the customer wishes to see is unavailable this should
be politely explained to him/her. An alternative member of staff should be
suggested whenever possible.
 If there is to be a delay in contacting the member of staff, this again should be
politely explained to the customer and he/she should be offered a seat while
he/she is waiting.
(c) The reception area
Whether a customer visits by appointment or by chance, it is essential that their first
impression of your company is positive. This can be achieved not only by a well-
trained receptionist, but also by having a welcoming environment in the reception area.
The reception area is the first part of your premises that a visitor will see, so if it is
gloomy and dirty you can easily imagine how they will react to it.
A reception area needs to be bright, spacious, tastefully decorated, with comfortable
furniture, reading material and free refreshments provided for visitors who have to wait.
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Such a reception area communicates a very strong positive message about your
company to every visitor.
C. LISTENING TO CUSTOMERS
Customer care, as a strategy, demands that an organisation should:
 Treat customers as equal partners.
 Consult customers and involve them in designing the process for delivering the product
or service.
 Question customers carefully to try to determine their requirements and needs
accurately.
 Seek regular feedback from customers on the quality of the service or goods they are
receiving.
To achieve these aims it is vital that communication skills are applied so that you are able to:
 Listen carefully to the customer.
 Treat him/her with respect.
 Apply effective questioning techniques.
 Evaluate his/her response to queries on the quality of the service or goods received.
Let us now look in a little more detail at how to listen to customers and evaluate their
responses.
Personal Meetings
We looked in a previous study unit at interviewing skills and saw some of the techniques
which can be applied to gain information from a customer. One of the main points was that it
is important to activate the interviewee – this encourages him/her to communicate openly,
freely and honestly.
The main technique for achieving this is the asking of open questions. This can be used to
encourage a customer to give his/her views on the service or goods required and whether
these requirements are currently being satisfied. For example, you might ask:
"Are there any areas of our current service provision where you feel we might be able
to provide a better service?"
This encourages customers to give their views and makes them feel that their contribution
will be welcome.
Most important of all is that you must listen to what customers say. Taking brief notes may
encourage them to feel that you are paying attention. Avoid being defensive of your service
or goods but allow customers to express their point of view. Also avoid being too critical of
their suggestions, even if they initially seem impractical to you. You may find they make
much more sense after you have thought about them for a while.
Customer Satisfaction Surveys

These are often in the form of a questionnaire which is given to the customer to complete.
This may be:
 After every service performed – for example, British Gas issue a customer satisfaction
survey after every boiler maintenance visit.
 At intervals requesting views on the service provided or quality of goods over a period.
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These surveys provide important feedback and need to be carefully evaluated. You may
remember that we looked at the design of questionnaires in an earlier study unit. Refer back
to it at this point to refresh your memory.
Questionnaires are often both:
 Qualitative, i.e. asking how the customer felt about the quality of service or goods;
 Quantitative, i.e. asking for specific performance information such as response times.
You can see an example of such a questionnaire in Figure 5.1. As you can see, it is
designed to be simple and requires mainly YES/NO answers. It does, though, also give the
customer the opportunity to make further comments.
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Figure 5.1: Example of a Customer Satisfaction Survey Questionnaire
Northbridge University
Department of the Arts
HOW DO YOU RATE YOUR COURSE? Distance Learning Division
We'd appreciate your help in evaluating the course. Please tick boxes and add
comments where necessary.
Subject:
Yes No
I was able to get started straight away
I found the course straightforward
I needed to go and look up a few books to help me
There were parts of the course I found hard to understand

If you answered "Yes", can you say which parts were difficult?
Did you speak to your tutor on the telephone?
If you did, did you find it useful?
My Developmental Assignment was returned to me quickly
If it wasn't, can you say how long it took in days?
My tutor's comments on my DA were helpful
I have finished the course
If you have finished, can you say how long in hours it took you?
Date:
If you'd like to add any further comments please enclose a letter with this form.
You do not have to provide the following information.
Name: Age:
Please return your completed form in the envelope provided. No stamp is

necessary. Thank you for your co-operation.
© ABE and RRC

D. DEALING WITH ENQUIRIES

Customers and clients are the lifeblood of business. The way new customers are generated
through the process of stimulating interest and getting enquiries is therefore very important.
This is essentially the domain of marketing. However, most staff have dealings of some sort
with customers and potential customers and, in that sense, are all part of the marketing
function of the organisation. Dealing properly with enquiries is a key part of this.
Generating Customers
The methods used to generate interest and enquiries which can be turned into sales to
customers will vary according to the type of business and the nature of the goods or services
supplied. Most organisations will use several different methods of generating enquiries.
(a) Advertising
Goods or services offered can be advertised in a variety of ways. These include:
 Television and radio – both national and local (and even international).
 Newspapers – again national or local – and magazines of different types.
 Notices or posters in public places
 The Internet, using a website
Much of the time you probably don't take too much conscious notice of them, but try
looking them more closely and thinking about some of the issues they raise – what
makes you take notice, what is the message, how do they vary between the different
media, how are similar products advertised, are products advertised in different ways
depending on the audience for the advertisement?
(b) Direct mail
This method is sometimes known as "mail shots" and comprises written details of
goods or services provided by a company and sent through the post to potential
customers. They may be:
 General, which means that they are sent to a large number of people or
businesses who may or may not be interested in the goods or services;
 Targeted, which means that information is only sent to those people or
businesses which have been identified as having an interest in the type of goods
or services you supply. The response rate to this type of mail shot is much higher
than for a general one – for example, 1 in 10 compared with 1 in 50 responses.
(c) Leaflet distribution
Special leaflets or cards are prepared to advertise goods or services supplied by an
organisation. They are then distributed using one or more methods:
 By hand in public places;
 By hand at special exhibitions or trade fairs;
 Through letter boxes to domestic or business premises.
(d) Telephone sales
This method of generating interest in products and services is now widely used. It can
be successful if telephone sales staff are highly trained and adopt a polite and friendly
approach. The intrusion is, however, resented by many individuals and business
people, and there has been much controversy about the way in which information is
provided.
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As a consequence, there are now guidelines about what is considered to be good

practice in this form of making first contact with customers.
 Callers should ask whether the timing of the call is convenient. If it is not, he/she
should offer to ring back at a more convenient time. Calls should not be made
after 9.00 pm
 The caller's name and that of the company responsible for the call should be
given at the start of the call and repeated at any time if requested.
 The purpose of the call should be made clear at the start, and the content of the
call should be restricted to matters directly relevant to its purpose. Calls should
never be made under the guise of market research nor combined with the offer of
unrelated goods and services.
 Callers should not mislead, be evasive, exaggerate or use partial truths, and they
should answer questions honestly and fully. Companies should accept
responsibility for statements made by their sales staff or agents and take
appropriate disciplinary action if breaches of these guidelines occur.
 The caller should always recognise the right of the person called to terminate the
telephone conversation at any stage and should accept such a termination
promptly and courteously.
 If the caller makes an appointment for someone to visit a customer's home or
office, he/she should provide a contact point to allow cancellation or alteration of
the visit by the customer.
 Customers should be sent copies of all the relevant documents, including
agreements, contracts and statements of their legal rights, if they place an order.
A cooling-off period of at least seven days should apply following receipt of such
papers during which customers may cancel their order and receive any refund
necessary.
(e) Mail order
Mail order catalogues giving details of products supplied can be sent out to potential
customers. Often some form of targeting is used to make this a more effective method
of generating customer orders or enquiries, e.g. charities selling products by mail order
often send them to people who have an interest in some other form of charity work.
Details may be obtained by purchasing mailing lists from other organisations.
(f) "Word of mouth"
A company may gain a reputation for supplying high quality goods or services;
enquiries may be generated as a result of recommendations from satisfied customers.
Most companies use a number of these techniques to develop interest and enquiries about
their products. The choice will depend upon the resources available to put into generating
customers and the experience of what works for particular products.
For example, a medium-sized building surveyors partnership set up in 1996 initially used the
following methods to generate enquiries from customers:
 Advertisements in trade journals, e.g. building journals;
 Advertisements in local newspapers;
 Trade stands at building exhibitions;
 Telephone calls to local building firms;
 Direct mail to building firms within their region of the UK.
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As time has progressed, they found that many new customers were recommended by
previous satisfied customers. The most successful methods were soon seen to be:
 Advertisements in trade journals;
 Telephone calls to local building firms;
 "Word of mouth" recommendations.
The first two are successful because they are targeted; in particular developing local contacts
within the building industry. The best thing about the last method is that it doesn't cost
anything, apart from the costs of entertaining customers occasionally!
Dealing with Initial Enquiries

Dealing with enquiries from customers will require you to apply many of the communication
skills you have acquired in previous study units. You need to be able to communicate
effectively in writing, orally by telephone and orally in person.
There are some important general principles to be considered in learning how to deal with
initial enquiries. Let us look at them in more detail.
Making an initial enquiry may be the first contact a potential customer has with your
organisation. As we said in earlier study units, first impressions count! Make sure that any
enquiries are dealt with in a polite manner which will create a good impression of your
organisation. It is also very important that enquiries are dealt with promptly. Try to send out
brochures, catalogues, price lists, etc. by return of post; this again will create a favourable
impression with the customer.
Organisations often have standard policies and procedures to ensure a prompt response to
enquiries. These may include:
 A target time of a certain number of working days within which information requested
will be sent out.
 A target time of a certain number of working days within which any meeting requested
by customers will be held.
 Stocks of catalogues, brochures and price lists are monitored; minimum (re-order)
levels are set to ensure that adequate materials are always available to be sent out to
customers.
 Any shortages of particular materials are noted and stock is re-ordered immediately.
For example, Madrox is a company supplying plumbing parts to builders and DIY individuals.
Most enquiries are received by telephone although some are in writing, usually in response
to advertisements. Their standard policies to ensure information is sent out promptly are as
follows:
 Literature and prices must be sent out in response to telephone enquiries within two
working days.
 Meetings requested by customers must be held within five working days; the choice of
location should be left to the customer.
 The Administrative Assistant will control the stock of literature. Minimum (re-order)
levels will be set for each type of literature and new supplies will be ordered when
stocks reach this level. All staff should notify the Administrative Assistant in cases of
difficulty with obtaining the required literature.
 Price lists will be updated regularly by the Administrative Assistant. Checks should be
made before sending out price lists that they represent current prices.
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Assessing a Customer's Requirements

As we saw earlier, some customer enquiries simply consist of a request for more information
about your products or services. However, many potential customers are unsure about a
number of things:
 Their own particular needs and requirements.
 How your products or services match any identified needs.
 Why your products or services are superior to those of your competitors.
In cases like this, it is usually better to deal with enquiries using oral communication
techniques. There are two main methods:
(a) By telephone
If the initial enquiry is by telephone, you might wish to continue the call and invite the
customer to tell you more about their needs. If these needs are clearly established,
you may be able to describe how particular products or services can meet these needs.
You should also be able to confirm the availability of products or services or give an
estimate of waiting times.
You may find, however, that the caller is unsure about their needs and requirements. In
this case it is better to invite the customer to meet for a face-to-face discussion.
(b) Face-to-face meeting
This is basically a fact-finding interview with two purposes:
 to enable you to find out more about the customer's needs and requirements;
 to enable the customer to find out more about your products and services and
how they can satisfy his/her needs.
It is important that you should attempt to establish clearly the needs and requirements
of the customer. You can provide guidance and this, if skilfully done, can often lead the
customer towards your products or services. Remember, however, to respect the
customer and not to try to manipulate him/her to suit your own organisation. Only truly
satisfied customers usually return!
E. SUPPLYING INFORMATION TO CUSTOMERS

Types of Information Supplied
We shall now look in a little more detail at the types of information supplied in response to
enquiries.
(a) Brochures and catalogues
These can range from simple pamphlets to glossy brochures with full colour
photographs. Their aim is to inform customers of the range and specifications of
products or services supplied. You may like to collect a range of these from different
suppliers and compare them. Try to identify features which you feel are particularly
helpful to potential customers. They are a common and powerful marketing tool.
An organisation will need to consider:
 The kind of information to give;
 The cost of production of such material;
 Numbers which may be required;
 Distribution methods.
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As in all forms of written communication, such brochures and catalogues should be

clear, concise and easily understood.
(b) Standard price lists
These are useful for products or services which are supplied as standard and are not
tailor-made for individual customers. They need to be updated regularly and should
show the time period for which they are applicable. The prices should clearly indicate if
taxes (such as VAT) and delivery are included or not.
(c) Computer-generated information
Many companies now provide their staff with computer terminals that display full details
of products supplied, prices and stock availability. When telephone or face-to-face
enquiries are received, the necessary information can be called up on the computer
screen and a copy obtained to give to the customer. This system is particularly useful
because:
 It has a very fast response time.
 You can tell the customer whether goods are currently in stock or what the
waiting time will be.
 Products or services can be matched to customer requirements.
 Written details can be given to the customer through a computer printout.
 Customers can visit the company's website and see prices for themselves online.
Delivery of Information Requested

