Specialized translation program

Syntax
Summarization
2021\2022

Nouran Hussam Eldaly

5/14/2022
Important Labels & Headlines:
1. Nouns
 Common nouns (N)
 Pronouns (n)
 Proper nouns (nN)
2. Adjectives (J)
3. Adverbs (A)
4. Prepositions (P)
5. Verbs
 Finite verbs (:f)
 Non-finite verbs (:n)
 Full verbs (V)
 Auxiliary verbs (v)
 Linking verbs
6. Subordinate Clauses “ 2 dependent clauses”
 Signals (That (t) – Prepositions – Wh-pronouns – Non-finite verbs)
7. Coordinate … “ 2 independent clause

Labels:
 Subject (S)
 Object (O)
 Sharer (r)
 Not (A)
 To (v:n)
Nouns:
1. Can be either a subject, object, or a possessive {-s ps}
2. Can be pluralized
3. Have a derivational suffix to indicate the meanings of “state, condition,
quality, act of, doer, or agent”

Subclasses of nouns:
 Common nouns (N)
a. Plural: books ideas, people, things, oxen, teeth
b. Plural mass: dough, furniture, money, stuff, literature, snow,
intelligence, music
c. Singular countable: book, idea, person, thing
 Pronouns (n): Pronouns allow only one dependent unlike nouns.
a. Personal pronouns (subject): I, she, it, they
b. Personal pronouns (object): him, her, us
c. Possessive pronouns: my, our, your, his
d. Independent possessive pronouns: mine, ours, hers
e. Reflexive pronouns: myself, ourselves
f. Reciprocal pronouns: each other, one another
g. Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, those, these, none, neither, any,
each, nothing, such
h. Relative pronouns: whose, which, what where, when, why, how,
whoever, whichever..
i. According to dependency diagramming by Richard Hudson, all
determiners (a, an, the, some) are considered pronouns. Quantifiers: (a)
few, fewer, (a) little, many, much, more, most, some, any, etc.
j. Indefinite pronouns: they can allow adjectives as dependents.
Examples: someone - something (fishy) somewhere (beautiful) - no one
nobody – everybody - everything everywhere – nothing - nowhere
anyone – anybody - anywhere – few some – everyone - all – everyone -
many
  Proper nouns (nN): Proper nouns are always written with initials in capital
letters. They either resist or demand “the”.

Dependency:
1. Noun: joke book (N<-N)
2. Adjective: beautiful girl (A<-N)
3. Pronoun: This book (n->N)
4. Numerals (N): Four Girls (N->N) Exception: numeral compound adjectives;
Two-story
5. Titles (n): Pope John (n->nN)
6. Complex proper nouns: Nouran Eldaly (nN<-nN)
7. Possessive ’s or s’: both of the possessive and possessed depend on the ’s;
student ’s book (N<-n->N)

Note: The head is the basic and least informative word, the pronoun is expanded
by the noun and in a noun phrase, and the pronoun will be the head.

Adjectives: other ( J)
1. Can be used, with the same meaning, after the verb ‘be’.
2. Can be characterized by its capacity for modification by qualifier such as
very, rather, quite, and by more {-er cp} and most {-est sp}.
3. Can be attributive (when it comes before a noun) or predicative (when it
comes after the verb).
4. Peripheral adjectives can be put before/after the word.
5. Can never modify one another

Dependency:
1. Nouns: bad jokes (J<-N)
2. Verbs: Dani is adorable (V->J)
3. Adverbs: exceptionally good (A<-J) “modifies the adjective next to it”
Adverbs:
 Can modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions: Really adorable
(A<-J); He ran quickly (V->A); Extremely quickly (A<-A); Right through the
wall (A<-P)
 Negative Element “Not” is considered an adverb (A) that depends on the
auxiliary verb: It is not working (v:f->A)

Prepositions:
1. provide syntactic glue
2. Prepositions depend on nouns and verbs
3. when they follow a noun and a verb, the sentence can be ambiguous
4. Does not necessarily expand the nearest noun: Students of Linguistics with
long hair (of depends on students & with depends on students)
5. If the noun phrase begins with a preposition, then this preposition is the
head

Dependency:
1. Nouns: book of bad jokes (N->P); of this big expensive book (P->N)
2. Verbs: I saw the man with the telescope (V->P); with the telescope, the
man saw me (P<-V)
3. Adverbs: right through the wall (A<-P)

Verbs:
1. A simple sentence is a verb expansion.
2. A verb (V) is the head of the simple sentence.
3. in a chain of verbs where every verb is a sharer to the verb before it, they
all share the same subject
Sub-classes of verbs:
 Finite verbs: the first verb in the chain and the head. There is only one
finite verb in the sentence.
 Non-finite verbs: They are sharers of the verb and depend on the finite
verb and on each other in a chain of verbs.
 Full verbs: They are full of meaning; She is reading the article
 Auxiliary verbs: They help another verb to express its meaning. They
carry the tense, but they don’t have meaning; She is reading the article
 Linking verbs: don’t express actions. They connect the subject of the
verb to additional information about the subject; I got angry

Note: To test if the verb is a linking verb or not, replaces the verb/preposition
with “is/was” and the meaning should be the same.

Dependency:
1. Simple sentence: Ahmad ate the chocolate (Subject <- V -> Object)
2. Prepositional phrases: I saw the man with the telescope (V->P); with the
telescope, the man saw me (P<-V) “function as adverbs when they modify
verbs.”
3. Adverbs: He ran quickly (V->A)
4. Verbs: You have persuaded me to help you (V:f->V:n->v:n->V:n)
5. Sharers (r):
 Nouns: He is a teacher (V->n) “after a Linking verbs”
 Adjectives: He grew old (V->J) “after a Linking verbs”
 Object-subject Sharer (O\S): They kept them talking “kept them (O)\ them
talking (S)”
 To followed by a verb (v:n): We tried to walk (V:f->v:n->V:n)
[Compare with “to” as a preposition]
 Verbs: They kept talking (V:f->V:n) “in a chain of verbs”

Note: A clause is a sentence-like sentence part

Sentences with Two Finite Verbs:
1. In case of subordinate clauses where the second sentence is embedded in
the first, there will be two finite verbs in the sentence.
2. The second verb will depend on the first and should be considered as an
object (o) of the first verb: They have discovered “she is (O) in love” it
3. The two verbs are connected but not on equal status, so we cannot say that
both