We shall now look briefly at the actual methods of delivering information requested by
customers.
(a) By post
This is the normal method for sending out bulky materials such as brochures and
catalogues. Most other information – price lists, computer-generated information,
estimates, etc. – can also be sent out in this way, accompanied by a letter which allows
a personal touch to be built into the communication.
Where there has already been some contact with the customer – for example, a
meeting to discuss requirements – the covering letter to, say, a quotation allows the
sender to build on the existing relationship with the customer.
(b) By telephone
This is for simple enquiries only. It is good practice to follow up a telephone call with a
letter confirming details and enclosing more detailed literature.
(c) By fax
This is used where speed of response is essential. It is particularly useful for sending
out price lists and quotations.
(d) By E-mail
This is an increasingly common and very fast way of getting information to customers.
All websites have an E-mail contact address so that customers can make enquiries and
be responded to quickly.
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159
Study Unit 6
Communication within Organisations
Contents Page
Introduction 160
A. The Role of Communications in Organisations 160

Why Organisations Need Communication 160
The Vocabulary of Business 162
B. Communications Systems 163

Vertical Communication 163
Horizontal/Lateral Communications 166
Formal and Informal Communications 168
External Communication 169
Communication Networks 169
C. Management Styles 170

The Autocratic Approach 170
The Democratic Approach 170
D. The Layout of the Office 171

Open-Plan or Cellular 171
Furniture and Equipment 171
Storage 172
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160 Communication within Organisations
INTRODUCTION
Every organisation has its own ways of communicating, whether formal or informal, efficient
or inefficient, effective or ineffective. Business information must be communicated to those
who have need of it to perform their work functions effectively and efficiently. Resources
cannot be allocated and managed without proper communications. So an understanding of
communication systems is fundamental to the whole organisational process.
This study unit examines the principles of organisational communication and assesses how
they work in practice.
A. THE ROLE OF COMMUNICATIONS IN ORGANISATIONS

Communication may be defined as:
"the activity whereby an individual or group conveys, consciously or
unconsciously, information to another individual or group and, where necessary,
evokes a response."
This definition stresses that communication is the process of transmitting or exchanging
information. Information is central to organisational activities and operations and ideas,
instructions, directions, reports and explanations are all examples of the kind of information
that flows through the communication system of an organisation.
If we are to appreciate the importance of good communication for organisations, we must
grasp the functions and goals that the exchange and transmission of information serve.
Why Organisations Need Communication

There are many reasons why business organisations need efficient communication in order
to survive – not least because the lack of such exchange of information and opinion can have
very disruptive consequences.
 Departments can begin to feel isolated from the rest of the firm.
 Individuals may lose interest in the way the organisation is developing.
 If workers are not kept informed about changes in policy about matters such as staffing
and conditions of service, it is quite likely that industrial action of some kind may result,
which can be damaging for all concerned.
Information is necessary at every level of the operation of a company.
 Senior management are concerned with making policy decisions, and need complete,
up-to-date information about the firm's trading position, financial status and production
capacity, as well as the development of new projects.
 This has to be supplied to them by middle management who are concerned with the
day-to-day running of the concern. In turn, managers need information about things
like production targets and financial matters in order to keep the firm in business.
 They also need information of another kind, which they can pass on to the workers
beneath them in the hierarchy. Such information is related to the firm's policies and
objectives, so that the workforce can be encouraged to feel a sense of commitment to
the firm, and to feel that the firm, in turn, has a commitment to them.
The reasons why communications are needed may be summarised in overall terms as
follows.
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Communication within Organisations 161
(a) To provide information

Every company needs to communicate, both with customers and employees. It needs
to tell the public about itself and its products, and it needs to keep employees informed
of what is happening within the company. Externally, companies will communicate in
the ways we have examined in the previous unit and also by press releases and
advertisements when they want to publicise something. With employees, they will
communicate mostly by memos, notices and briefings.
(b) To bring about change
Information needs to be passed from one section or level of an organisation to another
in order to effect change in the actions of the receivers.
This can be at the level of influencing the way individual activities are carried out – with
instructions or discussions about the quality of work or standards expected.
At a broader level, it can also be concerned with the provision of information about new
developments and changes in working practices. If changes such as relocations are
going to happen, then releasing this information must be done in a careful and honest
way, without allowing rumour or resentment to build up. When such situations do
occur, mutual trust between management and workers at all levels is essential, and this
can be achieved in no small measure by the existence over a long period of a clear
system of communications.
(c) To sustain stability
The other side of this coin is that, when things are satisfactory, people need to know
that they are going to continue in the same way.
If staff are to be interested in and loyal to the company, then they need to know what is
going on within the company structure. No one can be expected to work with complete
dedication unless they feels that their work is appreciated, and the best way of showing
this is for the company to take the worker into its confidence as regards aspects of
company policy. In this way, an atmosphere of trust is generated which encourages
commitment to the firm.
(d) To lead people into a common purpose
This makes explicit what is implied by the previous two points in that organisations
need all staff – from top to bottom – to share the same objectives and be working in
common cause to the same ends. The management expert Chester Barnard argued
that co-ordination in the pursuit of defined objectives was the most important function of
communication.
(e) To integrate the activities of management
This is a wide-ranging function in that it makes communication responsible for:
(i) Linking the levels of the organisation together.
(ii) Linking the sections and departments of the organisation to each other.
(iii) Integrating the functions of management so that all the things management do
are pulling in the same direction towards achieving organisational goals.
The first and second points here – (i) and (ii) – lead to structural integration within the
organisation. Point (iii) brings about functional integration.
(f) To establish links between an organisation and its environment
All organisations need a two-way flow of information with sections of their environment
– for example with customers, suppliers, governments, the community. They need to
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know the needs, requirements, pressures and changes that are taking place among
these groups, and also to communicate their own role in responding to and providing
for those needs and requirements.
(g) To sustain discipline
Although the idea of discipline could be said to be "old hat", there are nonetheless
certain issues of working practice which need to be maintained. A workforce which
feels that the management has no interest in them will feel little inclination to follow
rules about work procedures, statutory breaks and similar issues; discontent and a lack
of interest will develop. You can avoid this by keeping people informed about what is
going on.
(h) To forestall rumour
Rumour can cause untold problems in a company if it is allowed to run unchecked.
Suggestions of takeovers, relocations to distant towns and mass redundancies are
immensely destructive in terms of morale, and they are bound to flourish unless the
workers feel that they can really believe the management – a feeling which is most
successfully created by keeping them in touch with what is happening at the firm.
(i) To satisfy statutory obligations
The law requires companies to communicate various items of importance to their
employees and to outside bodies. Broadly speaking, the internal requirements relate to
areas concerned with health and safety and employment protection, dealing specifically
with matters such as contracts of employment, disclosure of conditions of employment
and information drawn directly from the Health and Safety at Work Acts. Externally,
organisations need to supply information to the tax authorities, shareholders and
government departments.
The Vocabulary of Business

When individuals in any walk of life communicate with each other, they do so in a language
that everyone within that specialist group is expected to understand. Every business, too,
has its own jargon words, phrases and abbreviations with which all the staff who work in the
business are familiar. New staff quickly learn these terms so that they can feel part of the
company. Staff may not use these terms, however, when dealing with members of the public,
because customers are not expected to know them. However, the important terms with
which we are concerned are universal.
Many of the terms we use nowadays are connected with technology and computers (see the
next unit). We should all know what a PC is, and what RAM and ROM are, for example, but
many other common terms deal with everyday commerce. So if someone talks about a sole
trader or an import tariff or primary research you are expected to know what they are talking
about without asking for an explanation.
Every area of life has its specialised vocabulary. People who work on boats use a
completely different technical vocabulary from doctors or lawyers. It is important that you
become familiar with the common terms of business. Many of these common terms are used
in this Study Manual, and you will encounter others almost every day. Whenever you see or
hear a word, phrase or abbreviation that you are not sure about, take the trouble to find out
what it means. Learn it. The language of business and of commerce is a language that all
people who have aspirations to succeed in business should know and must be confident in
using.
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B. COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS
Large organisations usually have clearly defined systems of communications, so that every
member knows whom to approach for information and discussion purposes. We need to
draw an initial distinction in respect of the direction of the communication process:
 Communication which flows through the hierarchical structure of an organisation – both
from those at the higher levels of the organisation to those at the lower planes, and
also in the reverse direction – can be said to take place up and down the main lines of
communication and is known as vertical communication.
 Communication can also take place between employees of equal status within an
organisation, perhaps within a department, or between managers of different sections.
Communication of this kind is known as horizontal communication.
These are internal communications, but we also need to be aware of the need for external
communications.
Further we also need to distinguish between formal and informal communication:
 Formal communication is that which takes place through the established lines of
communication within the organisation and includes both vertical and horizontal internal
communication.
 Informal communication is that which takes place through the social networks formed
by individuals and groups within the organisation. Typical of this is the "grapevine".
The key feature of this form of communication is that it is not under the control of the
authority structures within the organisation and rumour and gossip can flourish to the
detriment of the formal needs of the company.
We shall examine all these features in the following sections.
Vertical Communication
This is the flow of information between levels of authority in the organisation – characterised
by lines of communication following the structure shown by the formal organisation chart.
When the flow is from the top levels to lower levels we talk of downward vertical
communication, and when the flow is from lower levels back to the top we talk of upward
vertical communication.
The effectiveness of upward/downward communication within an organisation is vital to
morale and efficiency, particularly affecting industrial relations and the ability of the
organisation to respond effectively to change from both within and outside.
(a) Downward vertical communication
Downward vertical communication follows the line of command – decisions made at the
top have to be communicated and explained to the lower levels. Decisions taken at the
top of an organisation are broadly stated policies in line with organisational goals, but
as these decisions become translated into action they must be detailed and specific.
The nature of messages therefore changes as they move down the organisation –
decisions have to be broken down to explain just what it is that has been decided and
what the implications of this are for the level concerned. Broad policies become
converted into orders and instructions.
This process can present difficulties for communication systems. If the instructions are
too brief they may not carry the exact meaning of what is required of the subordinates;
on the other hand, if they are too detailed they may be so cumbersome that
subordinates are confused. Another problem is the time it takes for instructions to
reach the bottom of the organisation, and the accuracy of the instructions. Each level
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of the organisation must receive, interpret, and develop in more specific form and then
pass on the information, so clearly there is considerable room for error.
Downward communication ensures that tasks are delegated and that action and
facilities are co-ordinated, but information can get lost or be altered during transmission
through the chain of command.
(b) Upward vertical communication
Upward vertical communication is the reverse of the downward process. What starts
as detailed specific information at the lower levels has to be compressed into broad
policy terms; the implications of the data have to be abstracted and passed on
upwards. The messages flowing upwards are not orders or instructions – rather they
are likely to consist of information on the progress being made at the lower levels,
details of requirements of resources, problems being experienced, etc. Although not
orders, these upward-flowing messages may exert pressure on management and
affect policies because they reflect grass-root findings within the organisation, and
management must take account of the attitudes of people and groups at the lower
levels. This upward flow of information helps employees to relieve tension and share
the pressures of the normal work situation, giving subordinates a sense of participating
in the enterprise.
The upward flow of information also faces problems. At each stage, detailed specific
data has to be compressed, key details abstracted and then the reduced message
passed on; there are considerable risks in this process that something of importance
may be filtered out. Sometimes any criticisms and problems tend to be watered down
as the information passes along, because those at one level do not wish to antagonise
the people above them in the organisation – people do not like to be the bearers of bad
news to their superiors. The time element is also crucial.
The type of management style (autocratic, democratic, paternal) will either help or
hinder the transmission of accurate information from bottom to top.
(c) Types of vertical communication
The main forms of vertical communication are the issuing of written memos and
personal meetings between staff and their managers. However, there are also a
number of other formal means used to facilitate the exchange of information.
Those which reflect the downward flow of information include:
 Training and induction documents and meetings. On the engagement of new
employees, the Personnel Manager or his or her assistant will brief them on
policy and other matters of importance. Documents or, in larger firms, a
handbook of procedures will be issued.
 Handbooks of procedures. Details of company policies concerning conditions
of service, holiday entitlements, pensions, sports and social facilities, and related
matters may well be recorded in documents which are given to employees.
Copies of the firm's health and safety policy will also be distributed, to ensure that
all employees are aware of essential procedures. Regular fire drills will be
arranged and carried out with the advice of the firm's safety officer.
 House journals and newsletters. These are distributed to each employee and
contain material ranging from news of company events and policy to items about
sporting fixtures, retirement of employees and similar matters. Letters and
articles from employees are often also included.
 Notices. These are a clear and direct way of making announcements, provided
that:
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(i) notices are placed on official notice-boards at certain prominent places in

the company's premises; and
(ii) the notice-boards are cleared regularly and do not become crowded with
information, so that they are difficult to read and are ignored. Some firms
adopt a policy of dating each notice, and removing it after the expiry date.
 Full meetings of employees. These are necessary to explain complex and new
developments or changes of policy. It is difficult to arrange them at a time when
all staff can attend, and holding them in company time may be the only possible
solution. If held, they should be well prepared with full notice given, and
opportunities for questions and discussion amongst the staff provided in their
planning and organisation.
 Briefings. These are an easy way for managers to give staff information that is
relevant to their work. A briefing usually takes place at the start of the working
day, and is always presented orally. A manager might give staff their sales
targets for the day, or pass on information about new products or offers that the
company has introduced. The main purpose of a briefing is to prepare staff for
their work, and to help them to do it effectively.
 Inter-departmental tours. In a large organisation, workers may be quite
ignorant of the work performed by members of other departments. This can be
easily remedied by the arrangement of tours, so that each member of the firm
can see what other workers do. This will increase the employee's sense of
loyalty to the firm as he or she will become aware of his or her place within a
larger pattern of things.
This is often done as part of induction training, but can also be useful when there
has been any form of change within the organisation.
There are less formal means of facilitating upward vertical communication. The main
ones are:
 Suggestion schemes. Your firm may have a scheme whereby you are invited to
suggest ways of improving procedures. In some companies cash incentives are
offered for contributions which improve productivity or safety and, as well as
benefiting the company in these ways, such schemes also encourage workers to
think about their jobs, so enhancing commitment and a sense of involvement.
 Grievance procedures. If you have a complaint or grievance, a clear procedure
should be available for it to be heard, first by a manager or supervisor and then, if
no solution can be found, by someone of higher authority, right up to one of the
directors.
 Staff surveys and opinion polls. Should a new development be under
consideration, such as the introduction of flexible working hours, the
management may well conduct an opinion poll, after first conducting an
information campaign through leaflets, notices and talks. Opinions of some or all
of the employees will be sought, and the results tabulated and released, and
used in the process of decision-making about the proposed change.
There may also be forums where both downward and upward vertical communication
are facilitated. These are usually through meetings of management and worker
representatives (trade unions) and are often referred to as joint consultative
committees. Occasionally, company or departmental-wide seminars about aspects of
company policy may be held in which staff at all levels come together to discuss
possible new developments, or to listen to an outside specialist and then talk over the
ideas raised, on an equal basis.
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Horizontal/Lateral Communications
Horizontal communication refers to the patterns of information flow between individuals in
different departments or divisions within the same organisation. This form of communication
may cut across the levels of authority as shown in the organisation chart, but is generally part
of the formal lines of communication. Typically, it is characteristic of "staff" relationships.
There are various forms of horizontal communication, as illustrated by Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1: Forms of Horizontal Communication
(a) Direct horizontal communication

This refers to the flow of information between individuals of similar rank or position, in
different departments. In our example it is shown between middle management levels
in the two departments, but it could be between any level in Department A and the
similar level in Department B.
This type of communication ensures co-ordination of activities and goals and increases
co-operation between line managers and functional sections of the organisation.
Things can go wrong through inter-departmental rivalry, with managers jealously
guarding their own department boundaries to preserve status or power. Managers on
the same level of command often have little understanding of the aims and objectives
or the problems of other functional areas; production and marketing, for example, may
be in conflict because of different goals and objectives – each having different priorities.
Hence the vital importance of:
 Liaison teams
 Planning/control meetings
 Establishment and discussion of corporate plans and budgetary control for the
whole organisation.
Figure 6.2 illustrates the lines of communication that functional managers may use,
both vertical and horizontal.
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General Manager
Assistant General Manager
Sales Human Production Finance

Manager Resources Manager Manager
Manager
Remaining Remaining Remaining Remaining

staff in staff in staff in staff in
"Sales" "Human "Production" "Finance"
Resources"
Figure 6.2: Organisational Communication Chart
(b) Indirect horizontal communication (also called diagonal communication)

This refers to communication between one level in one department and a different level
in another. In Figure 6.1, this is shown between middle management in Department A
and foremen or supervisors in Department B.
You can see from Figure 6.3 that, in terms of this type of communication system,
managers have a very important place at the centre of a communication web.
Senior Management
Informs senior managers Receives information and instructions

from senior managers
Receives information from Line Gives information to others

others at this level Management who need it
Observes and hears information Translates management information

and problems and gives instructions to workforce
Workforce
Figure 6.3: A Communication Web
The main forms of formal communication to facilitate horizontal communication are co-
ordinating committees. These are meetings of members of various departments to share
knowledge, exchange ideas and develop co-operative procedures. They may take place at
the level of departmental managers, or at any level within the departmental structure. Senior
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management in organisations often have a formal management team which meets regularly
to ensure a common corporate approach is reflected in the aims and objectives of different
departments.
Formal and Informal Communications

We noted above the distinction between formal and informal communication.
(a) Formal communication
Whereas vertical and horizontal patterns of communication are the formal paths along
which information can flow, formal communication also refers to any message sent and
received via official channels using the established office communication channels and
communications media, such as a written memo, letter, report, notice or some form of
formal verbal communication (such as an official warning for misconduct).
The advantages of formal communication are that it carries authority, and can convey a
mass of complex detail. It is usually stored as a permanent record. Its main
disadvantage is that it is often misunderstood because of the complexity of language
and the use of jargon and may not be the best method for motivating subordinates and
communicating to small, closely-knit groups.
(b) Informal communication
This is usually verbal, and is often used to pass unofficial information between
individuals and small groups. Unlike official communication, it has no legal force. It is
an important element of the "grapevine" which exists in every workplace.
Individuals concerned with the formal passing on of information may also pass along at
least part of it to people they know informally within the organisation, in the form of
gossip. The possession of information that is not yet known to other people can make
an individual socially important in the eyes of fellow workers.
The grapevine does not carry with it the stamp of authority, and for that reason is often
very powerful in motivating or demotivating small working groups. It is for this reason
that management needs to use informal communication to persuade and educate –
particularly in situations in which change has to be introduced into the workplace.
The grapevine can function to speed up or spread information widely within the
organisation. It can be useful for the organisation if it wishes to spread information
informally to test the reaction of workers without making an official announcement or
order. However, it can also be dysfunctional (i.e. act against the best interests of the
organisation) by making known information which should have been kept confidential,
or which is incomplete or distorted.
There are certain key positions in the grapevine structure, and many of these are held
by people in relatively low organisational positions, e.g. secretaries have access to a
great deal of written material.
Management can use the informal network of communication as follows:
 By passing information to "key" people in the organisation – not necessarily
senior personnel, but the informal leaders, the opinion-setters. This is particularly
useful when complex and controversial plans for change are mooted. The
opinion-setters can discuss the issues with others and so aid the educational and
persuasion process in favour of the desired change.
 By using informal groups in a semi-formal capacity to "brainstorm" new ideas.
Again brain-storming groups do not have to be senior staff.
 To sound out opinion before action is taken.
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 To encourage "open door" availability at all levels of staff to discuss issues that
are worrying them.
 To encourage participation in decision-making and to get feedback about current
situations and problems at the workplace.
External Communication
Organisations have communication links with both their input and output connections. For
example, a manufacturing firm will have communications with its suppliers of raw materials
and spare parts, and with all customers (e.g. wholesalers and retailers) who handle its
products.
As organisations grow, the number of communication links with the outside environment
increases. It is important that the external communication system should be integrated with
the internal system. For example, an order received from a customer (external
communication) has to be processed and executed within the organisation (internal
communication), then the documents of sale, invoice, etc. have to be sent to the customer
(external communication).
Communication Networks
Another way of classifying communications is into types of network. Communication
networks are the patterns of individuals or groups who are the transmitters and receivers of
information in a given organisation. Some patterns of communication are restricted, e.g.
confidential financial information is made available to very few individuals. At the other
extreme some sorts of information need to be disseminated widely and this results in a large,
complex pattern.
Examples of communication networks are set out below.
B C
A B
A
C
A
D E
(a) The Wheel D
B E
E
A C D
(b) The "Y"
(c) The Circle
B E
C D
A –––– B –––– C –––– D –––– E
(d) The Star
(c) The Chain
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It is not unusual to find differences between the organisational structure and the
communications network in an organisation.
When modern managements decide upon the pattern for a given type of communication
network they can draw on the "need to know" concept. This view argues that a network
should contain only those individuals or groups who need to have a given type of information
in order to achieve their objectives.
C. MANAGEMENT STYLES
It is not the purpose of this manual to teach you how to be a manager. Yet you will almost
certainly at some point find yourself working in an office under the instructions of a supervisor
or manager. So it is important to know what kind of managers you may meet. Different
managers will communicate with their staff in different ways.
The manager is one of the most important aspects of any office. The manager's approach
will determine whether the working atmosphere within an office is good or bad. A good
manager will motivate the staff, will see that tasks are completed efficiently and on time, and
will develop a good rapport and relationship with staff so that they will want to do well for him
or her.
There are two main management styles, which individuals tend to adopt according to their
own personality, or the needs of the managerial job, or the nature of their workforce, or
indeed the layout of the office. The two styles are called "autocratic" and "democratic."
The Autocratic Approach

An autocratic manager will take a very commanding approach. Such a manager is in control,
and all the staff know it. The autocratic manager will rarely consult staff before making a
strategic decision, and is unlikely to give staff much independence or responsibility.
Autocratic managers also tend not to share information with their staff except on a "need to
know" basis.
Now, this has advantages. Such an approach means that decisions are taken faster, and the
staff are less likely to question them. The lines of authority are not blurred, and the staff will
normally respect – or indeed even fear – their manager. Thus they will tend to work hard.
On the other hand, a manager who needs to rule by fear may be an insecure person, and
therefore not a good leader. There is no guarantee that the decisions which he/she takes will
be the right ones, and the autocratic approach removes the normal "checks and balances"
that would examine a decision before it was made. Staff are unlikely to feel close to their
manager, and grapevines are more likely to develop within an autocratic environment.
The Democratic Approach

A democratic manager will be seen by the staff as a part of the team. Such a manager will
tend to consult staff to find out their opinions before making a decision. As a result, staff feel
involved and can become more motivated as a result. Staff will feel free to approach such a
manager, and their relationship will tend to be more relaxed.
But there are disadvantages to this approach, too. Staff who do not fear their manager may
lose respect for him/her, and work with less efficiency. They can become too familiar with the
manager, so that if the manager needs to discipline them for anything, it may be more
difficult. Staff who feel able to approach their manager easily may waste his/her time with
trivial matters.
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D. THE LAYOUT OF THE OFFICE
Open-Plan or Cellular
The way in which an office is laid out can have a huge effect on the way people work, and on
their relationships with each other. Offices tend to be designed in one of two styles. The
open-plan office is effectively one big room with lots of work areas, defined by desks and
partitions. Staff can see and hear each other. In a cellular arrangement, each member of
staff, or small group of staff, will have their own separate room in which to do their work.
Open-plan offices create a spirit of teamwork more easily than cellular offices. People are
able to talk with each other, and interact, very easily. Colleagues are readily available to give
assistance if required. In a cellular office there can be a sense of isolation.
However, it is often preferable to work in a separate room, because there is far less noise
and disturbance. So it is easier to concentrate on your work. Separate rooms also give
people privacy, which an open-plan arrangement does not. There will be fewer casual
conversations where the office is divided into separate rooms, simply because it will be more
time-consuming to find colleagues.
Staff in an open-plan office may find it easier to motivate each other, although it also makes
conflict and petty arguments more likely.
Whatever environment workers find themselves in, they do tend to adapt to it quickly, and
approach their work, and communicate with their colleagues, in the most efficient way.
Furniture and Equipment

An office that is not comfortable will make work difficult. This refers not only to the
temperature and brightness of the office, but also to its furnishings.
(a) Desks and chairs
A desk needs to be big enough to let you do your work in comfort, but not so big that
you start to use it as a storage area! Solid, good quality materials need to be used –
there is nothing like a shaky desk for producing slow work. If the desk is too small, you
will not be able to work efficiently, since you will have to keep papers on the floor while
you are working. The desk should also be at the right height for comfort.
Chairs are even more important. Poor chairs can lead to discomfort, back problems
and absence from work. Good office chairs are padded, have castors, and are
adjustable for height. They have adjustable back rests, too. Remember that in an
office you are communicating most of the time, and anything which makes you
uncomfortable will adversely affect your ability to communicate well.
(b) Communications equipment
It is self-evident that, to enable fast and accurate communication, all equipment has to
be fit for purpose. This means that it should be modern, in good working order, and
possess all the features necessary to allow you to communicate more effectively.
 Computers should be fast and compact but with a large data storage capacity. It
is likely that they will be networked to allow users to have access to a shared
body of information.
 Telephones should be touch-tone for faster dialling, and should have all the
features that you would expect for increased efficiency, i.e.: call transfer, call
waiting, conference facility, speed dialling, last number redial, a "phonebook", and
internal lines within the organisation.
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 Faxes need to be fast and reliable, preferably using proper paper rather than the
special fax paper which can fade over time. A phone/fax combination can often
be very useful.
 Photocopiers are not used all the time by everyone, so there does not need to
be one at every desk. But the office photocopier should be positioned where staff
have easy access to it, with fresh paper readily available. It should have all the
features that the workers will need, e.g. enlargement or reduction, automatic sort,
two-sided printing, etc.
 Water coolers are becoming popular in many offices, as they allow staff to
refresh themselves in an easy and healthy way. They are not, in themselves,
communications equipment, but they are included in this section because the
phrase "conversations around the water cooler" has become synonymous with
the spreading of gossip in organisations!
Storage
Even though computers are able to store vast amounts of information without the need for
paper, it would be an unlikely office that did not receive letters, faxes, or orders in hard copy.
These all need to be filed and stored so that everyone who needs to find them can do so
quickly.
Storage of files and folders in computers is done in a very logical way, and only a logical
approach will work when storing information. If letters are just shoved anyhow into a box, it
will be very time-consuming for anyone to find one specific letter.
Documents must be arranged either alphabetically or chronologically, or both, depending on
the nature of the documents in question. They must be added to in sequence, so that a new
document will be put at the top of the file, not stuffed into the middle. The whole point of a
filing system is to enable information to be retrieved quickly, and everyone is responsible for
ensuring that they adhere to the system that is in place, because everyone benefits from
doing so.
Storage must also be in a secure area. The room or cupboard or filing cabinet where
confidential documents are stored must be lockable, and preferably fireproof. There should
be separate storage for documents to which access is restricted, e.g. where staff's personal
information is kept.
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173
Study Unit 7
Technology and Communications
Contents Page
Introduction 174
A. An Introduction to the Technology 174

Types of Computer 174
Computer Systems 175
B. Technology and Communications 186

Computer Communications 186
Telephone Systems 189
Word-Processing 190
Working with Graphics 193
Desk-Top Publishing 194
Electronic Publishing 194
Web Design 195
E-Mail 195
E-Commerce 196
Virtual Interaction 196
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174 Technology and Communications
INTRODUCTION
There has been a revolution in the communication of information in the last two decades. As
computers have become more powerful and sophisticated in what they can do, and at the
same time smaller, cheaper and easier to use, it is now commonplace for every business
desk-top to comprise an electronic workstation. Computers have, therefore, become central
to communication, enabling vast quantities of information to be conveyed at great speed.
It is important to be aware that this is what computers have enabled us to do. In other words,
computers are a tool allowing us to communicate much more efficiently than in the past. It
would be wrong, though, to think that this has changed the process of communication itself.
The same rules and principles of effective communication still apply, and we shall consider
them in respect of the opportunities that computer technology presents for enhancing the
written word. In addition, we shall look at how these communication methods can help us in
business, particularly the way in which new channels of communication are changing the way
we work. However, first we examine the basis on which the technology has opened up the
ability to communicate.
A. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE TECHNOLOGY

There are, essentially, two separate technologies driving forward the revolution in
communications:
 the computer, both in respect of the stand-alone system sitting on someone's desk and
the way in which computers are connected to each other in networks and through the
Internet; and
 the telephone, where telephone systems have an increasingly sophisticated range of
facilities, and the development of mobile (or cellular) phones which has opened up new
ways of using the technology.
Types of Computer
There are three main types of computer in common use today. These are the desk-top, the
laptop, and the palmtop.
 The desktop, as its name tells us, is normally located on top of a desk, with its tower
(where its main memory is kept) placed either at the side of the desk or on the floor
beneath the desk. It is not readily portable. The desk-top has four separate
components: the tower; the monitor; the keyboard; the mouse. So it takes up a lot of
room compared to the other two types. However, TFT monitors, which are very much
slimmer and lighter than the old CRT monitors, do help to save a lot of space, as well
as providing a clearer image.
Desk-tops have the largest storage capacity and fastest processing speeds of any of
the three types, and the fact that their components are separate means that if any one
of them malfunctions, replacing it is less expensive and less inconvenient.
 The laptop (also known as a notebook computer) is small enough and light enough to
sit on one's lap while working. All its component parts are included in a single unit
about the size of this Study Manual. Laptops have the great advantage of portability,
which means that they can be used anywhere, and since they run on batteries as well
as mains power they can even be used far away from an electricity supply.
The newest laptops have speed and capacity that are beginning to rival that of desk-
tops, and they share all the functions that a desk-top possesses. Business people
regularly take them if they are away from the office, because they can use them to
communicate very conveniently.
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However, if a laptop malfunctions, it can't be used while it is being repaired, as the

whole machine has to be sent for repair. This can be extremely frustrating.
 The palmtop is the smallest of the three, and by far the lightest. It can easily fit into a
jacket pocket or a small bag. Users navigate around its small, touch-sensitive screen
by using a special plastic pen. It is extremely portable, and shares all of the important
functions of the other two types, but it is used more for notes and memos than for
storing large files. Because its screen is small, it is impossible to see a large amount of
data at the same time.
Computer Systems
A computer is a system, just like any other system. It comprises inputs and a process which
transforms those inputs, and produces outputs. The process is undertaken in the central
processing unit or CPU, contained within the computer itself. The inputs are made by a
device such as a keyboard or a mouse, and the outputs are displayed on the computer's
monitor screen or on a document produced by the computer's printer.
This system works just like any other system. You put something in – say, typing letters on
the keyboard – and the CPU manipulates it and produces some output – say, letters
appearing on the screen. And, at a basic level, it really is that simple.
So how does it work?
To explain that, we need to recognise one further thing about the process part of the system.
The CPU is potentially very clever, but on its own it doesn't know very much. It has to be told
what to do with the inputs in order to turn them into the desired output. This is the role of the
computer's programs – they are a set of instructions which enable the computer to do
things.
Programs are held in some form of secondary storage, such as the computer's hard disk or
a CD-ROM. When they are needed, they are brought into the computer's main or primary
storage or memory. This is, essentially, part of the CPU itself.
Now . . . . this is how a computer works.
First of all you have to tell the CPU what you want it to do – you choose the program you
want it to use (say, a word-processing program). The CPU has some very basic programs
which enable it to form a link with secondary storage and bring the desired program into its
main memory. Once the CPU knows what program it is going to use, you can start the input.
When you press a key on a keyboard, or move or click a mouse, a signal is sent to the CPU.
So typing "hello" sends a stream of signals. The signals are received by the CPU and
interpreted in accordance with instructions it gets from the program in its main memory. This
tells it what to do with the input signals, and it transforms them into two outputs – one you
can see and one you can't:
 The one you can see starts as a series of signals from the CPU to an output device
which then processes those signals into an intelligible form – images on a screen, in a
similar way to a TV.
 The output from the CPU that you don't see is a series of signals which it stores within
its main memory or transfers to the secondary storage. These are the data files which
contain the work done and they may be saved permanently in the secondary storage
by giving them a name (the file name) so that you can access the same piece of work
again.
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We can summarise the process as follows:
typing image on
Keyboard signal CPU signal Monitor
screen
Secondary Storage
(programs and data)
This is a highly simplified account, and you need to know a bit more about the whole
process. But don't worry, we shall not be getting too technical. You do not need to know the
details of how the signals are sent, how the programs work or how the CPU operates. You
do, though, need to know a little more about the input and output devices, some of the
features of the CPU, what sorts of program there are, and the storage facilities available.
(a) Input devices
There are six main methods of input as follows:
 The keyboard
The keyboard is the most widely used device for inputting data into computers.
The traditional keyboard is a very flexible device since it can be used for a range
of purposes, rather than just one (as is the case with a bar-code reader). A
keyboard can be used to enter any kind of alphabetical or numeric data, as well
as to issue commands and queries, often interacting with information from the
computer as displayed on the accompanying screen.
But the keyboard does have its drawbacks, mainly because it needs people to
operate it and people are slow, prone to making mistakes and expensive to
employ and train. Other forms of input device are, therefore, increasingly
replacing keyboards for entering pre-determined data like the price of a good or
account details.
 Pointing devices
The mouse has become as common as the keyboard in most PC systems,
because of the graphical presentation of much information on modern computer
screens.
The "human-computer" interface – or how you view information on a computer
screen – used to be a great problem. In order to be able to communicate with the
computer (at least initially, before it had an application running), you had to know
what to tell it to do and how such instructions were expressed in a way that the
computer would understand. This was far too technical for most people. The use
of pictures on the screen ("icons") to represent options, and lists from which
particular items could be selected ("menus") changed all that. Pioneered by
Apple, the graphical interface is now standard through the use of Microsoft
Windows on all PCs.
A mouse is a small hand-held device with a ball underneath and two or three
buttons on the top. When you move the mouse over a surface (such as a desk),
the ball moves. This in turn moves a "cursor" – a small arrow – on the screen in
exactly the same direction. In this way, the user can position the cursor easily
and accurately at any point on the screen. The buttons are used to select an icon
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or menu item over which the cursor is positioned, and then to execute an activity
associated with the icon or menu item.
For portable computers, a mouse is generally inappropriate and is replaced by a
trackball or touch pad built into the keyboard. The trackball is a kind of upside-
down mouse where you move the ball directly with your thumb, rather than
pushing it around on a surface. Touch pads register the movement of a finger or
thumb across the pad.
Pointing devices enable the user to interact with items displayed on the screen,
but they cannot input any original data. This has to be done by some other
device, usually a keyboard.
 Pen-based devices
These devices enable the user to point, write or draw directly on a sensitive
screen or other surface using something similar to a pen. A light-pen emits
signals which are picked up and interpreted by the screen, whereas other devices
work by exerting pressure on a sensitive surface like a graphics tablet.
The devices are useful for making selections in the same way as pointing
devices, and they allow more control in drawing. However, the hoped-for
capability of inputting hand-written data has yet to be consistently achieved,
because of the difficulty of computers recognising the variety of character
portrayed in different (or even the same) people's handwriting.
Pen-based devices are mainly used in systems dedicated to graphics and design
work, or for inputting data in situations demanding equipment which can be hand-
held. An example of the latter is the tablet, similar to a clipboard, on which marks
can be made by inspectors or other mobile workers as they walk around. The
tablet is usually linked to some kind of hand-held portable computer to store the
data, which can then be transferred into a main system on return to the office.
 Scanners
Scanners are devices which can read printed or magnetic data and convert it into
electronic signals to be sent to an attached computer. "Read" is perhaps the
wrong word, since they do not understand the data itself, but merely recognise a
pattern which is transmitted to the computer for decoding.
Scanners work, in essence, like a photocopier (which some resemble in
operation, albeit on a much smaller scale). The document or other item with data
on it is passed across a light source or magnetic-sensitive strip, and the resultant
pattern – instead of being output as a copy image on another piece of paper – is
transmitted to the computer.
There are a variety of scanning devices available, with the main ones being as
follows.
(i) Image scanners. These operate in a similar way to photocopiers, by taking
a picture of the input document and transmitting it as a graphical image to
the computer. Thus photographs and drawings, etc. can be captured for
use by the computer. Once an image has been electronically stored, it can
be manipulated to alter its appearance (make it darker, increase the
contrast or even move part of the image within it) and then added to text to
make a mix of text and graphics in a printed document, such as a
newspaper.
(ii) Optical character recognition scanners. These are similar to image
scanners, but the software they use is capable of recognising one or more
"fonts" (the style of typeface of a character on a printed document) and
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correctly identifying letters and numbers. There are two main applications
for this – to enable the automatic reading of pre-printed data on a document
such as an invoice or paying-in slip as part of the recording of a transaction,
and to convert text on a printed document into text in the computer, which
can then be manipulated within a word-processing application.
(iii) Bar-code readers. These are now very common in shops and
supermarkets. Most products for sale now have a bar code printed on
them. This is a series of different width lines and spaces which represent a
unique code for that particular product.
Data about each product in the shop, such as its price, description and
stock level, is held on computer by reference to this unique code. When
the bar code on the item is passed over a reader (or captured by a light-pen
or similar device), the sale is registered and the information passed to the
till.
(iv) Magnetic strip readers. You will be familiar with these. They are the
machines which read the black strip on the back of credit cards and other
similar plastic cards. They are to be found in most shops and in the
"automatic teller machines" (ATMs) outside banks which enable you to
draw cash from your bank account without setting foot in the building. The
strip on the card is encoded with various details about your account with
the bank, credit-card company, shop, etc. When the machine reads this
data into a computer, along with details of the amount of the transaction,
the computer links up with a computer at the bank, credit-card company,
etc., checks the details and determines that funds are available for the
transaction. If so, the amount is automatically debited to the account.
Sales completed using this system are known as "electronic funds transfer
at the point of sale" or EFTPOS.
Magnetic strip readers are not solely used for money transactions. They
can also be used to check identification details, or to permit and record
movements in and out of a building by staff members and authorised
visitors. The magnetic strip on a plastic card can be set up to contain
whatever personal information is necessary for the system, and the
scanner will identify it.
(v) Optical mark recognition. OMR is typically used for high-volume data entry
where the input data is shown as marks in particular places on a document.
It is used mainly for market research surveys, time sheets and some order
forms. The method of completing the input document is for a mark to be
made in selected boxes on the form, such as the start or finish time of an
employee at work. The OMR device will read the document in a similar
way to an OCR device and identify for the computer exactly which boxes
have been marked.
The main advantage of scanners is that they are more or less error-free in
recognising pre-determined characters or patterns (the biggest problem being
where there is some corruption of the characters or pattern by other marks or
folds, creases, etc. in the paper or card). They can also read this data very
quickly. When you add the fact that they are cheap to run, scanners can be seen
to be very efficient and effective for entering large volumes of data which can be
represented graphically.
On the other hand, scanning systems can be expensive to purchase and install.
Apart from the scanning device itself, they need specialist programs for the
computer and typically require that the whole system to which they are being
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applied is reorganised around this form of data input. You are then in real trouble
if the system breaks down.
Because scanners can only read certain pre-determined characters or patterns,
their use is limited to those situations where data can be shown in that form (as,
for example, bar codes). However, where there is a high volume of such data to
be input, scanning systems are usually well worth the investment.
 Video and audio input
Video images and sounds can be inputs as well as outputs. They can be
electronically stored in a computer in the same way as text or still images, where
they can then be manipulated to change their characteristics – for example, to
edit the video, change colours, make sound louder or softer, or change their
pitch, etc.
Apart from the use of computers to edit video images and sounds in the making
of, say, TV programmes or music, video and sound can also be combined with
text and graphics to produce "multimedia" presentations.
 Voice recognition
This final type of input device is still some way off being a viable proposition in
more than limited circumstances. If computers could be made to recognise and,
more significantly, understand speech, then we would have the easiest and most
natural form of data input. However, there are immense problems with analysing
and encoding the meaning of spoken words, not least because of the variety of
accents and inflexions, and the ambiguity of language.
Significant progress has been made, however, in "training" computers to
recognise a limited number of words spoken by particular people, and even in the
general recognition of certain words (or sounds) made by anyone. Systems
using voice recognition are increasingly found where people need to input data
without using their hands, as in some product inspection lines or in baggage and
parcel handling and sorting at airports or by delivery companies. Development of
more general voice recognition for data input as an alternative to the keyboard is
still very slow, and error-prone, and this is unlikely to be a real possibility for some
considerable time.
(b) The central processing unit
The CPU is the heart of a computer. In a microcomputer it is a tiny component, not
much bigger than one square centimetre, but nevertheless comprises tens or hundreds
of thousands of components and circuitry to link them together. Fortunately, you do not
need to understand the hugely complicated way in which this works. We shall simply
list two aspects of it here.
 Type of processor and speed
Computers have grown in power – hence the ability to undertake increasingly
sophisticated applications – through the development of more and more powerful
processors. Processor power is measured mainly by the speed at which it can
execute series of instructions. The faster the speed, the faster the CPU can
work. These speeds are measured in megahertz, with 1 MHz equalling one
million operations per second. You will probably be familiar with the company
name of the market leader Intel and its Pentium series of processors. These, and
other manufacturers such as Athlon, have pushed up computing power from
around 60 MHz in the early 1990s to well over 3GHz (3,000MHz) and rising.
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 Main memory
Although not strictly part of the CPU, the computer's main or primary memory is
usually thought of as part of it because it is integral to its operation. Anything
stored in the main memory can be accessed and read by the CPU, and be
changed (or overwritten) with new data during the execution of the program
instructions.
This type of memory is known as random access memory (RAM). (This can be
contrasted with read only memory (ROM) which, as its name suggests,
comprises permanently stored information which cannot be changed or
overwritten.)
Main memory is only a temporary store. Data and instructions are only kept there
as long as they are needed. When they are not, or when the storage is getting
full, the CPU passes them back into secondary storage. Data and instructions
cannot be kept in the main memory permanently. That is because, when the
machine is switched off, the main memory is erased.
Clearly, the larger the main memory, the more program instructions and data can
be held there for the CPU to access. This will also reduce the constant need to
switch instructions and data to and from secondary storage when they are not
needed or are needed. As a result, processing will be speeded up.
Modern CPUs are capable of working with increasingly large amounts of main
memory. Consequently, the amount of RAM on most PCs has now risen from the
4Mb common on machines in the early 1990s to the 1024, 2048 or even 3072Mb
commonplace on modern PCs.
(c) Output devices
There are three main types of output device:
 Screens
All computer systems have some form of screen output device. For all but
portable computers, this is invariably a monitor like a TV (and using the same
cathode-ray-tube technology) which can produce very clear, high quality
resolution images virtually instantaneously. Monitors are also known as visual
display units (VDUs).
Monitors come in a variety of sizes, as TVs do. The standard screen size used to
be 14", but larger screens are becoming more common as their prices have
dropped, with 15", 17", 19" and even 21" ones being available. The major
advantage of such screens is not just that things are bigger on them but that you
can see more of documents at a readable size. For example, on a 14" screen, a
whole page of standard-size paper (A4) can be displayed but the text on it, at a
normal type size such as 12 point, will be completely unreadable, On a 17"
screen, that text will be just about readable and on a 19" screen two pages can
be displayed side by side very clearly.
Portable computers use a different technology – liquid crystal display (LCD) –
which has the advantage of being flat, very thin and light. These screens can be
incorporated into the lid of a portable computer, and hence are reduced to the
size of the machine's keyboard.
 Printers
Virtually all computer systems have printers attached as output devices. These
enable permanent records of selected information to be produced. Such paper
copies of information are also referred to as "hard copy", indicating their
permanence as opposed to the temporary nature of information on a screen.
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The choice of what is the most appropriate printer will depend upon the user's
requirements in respect of such factors as print quality, range of fonts and type of
graphics to be printed, speed of printing and cost (of both purchase and
operation).
There are basically three types of printer available, categorised according to how
they produce their output:
(i) Serial printers. These print one character at a time. The main types are
inkjet and dot matrix printers.
Inkjet printers work by effectively spray painting each character onto the
paper. They can provide high quality output, including in colour. They can
also produce a wide range of fonts and some graphics. Typical speeds are
between four and eight pages per minute for black-and-white printing,
which equates very well with laser printers for which they are now serious
rivals. Inkjet printers can also be very small, which makes them ideal for
use with portable computers.
Dot matrix printers work in basically the same way as a typewriter, by
impacting a print head onto an inked ribbon which transfers the image onto
the paper. They are capable of producing a number of different fonts and
sizes, but are limited by the size of the print head and the pre-programmed
configurations of available fonts. They do not really have any graphics
capability. Dot matrix printers can produce good quality output, but it is
invariably clear that the characters are composed of a matrix of dots. They
print at comparable speeds to inkjet printers. Dot matrix printers are still
used in many organisations for producing "near-letter-quality" high-volume
output, because they are cheap to run and require little maintenance apart
from occasionally replacing the ribbon.
(ii) Line printers. These work by memorising a line at a time and printing that
line character by character. They can be exceptionally fast, producing
anything up to the equivalent of 30 pages per minute. They work in the
same way as a dot matrix printer, but the print head is of a fixed
configuration and so no variety of fonts is available. The print quality is low
and they can be noisy. They are used for the fast printing of large volumes
of information where the output quality is not a factor – for example,
producing large internal reports (such as financial statements) and high-
volume printing of customer account statements.
(iii) Page printers, the main type of which is laser printers. They work by
projecting an image of the whole page onto a rotating drum inside the
printer which then attracts ink from a cartridge to form an inked impression
which can be transferred to paper. They can produce very high quality
output in virtually whatever font and type size is desired, and can print any
kind of graphic perfectly. Certain laser printers can print in colour. They are
undoubtedly the best printers, but that comes at a cost. They tend to be
expensive, costing at least twice as much as inkjet printers and not bringing
any real gains in speed. Laser printers for high-volume work, with faster
speeds and large paper storage capacity, cost well over £500, and those
capable of producing colour output are even more.
 Voice output
Talking computers are, technically, not that difficult to produce. Speech is, after
all, just sound organised in a particular way. However, the quality of voice
synthesisers is not very good, principally because of the difficulty of incorporating
tone and inflexion to assist with conveying meaning. This makes them
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particularly unattractive for interactive use, except in situations where visual

output is not possible – for example, for blind people using a computer.
There are though, an increasing number of applications using voice output to
provide information by means of the telephone: for example, giving standard
responses to pre-determined types of enquiry about film times and bookings.
 Other types of output
Information can be output onto a variety of media apart from paper. Video and
sound can be produced on tape, and documents can be printed onto film or
directly onto image plates for high quality, large-volume specialist printing.
Output can also be onto microfilm or microfiche, in which case very large
amounts of information are printed in miniature form to enable its storage in a
less bulky fashion than if it had been printed on paper.
(d) Storage
You should be well aware by now that there are two types of storage in a computer:
(i) the main memory or primary storage, which is essentially part of the CPU; and
(ii) secondary storage.
We have already touched on a number of points relating to the main memory, so we
shall concentrate here on the various secondary storage devices. First, though, we
shall consider a number of points about computer memory in general and about the
way data is stored.
 Memory
As we have already seen, there are two types of memory available to a
computer:
(i) random access memory (RAM); and
(ii) read only memory (ROM).
Data stored in RAM can be accessed and changed (or overwritten) as a result of
processing by the CPU. Data stored in ROM can only be read – it cannot be
transformed and written back into storage. This makes ROM storage ideal for
instruction programs, since it is not possible to alter them by mistake or by
design.
We have also mentioned measurements of storage capacity, or the size of
memory, available to different computers. It is now time to explain this.
Memory is measured in "bytes". A byte is a grouping of 8 bits which the
computer can operate on as a single unit. As the power of computers has
increased, so has the amount of data they process, which needs to be stored
either in the main memory or in secondary storage. These stores need to be
capable of holding many, many bytes, and it is usual now to talk not of individual
bytes, but of thousands, millions or even billions of bytes. The terminology is as
follows:
1000 bytes  1 kilobyte (or 1 Kb);
1000 kilobytes  1 megabyte (or 1 Mb);
1000 megabytes  1 gigabyte (or 1 Gb);
1000 gigabytes  1 terabyte (or 1 Tb).
(Strictly speaking, we should say that each 1000 is, in fact, 1024 due to the way
in which the binary number system works, but this is again getting too technical.)
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 Data and files

Individual items of data – say the character "z" – are not much use on their own.
They are combined with other items of data to form a meaningful whole – for
example, the word "zebra". Computers do not, generally, store the individual
items, but rather store the whole. They store combinations of data in a whole
package called a "file" which is useful for a particular reason – for example, as a
package of instructions (a program file) or package of words (a file for a word-
processing application).
Files have to be identifiable or the computer would not be able to find them. They
therefore have names. For data produced by a user, the name is given by the
user when saving the file into the computer's secondary storage.
The name consists of two parts: a filename and an extension, the two parts
being separated by a full stop (called a "dot"). Thus, a file could be known as
"MYFILE.DOC". The file name is the part that the user identifies and the
extension is an identifier of what type of file it is – so ".DOC" identifies it as a file
for the word-processing application Microsoft Word. Generally speaking, the user
does not need to add the extension, this being done automatically by the
program.
 Secondary storage
The role of secondary storage is to maintain a permanent record of data files and
programs which may be made available to the CPU.
There are a number of different secondary storage mediums, which can be
classified in two different ways:
(i) whether they are a permanent part of the computer's internal structure (the
fixed hard disk) or an external object which can be attached to the
computer in order to input or receive data;
(ii) the medium used for storage – magnetic tape, magnetic disks or optical
disks.
Magnetic tape is the oldest form of storage device for computers and is still
used, although now only for particular types of application.
The major limitation on the use of tapes as a storage medium is the way in which
data files are stored. They work in exactly the same way as audio or video tapes,
which means that data is recorded sequentially along the length of the tape, item
by item. This is OK for storing the data, but causes problems when you want to
retrieve something. In order to find a particular file, you have to search through
the whole of the tape, just as you would to find a particular piece of music on an
audio tape. Direct access to one file on the tape is not possible at any great
speed.
Data files are stored on magnetic disks in a very different way to tapes – on
"tracks" on the disk. Accessing and reading stored data, or entering data onto a
disk, is by means of a "read/write" head which moves across the rotating disk
until the correct track is located or a vacant area found for storage. This means
that any file can be found very quickly. These principles are the same for the two
main types of magnetic disk storage associated with computers – diskettes and
the internal hard disk.
Diskettes are 3½" diameter flexible ("floppy") disks encased in a solid plastic
envelope to protect them from damage. They are very cheap and, because of
their size and robust nature, are easily portable. Their main use is to store data
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away from the computer as a security back-up, or to transfer data from one
computer to another. However, their capacity is small – usually 1.44Mb.
A computer's hard disk is usually its main secondary storage facility. It
comprises a single, hard magnetic disk sealed with its own unit to protect it from
dust or any other damage. Hard disk capacities have increased hugely over
recent years, and memory sizes of over 20Gb are now common.
Magnetic disk technology is limited by the density with which tracks can be
packed onto the disk, the speed of rotation and the movement of the read/write
head. Optical disk technology does not have the same limitations and hence
offers the opportunity for larger storage capacity and faster access.
Data is stored on an optical disk by means of microscopic pits on the surface of
the disk, which is covered with a clear plastic protective coating. These pits can
be read by a laser scanning the moving disk at very high speed. The principle is
exactly the same as that used on compact disks which store music.
Optical disks first appeared in general use in the mid-1990s as CD-ROM disks
with capacities up to 4Gb. These were mainly used to supply very large
programs which, until then, had required many floppy disks to hold the same
amount of data. (The programs would be copied onto the computer's hard disk
for secondary storage.) Certain types of multimedia applications could not be
divided up across a number of disks, so the advent of the CD-ROM enabled them
to be distributed for the first time.
Originally, CDs were a read-only medium and, unlike magnetic disks, data could
not be deleted or overwritten on them, or new data stored. However, that has
now changed, with CD writers being available cheaply and the full read/write
optical disk becoming standard.
As the software and applications for computers have developed, so too has the
demand for storage with even higher memory capacities. Most recently, this has
seen the introduction of DVDs (digital versatile disks) which can store up to
16Gb. As with the advent of CDs, these were limited at first to read-only uses,
but DVD writers are now common.
One of the most common and convenient ways now available for storing data is
the memory stick. These are very small devices with large memories that can
simply be plugged directly into a computer. Then the required data can be
downloaded to them.
(e) Software
Software is the term used to describe the programs which instruct the computer to
do things. There are two types of these programs.
 Systems software
These are the programs which control and manage the operation and
performance of the computer itself. The most important part of such software is
the "operating system" – an integrated set of programs which manage CPU
operations, control input, output and storage activities and devices (or at least
some of them), and support the execution of applications programmes.
By far the most important aspect of this, from a user's perspective, is the
management of files. The operating system controls and manages the location
and status of all the files stored within the computer – principally, in secondary
storage – and enables them to be copied, moved and deleted.
The operating systems of large mainframe computers tend to be specific to the
particular manufacturer. Thus, for example, IBM mainframes usually use an
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operating system called MVS, whereas DEC mainframes use VMS. Whilst they
perform the same roles, these operating systems are not the same; and the
applications which run on them have to be specially written to interact with the
particular operating system. So we say that machines with different operating
systems are "not compatible".
The issue of compatibility is very important for applications software. Since
applications programmes have to interact with the operating system, they can
only run on machines using the operating system for which they were written. If
every computer manufacturer used its own operating system, applications would
have to be specific to particular machines. However, if they all used the same
operating system, then the same applications programs could be used on all
machines.
This is what happened among microcomputer manufacturers in the 1980s. They
all (or nearly all) adopted a standard operating system known as MS-DOS. This
was originally developed by IBM for use on its own PCs, but was subsequently
licensed to and further developed by Microsoft. The standardisation of operating
systems resulted in a huge expansion of the PC market and allowed applications
developers to devote massive resources to providing programs which could be
used on all the millions of compatible machines around the world.
Microsoft subsequently developed Windows as an extension of the MS-DOS
operating system, providing a very user-friendly graphical interface between the
computer and the user. The dominance of Windows as a common basis for
almost all PCs has further stimulated the development of applications software.
 Applications software
Applications software is the programs which direct the computer to undertake
specific information-processing activities desired by the user.
It is usual to distinguish between general-purpose programs and application-
specific or dedicated programs.
Dedicated programs are those which have only one particular business
purpose, such as payroll processing or accounting, and can only be used for that
specialised application in a business.
General-purpose programs are those which perform particular types of
common information-processing activity (such as word-processing or database
management) and which can be used for a variety of different purposes or
applied in different ways. There are four main types of general-purpose program:
(i) word-processing – which allows the creation, editing and printing of
documents by electronically processing text data, and is a key element of
office automation systems;
(ii) spreadsheets – which allow the manipulation of figures according to their
mathematical and other relationships (for example, adding, multiplying,
comparing, etc.), and are a key element of decision support systems;
(iii) databases – which allow the storage and retrieval of data and records and
their manipulation, and are a key element of transaction processing and
management information systems; and
(iv) graphics – which cover both the graphical representation of numerical data
and the creation, editing and printing of images for presentational purposes,
and are an aspect of office automation systems.
It is possible to obtain integrated packages combining all four main types into one
"suite" of programs, which all act in a similar way and facilitate sharing data.
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Such integrated packages invariably have graphics programs (concentrating on

presentational applications) which are inferior to specialist ones, although for the
purposes of most users they are perfectly acceptable.
B. TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATIONS

All organisations now rely heavily on technology to assist with their communications. The
technology has made a tremendous difference to the range of opportunities available for
improving the production and presentation of written communication, and the speed and
efficiency of oral communication. It is now easy, for example, to produce drafts and correct
them quickly, and to include graphics, colour, different letter fonts, etc. all within the one
document.
However, these possibilities must be seen as what they are – tools to enhance the work
produced. No matter how sophisticated the presentation of any communication, there still
remains the need for careful thought and preparation – for precision, clarity and structure –
and this cannot be undertaken by the technology itself. To communicate effectively, you must
still follow the same principles that we have seen in previous units.
In the following sections, we shall review some of the ways in which technology can help to
enhance communications. We shall also consider some of the pitfalls.
Computer Communications
At one time, computers were very large machines located in one part of a big organisation
and undertaking specific tasks. The only form of communication they had with the outside
world was the reams of paper they produced, in such forms as internal financial reports,
invoices and wage slips. At the very most there would only be a few terminals scattered
around the same building, through which data could be entered.
Before too long, though, two particular communication needs arose:
 the need to transfer data from one (mainframe) computer to another, principally in
respect of the paying of employees (where information needed to be communicated
between the computers of the employer and its bank); and
 the need for terminals to be located far from the main computer, as with airline agents
communicating with the airline's central computer for booking seats and flights.
The spread of personal computers has increased the scale of communications enormously –
within organisational systems, between organisations and between individuals. Computers
of all kinds are now regularly connected up to other computers. How is this done, and what
are the flows of data and information between them?
(a) Networks
A computer network is any grouping of computers which are connected to each other
and are able to exchange data. So, a network can be just two microcomputers or the
worldwide Internet.
There are, basically, two ways in which groups of computers may be connected:
 in the form of a wheel, where there is one central computer and a number of
satellite computers (sometimes in a "master-slave" relationship, as when a
central mainframe computer is served by a number of terminals); and
 in the form of a circle, where all the computers are linked together and data can
be easily exchanged directly between all of them.
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Wheel formation Circle formation
Figure 7.1: Wheel and Circle Networks
The technicalities of how this is done, and the problems of transferring data between
incompatible systems, need not bother us here. However, we do need to be aware of
certain features of the network connections.
Networks can be classified into two types – local and wide area networks – based,
essentially, on the geographical location of the computers being connected.
 Local area networks (LANs)
LANs link together computers over small distances, usually in the same building,
by direct cabling between them.
One feature of such networks is that devices can then be shared between users.
Figure 7.2 shows a network of five PCs and one printer. All the computers can
use the printer to produce output documents.
A device which provides a service to the other computers on the network is
known as a "server". So, the printer in the network shown in Figure 7.2 would be
a "printer server".
B Printer
C D
Scanner
E
Figure 7.2: Shared Devices on a LAN
Devices can also be connected to the network through one of the linked
computers. In the example in Figure 7.2, one of the PCs (D) has an image
scanner attached as an input device. The data entered by this device becomes
available to all the computers on the network, so if the user of PC A wants to
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include a photograph in a document he or she is producing, the photograph can

be scanned at PC D and the file containing the electronically stored image can be
accessed back at PC A.
It is also quite common for one of the computers on the network to act as a "file
server" for the other computers. This would normally be a PC with a much larger
secondary storage capacity or a minicomputer. Files which are to be stored for
general access by all the computers are kept on this file server, which then acts
in effect as a further secondary storage facility for the other computers. The file
server may also contain all (or some) of the applications software used by the
network.
 Wide area networks (WANs)
WANs link together computers (and sometimes other devices) over longer
distances, where direct cabling is not possible or where the distance may cause
corruption of the data as it travels the cable.
In this case, some other communication medium is necessary. This usually takes
the form of linking into the public telephone network. However, the lines used for
telephones are not always (or even often) capable of handling the very large
quantities of data which people are interested in transmitting between computers.
They lack sufficient bandwidth to enable the smooth and fast transfer of data;
hence the popularity of broadband services, which allow the user to use the
telephone and to be on the Internet at the same time.
In order for any data to be transferred between computers through a WAN, the
data has to be converted from the type of electronic signal used by computers
into a different type of electronic signal which can be transmitted through the
telephone system or via a satellite and, once it is received by another computer, it
has to be converted back again. This is done by a device called a modem which
is usually located inside the computer.
Otherwise WANs operate in exactly the same way as LANS. Indeed the two can
be combined: so PC E in Figure 7.2, for example, could be located several miles
away (or even in a different country or different continent) from the rest of the
network.
A network – whether it is a local or wide area network – which is dedicated to the needs
of a particular organisation and enables information to be shared over it is called an
Intranet.
(b) The Internet
The Internet is, essentially, just a particular example of a WAN into which any computer
can be connected.
 How does it work?
The easiest way to understand this is to consider how you, as a PC user, might
get connected.
The first point is that you cannot connect your computer directly into this WAN. It
links together large-scale computers which are capable of handling the volume of
data to be transmitted and able to provide the services which most people want
from the Internet. These computers are generally the computers of large
companies, government departments and agencies, universities, etc. There are
also a large number of companies set up specifically to enable those with smaller
computers to access the Internet – these are known as Internet Service Providers
(ISPs). Examples of ISPs are AOL, Tiscali, BTInternet, Virgin, etc. For a monthly
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fee or, in some cases, for free, these providers will let you connect with them in
order to gain access to the WAN that is the Internet.
If you are a PC user in an organisation which is connected to the Internet, it is
likely that the LAN or WAN of that organisation will also give access to the
Internet. Thus, if you are a student at a university, Internet connection will simply
be one of the facilities offered over the university's own network.
If you are not in such an organisation, you would need to connect via an ISP.
This is the way in which most individuals and small companies connect. All you
need is a computer with a modem and a web browser – a particular piece of
software which is capable of reading the information available on the Net (the
main ones being Microsoft's Internet Explorer and Mozilla FireFox) – which most
computers now have as standard.
 What does it do?
The main uses of the Internet are the sending of e-mail and accessing the World
Wide Web. There are a number of other specialist services available through the
Internet, but these are the main uses.
We shall examine e-mail in a later section, so here we shall concentrate on the
features of the Web.
The Web is made up of pages of information which may be accessed by anyone
connected to the Internet. This information is put there by companies,
government departments and agencies, educational institutions, all sorts of
different groups and individuals. It may be designed for commercial reasons – to
advertise or actually sell goods and services over the Net (e-commerce) – for
entertainment or purely to share particular information with anyone interested in
that subject. Most of the information is available free of charge, but in some
cases you need to register with the information provider in order to access it (for
example, many journals are available online only by subscription).
Organisations (and sometimes individuals) making pages of information available
on the Web have what is known as a website. This is simply a series of web
pages, linked together.
Telephone Systems
The developments in computer technology have been mirrored in telephone systems.
Indeed, the technology is the same in many instances, particularly in respect of the
development of communications media with the use of new forms of cabling, radio waves
and satellites.
We can distinguish telephone and related systems according to whether they are based on
land lines for connection or use radio signals to facilitate mobile use.
(a) Land line systems
There has been an explosion of new facilities available on telephones, originally
through the internal systems within organisations and, increasingly now, within public
telephone systems. These include the following.
 The ability to transfer calls direct to another phone on the same system.
 The ability to be told if another call is received whilst you are making a call on the
same line.
 The ability to hold one call whilst taking another on the same line, and to switch
between those calls.
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 The ability to divert calls to another phone – either if your phone is busy (and you
do not want to be disturbed), if your phone is not answered after a certain number
of rings or if you know you are going to be away from your phone.
 The ability to leave messages using an answer phone or through voicemail
facilities.
(b) Mobile phones
Mobile phones have experienced huge growth in recent years. They enable all the
benefits of telephone communication without the necessity of being tied to a land-
based telephone. They can, therefore, be used anywhere.
In addition to all the facilities available through land line telephones, mobile phones
offer two additional facilities.
 The ability to send text messages using letters corresponding to particular
numbers on the keypad. This can be very useful for sending very quick
messages, but the nature of the keys and the difficulty in selecting individual
letters makes this a very cumbersome means of sending anything but short
notes. It is mainly used for personal, as opposed to business, purposes.
 The ability to take photographs or short films and send them, or pieces of music,
to other compatible phones. This is known as MMS (Multimedia Messaging
Service).
 The ability to link to the Internet. The latest mobile phones – known as WAP
phones – can connect to the Internet and enable the user to access web pages
as well as sending and receiving e-mails. Again, there are problems with this in
that the viewing size of the screen on a mobile phone is extremely small, limiting
the amount of information that can be displayed, and the limitations of the keypad
make typing e-mails very difficult. However, the ability to receive e-mails when
away from a computer does have benefits in speeding up communications.
(c) Pagers
Pagers are small devices which certain people carry with them in order to be alerted
about a need to do something or contact someone. Paging systems do not actually
use telephones as such. They enable individuals to be contacted by a central service –
in most cases, the employing organisation, but systems are in use by other groups –
and for a very short message to be left. The person receiving the message may be
required to telephone someone immediately on receipt (as in hospitals where paging
messages are used to contact particular doctors as necessary).
(d) Fax or facsimile
A forerunner of e-mail, this is just a method of sending a hard (paper) copy of a
document over the telephone line. It allows letter-type communication without the built-
in delay of actually transporting the specific piece of paper from the communicator to
the recipient.
Fax machines convert the document into electronic form for transmission via the
telephone system and the machine at the receiving end converts the signal back into
text and prints an exact copy of the original document. Fax machines may be
dedicated pieces of equipment or they may also function as normal telephones. Most
computers also have the ability to act as fax machines, sending and receiving
documents.
Word-Processing
Most written documentation produced in modern businesses is prepared by the use of word-
processing applications. It is now common for all individuals at the workplace to have their
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own desk-top computer and to be expected to produce their own letters, memos, etc., rather
then sending them to a central "pool" for preparation. The ability to use a word-processing
application is, therefore, a basic skill required in many organisations today.
Word-processing applications are computer programs used to create and print written
documents. Once text has been input to the document, the program allows for any changes
– correcting mistakes, adjusting the layout, deleting sections, moving blocks of text, etc. – to
be made quickly and easily.
One of the outcomes of this is that written materials often go through several drafts before
the document is finalised. Far from speeding up the process of communication, it can in fact
slow it down! This also gives rise to the explosion of paper that has accompanied the
introduction of word-processing into organisations – rather than the promised paperless
office. There are a number of obvious inefficiencies built into this process which should be
minimised. Care should be taken to ensure that redrafting is kept to a minimum – aim for just
a first draft and a final version.
There are many different types of word-processing application available, although the two
main programmes used on PCs are Microsoft Word and Corel WordPerfect. Most of these
packages have a range of features which go a long way beyond the simple input and editing
of text. Whilst most of these features are of a very specialist nature, certain elements are
commonly used in business communication.
(a) Templates
These are features which standardise the style and content of business documents.
Templates provide a pre-designed framework for the insertion of text into a document,
such as a letter or memo. They set out the margins, position of text on the page, font
size and style, etc. which are applicable to the particular document. This can be
important in preparing, for example, letters to be printed onto pre-printed stationery
containing the company's name, address and details, etc. As we have seen previously,
letters in particular are important in forming an impression of an organisation, and it is
not uncommon for a great deal of time and expense to be put into the design of
stationery, including the way in which the words appear on the page.
Most organisations use standardised documents to some extent. These are usually
letters, but may be other documents such as agendas, which contain the same
information for all the recipients and/or need to be prepared over and over again. The
standard text is usually personalised with particular details applicable to the individual
recipient (name, address, etc.) or applicable to the particular occasion, such as an
individual meeting.
(b) Mail merge
Mail merge is the facility to automatically add personal details to a document. The
personal information is drawn from a database held elsewhere within the computer.
The technique works by inserting special "fields" into the main document, into which
the personal information will be placed. These fields are given names which
correspond to the field names in a database containing details of the recipients. The
database may be specially prepared for a particular mailing, or may be an existing
database within the organisation.
You will probably be familiar with the use of mail merge facilities for inserting names
and addresses onto letters, and possibly the insertion of other details such as account
balances or payments, etc. However, increasingly sophisticated information can be
added from large data files, including locations, dates of previous correspondence,
contact names and even short phrases appropriate to the individual.
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(c) Editing facilities

Word-processing packages offer a wide range of facilities to edit the text once you have
keyed it in.
 It is possible to select individual words, groups of words or whole paragraphs and
delete them, move them to a different position in the document or copy them for
insertion elsewhere or even in another document. It is also possible to paste
copied text or graphics into the document (either from a different position in the
same document or from an entirely separate document).
 The whole document can be searched to find particular words and, if wanted, to
replace them by different words.
 The whole document can also be automatically checked for spelling mistakes or
against particular forms of grammar. You need to be careful about the use of a
spell checker, though. It only detects spelling mistakes, so if a word is incorrectly
spelt for a particular context, but actually forms another correctly spelt word, this
will not be detected – for example, typing "then" or "thank" when you meant to
type "than". This means that you always need to read through and check your
work yourself.
 Finally, it is possible to obtain certain statistics about the whole document – for
example, number of words, time spent editing, etc.
(d) Formatting
Most word-processing applications provide a wide range of features for formatting the
appearance of the text on the page. There is often a strong temptation to make
excessive use of these with the most inappropriate results. Remember, though, the
maxims we stressed earlier in the course about keeping communications clear and
simple. The objective in using enhancements is to aid the clarity of the message. They
should be used, therefore, to underpin structure and emphasis, not just for effect.
Formatting can be applied to words and phrases or to a whole paragraph.
 Words and phrases
Individual words or phrases can be formatted by applying different fonts or font
enhancements to them.
Fonts are the style of the letters as they appear on the printed page. Most word-
processing applications offer a large choice of different fonts – some a
bewildering range. However, it is rare for a document to need more than one
font, or at the most two (with a different one being used, perhaps, for a main
heading).
Structure and emphasis can be enhanced through the use of different font sizes
and through applying bold or italic characteristics to words or phrases. Headings
in both letters and reports are invariably emboldened. A hierarchy of headings
can be given visual emphasis by the use of different sizes, with the size reducing
from the first level headings to the lowest level. (However, it is rare for there to
be a need for anything greater than a one or two point difference between the
largest heading and the size of the main text.)
 Paragraphs
Apart from applying styles to the characters on the page, it is possible to format
how each paragraph appears. Again, it is important to use this feature carefully
and consistently to support the clarity of the communication. In many
organisations, the paragraph style – position on the page, alignment, etc. – will
be defined by the templates used for particular types of document.
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The main formatting features include:

(i) Alignment – text can either run from the left hand margin or to the right
hand margin, be centred between the margins (which is often used for main
headings) or be "justified" (where the text is aligned precisely to both the
left and right hand margins, with some compensatory adjustments to the
spacing between words).
(ii) Indentation – whereby the left (or right) hand margin for a particular
paragraph can be set further in than the page margins, one particular
feature being the "hanging indent" where the indentation is not applied to
the first line (as in these paragraphs).
(iii) Tab stops – whereby text can be consistently aligned at particular intervals
across the page by the use of the tab key on the keyboard. Tab stops are
set at specified measurements from the left hand margin and may be set to
align text running from the left at the tab stop, to the right at the tab stop,
centred around it, or at a decimal point (for figures). (Setting out large
amounts of text or figures in tabular form may be more easily achieved by
using the "table" feature of the word-processing application.)
(iv) Bullets – the insertion of a symbol before the paragraph, used to give
emphasis and pick out individual points in a list.
(v) Numbering – the automatic numbering of paragraphs which follow each
other, creating a numbered list.
Working with Graphics

There is often a need to present information graphically in documents, as well as in oral
presentations.
(a) Drawings
Simple line diagrams with text can be produced in the main word-processing
applications. These have features which enable straight and curved lines of different
widths (with or without arrowheads), rectangles and circles to be drawn. The latter two
shapes can usually be filled with a variety of shadings or even colour (if you have a
colour printer).
More complex drawings can be produced in specialist drawing applications like
CorelDraw or Adobe Illustrator. These are professional graphics packages although
they are relatively easy to use. There are other, less comprehensive, applications
available which will be adequate for most self-drawn diagrams.
The process of transferring material from one application (say, CorelDraw) into another
(say, WordPerfect) is called importing. Most modern word-processing applications
support this. Many also support a form of transfer known as embedding. Under this,
a link is formed between the two files such that if the item that has been embedded is
changed in either of the applications, it is automatically updated in the other
application.
(b) Charts
Numerical information is invariably easier to assimilate if it is presented graphically – in
the form of graphs, bar-charts, pie-charts, etc.
Again, the main word-processing applications have the facility to produce such charts
from tables of figures. However, it is often the case that the information is held on a
spreadsheet elsewhere. Spreadsheets also have the facility to produce charts of
varying types from selected data, which can then be imported or embedded into the
written text.
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(c) Clip art

Many applications provide libraries of images which can be imported into documents as
illustrations. Such libraries of images are also available to buy separately. It is
possible, therefore, to access a very wide range of pictures on just about any subject
under the sun and to use them to "jazz up" your work.
The problem with this is that most of these clip art images are of low artistic quality and
look exactly like what they are – cheap and cheerful pictures, often in the form of
cartoons. It is highly doubtful that these enhance the professional presentation of
written documents.
Desk-Top Publishing
Desk-top publishing (DTP) is specialist software used for integrating text and graphics on a
page. It essentially a "page make-up" tool, rather than an advanced form of word-
processing. Thus, it is less concerned with the editing of the text or the creation of the
graphics (both of which are available in DTP, but not as extensively as in specialist word-
processing or graphics software). Rather, it provides the facility to place paragraphs of text
and graphics in precise locations on the page, and to format the text and, to a lesser extent,
the graphics as well.
This makes it ideal software to use for the preparation of newspapers, magazines, brochures,
notices, etc. – anything where text and graphics need to be mixed in a complex way. It is
also possible to specify various page sizes and constructions, allowing folding layouts to be
adopted.
Electronic Publishing
This refers to the way in which documents of any description are produced and published for
their audience to read entirely through computers.
The way in which documents used to be published, and still are in many circumstances, was
for a "master" page or pages to be produced on paper – either from a word-processor or DTP
package, or by a typist or designer/artist. This would then be used by a printer to copy onto
the pages of the final publication, producing as many pages as were necessary, in a similar
way to photocopying. In the newspaper and magazine industry, there was an intermediary
stage where the complex designs of the pages were converted into metal plates to be used
on the large scale printing presses.
Electronic publishing techniques have changed this completely. There are three ways in
which this can be done:
 by sending the word-processing or DTP file to a printer who will then print the
document on paper direct from the electronic file;
 by saving the document file onto a CD-ROM, thus allowing the reader to open the file
on their own PC and read it there; or
 by making the document available to be read on the Internet – either as a web page or
as a file that can be opened on a web page and/or downloaded to be read on a
computer offline.
The effect of electronic publishing is that the document can be reproduced as many times as
are necessary with no loss of quality and appears exactly as the originator intended it. It has
also speeded up the process of preparing documents for print and reduced the cost. There
has, therefore, been an explosion in the amount of material widely available, the complexity
of design and the quality of production. This can be seen clearly in the magazine market.
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Web Design
It is not our intention here to go into the design and preparation of web pages and websites –
which are the domain, in business at least, of professional designers – but merely to note two
features of their construction.
 The purpose of websites and web pages is to communicate. They are a means of
conveying a message and should, therefore, follow the principles of effective
communication that we have stressed throughout. They should be prepared with a
clear view of the purpose of the communication and be structured to facilitate use and
understanding on the part of the reader. Each page should deal with one message.
There are many bad examples of web design on the Internet. These are mainly the
result of these principles being ignored and the pages being made unnecessarily
complicated by overuse of design features and/or by covering too many ideas.
 It is normal to link pages together by the use of "hyperlinks". These are words, phrases
or icons on the screen which, when you click on them with a mouse, send the reader to
a different page. This may be a different page on the same website, in which case the
hyperlinks enable the reader to access different parts of the site in the way that he/she
wants, or it may take the reader to a completely different site. There are two reasons
that the links may take the reader to a different site:
(i) to access related information which may be of interest to the reader; or
(ii) to take the reader to the site of a company which has paid to advertise on the first
site – for example, many online magazines contain links to sites advertising or
offering for sale products which may interest the readers of those magazines.
E-Mail
There are two key distinctive features about electronic mail as a channel of communication
which condition the way in which it is used and, hence, how messages are formulated on it:
 the speed of the message, and the potential response – e-mail is a more or less
instantaneous means of sending written messages between computer users, with the
message being delivered at the recipient's address within seconds of it being sent
(although that does not always imply that it is read at the same time); and
 the text of the message is designed to be read on a computer screen, and sometimes
in a smaller window within the screen – which means that it is not suitable for long,
involved communications.
E-mail thus lends itself to short, "to the point", one-subject messages. These are very often
confirmations, requests for information, requests to get in touch, notifications of
arrangements, etc.
We examined the writing of e-mails and noted some of issues of their use in the unit on
written communication (see Unit 3, Section C). Here we shall add to that by reviewing some
of the technicalities of the process of sending e-mail.
E-mail is simply correspondence between two or more users over a network. Where the
network is a LAN, WAN or Intranet, the network is tightly controlled and the e-mail
correspondence will be virtually direct. E-mail is also sent over the Internet, using the
services of an ISP.
An e-mail address usually takes the following form:
[email protected]
The first part (MyName) is the personal identifier for the person concerned. It is often the
person's full name as one word or separated by a full stop (always called a "dot" in Internet
speak) – for example, "JohnSmith" or "John.Smith" or "J.Smith". However, where there are
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several people with that same name on a particular ISP, the name may be given additional
characters to make it specific to one person – for example, "JohnSmith1" or "JohnJSmith",
etc.
The @ symbol is just a separator.
The second part of the address is the name of the ISP server to which the user is registered.
It always takes the form of the domain name followed, after a dot, by an extension – "com",
"co.uk", "net", etc.
When an e-mail message is sent, the local mail server first examines the second part of the
address to identify the ISP server to which the message is addressed. If this is the same as
the local mail server then the message is forwarded directly to the appropriate mailbox. All
other messages are sent out over the Internet to the destination ISP server. They are then
directed to the recipient's mailbox at that server.
E-Commerce
Electronic commerce is an increasingly popular and important means of trading between
individuals and/or companies. It has huge attractions for both buyers and sellers, although it
is not without its dangers.
You log on to the website of a company and find something you wish to purchase. The
website always contains a "checkout" just like a real store, where you pay for goods you
have previously selected. At the checkout, you provide personal details, including your home
address and contact details, and then you pay using a credit card, debit card, or an online
intermediary such as PayPal. Once your payment has been accepted, the goods will be
dispatched. It is that easy. The main reasons why e-commerce is popular are:
 Convenience. You can shop at any time of the day or night. Goods bought are
normally delivered right to your home.
 Speed. No travelling is involved, so no time is wasted getting to the shop.
 Cost. Not only do you save travel costs, but products can often be found cheaper on
the Internet.
 Variety. The Internet offers a worldwide marketplace, so you are not restricted to the
choice of goods that is offered by shops in your own local area.
Among the possible drawbacks of e-commerce are:
 It is impossible to check the quality of a product from an image on a computer screen.
 There is no personal interaction with salespeople.
 If you have a question, it can be a long time before you receive an answer.
 Goods may arrive damaged, and returning them may not be easy or convenient.
 When you provide personal details on the Internet, you have no control over how they
might be used. Other people might be able to steal your identity and pretend to be you.
Virtual Interaction
Up to now, the only truly interactive forms of communication have been face-to-face and via
the telephone. All forms of written communication – even e-mail – involve a delay in the
interaction, such that there is no immediate feedback which can influence the communication
process.
However, the increasing sophistication and power of computers, the software available and
the lines of communication between them, are making interactive communication through
computers a reality. Thus, "virtual" interaction is possible – interaction which takes place
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entirely through the computer, with the participants being in any location. The common
element is that there is a sharing of information in "real time" (i.e. with no delays).
We shall briefly consider four aspects to this new channel of communication.
(a) Written discussion
This is the most common form of virtual interaction at present.
In the world of the Internet, the process is known as "chat" and there are many
"chatrooms" where it is possible to converse with others on just about any subject
under the moon – from aardvark hunting to xylophone techniques, the list is endless.
In business, meetings with people in many different locations can be held by the same
process.
The interaction is essentially the same as via a telephone, except that the conversation
comprises a series of written messages, rather than speech. Messages are typed and
appear on the screen of both sender and recipient(s) instantaneously, and can be
responded to at any point in the interaction.
(b) Videoconferencing
Videoconferencing enables two or more people in different locations to see and hear
each other at the same time, sometimes even sharing computer applications. A
communications technology as rich as this offers new possibilities for a variety of
purposes.
Placing a video call is like making a phone call. After you connect, you see the other
person in colour video and you may be able to transfer files.
A videoconferencing system must have audio-visual equipment such as a screen
monitor, a camera, a microphone and an output speaker. The system also needs a
communications link. A broadband satellite link with studio-quality equipment gives an
excellent full-motion video connection. However, this is very expensive. Modern
communications have generated an interest in video systems that transmit information
via the Internet, which are more realistically priced. However, the bandwidth available
through most systems based on standard telephone connections is insufficient to allow
the smooth and continuous transmission of the quantity of data involved in online audio
and video. The most efficient and effective methods involve the use of an ISDN
connection, offering higher bandwidth through the telephone system and providing
generally acceptable standards for high-quality videoconferencing. Videoconferencing
may also take place over a closed network such as a LAN where the quality of the
connection is good.
There are two principal types of videoconferencing systems – the normal PC computer
systems which display the video in a small section of the computer screen, and room
sized systems which have one or two large screens and usually display all the local
audience as well as the remote audience. The camera can be anything from a tiny
camera on top of the computer to a high-quality camera with remote pan and zoom
features. The controls available allow users to adjust the volume, and sometimes even
pan and zoom the camera.
The benefits of a videoconferencing system are fairly self-evident. As a communication
medium, it stands out in a number of ways.
 First of all, it's almost like being there. The visual connection and interaction
between participants enhance understanding and help participants feel
connected to each other. This goes a long way toward building relationships in a
way that e-mail or the telephone cannot. A videoconferencing system can be
further improved by including video or audio clips, graphics, animations and
computer applications.
© ABE and RRC

 It has also been found to heighten the motivation of learners.

 It will improve the participants' communication and presentation skills as each
participant is very aware of the person at the other end.
 It increases connections with the outside world, especially where a live visit is not
possible except on rare occasions. Videoconferencing is usually easier than
visiting, so communications can be more frequent, saving time and resources.
(c) Collaborative working
Chat and video conferencing allow the interactive exchange of thoughts and ideas
between individuals. However, the increasing sophistication of computer systems and
software allows people in different locations to actively work together:
 by calling up and sharing information held on computer files – displaying
information such as graphs of sales figures as a part of written discussions or
within video conferences;
 by collaborating on the same computer application – for example, the
development of a written report. Modern word-processing systems, for example,
allow for documents to be reviewed, commented upon and amended by others
and have sophisticated version trackers to enable one person to maintain control
over the process.
This can be allied to audio or full video links between the collaborators, thus adding a
personal dimension to the work.
All these forms of what might be called "desk-top conferencing" demand a certain
etiquette in terms of the way in which the interaction takes place. It is essential that all
participants respect the contributions of others, allow them to have their say before
responding and do not attempt to dominate the interaction.
(d) Telecommuting
This is the term used when someone works from home, but is able to communicate
with the office through their computer. This can be very useful if someone is working
on a project and does not want to waste time travelling. Also, if someone has to be at
home (e.g. because a child is ill) then they can still work.
People who telecommute can send documents by e-mail attachment to their
colleagues, so that a certain amount of collaborative working is possible. However,
there is little opportunity for real interaction between individuals, since everything has to
be done from a distance. Telecommuting can be quite isolating.
A manager whose staff work from home also has no real way of checking that they are
putting in a full day's work, except by what they have produced at the end of the day.
But there is no easy way to tell whether that work has occupied a full eight hours or just
thirty minutes. So a sensible manager may allow it as a privilege for trusted staff, since
telecommuting can have significant benefits for the company.
© ABE and RRC

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Business Management

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INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Unit Title Page

1 The Process of Communication 1

2 Principles of Effective Communication 23

4 Oral and Non-Verbal Communication 101

5 Communicating with Customers 143

6 Communication within Organisations 159

7 Technology and Communications 173

A. The Communication Cycle 2

C. Overcoming the Barriers 7

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A. THE COMMUNICATION CYCLE

Basic Elements of the Cycle

Feedback to sender if possible or appropriate

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Barriers Caused by Sender and Recipient

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(c) Lack of listening ability

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Barriers Caused by Outside Influences (Noise)

C. OVERCOMING THE BARRIERS

Defining the Purpose

Knowing When and How to Communicate

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Understanding the Receiver

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Personal Communication Skills

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Types of Written and Oral Communication

Informal note Unplanned encounter

Table 1.1: Types of Written and Oral Communication

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(i) Training and procedure documents

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Alternatives include letters, memos (for internal communications) and personal

E. CHOOSING THE MEDIUM

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The Characteristics of Written Communication

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 Lacks the personal touch

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 Written communication is permanent

The Characteristics of Oral Communication

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evaluating the various points of view. This is particularly important in meetings of

Using Written and Oral Communication

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areas, such as deciding which member of a group should be delegated to carry

The Importance of Non-Verbal Communication

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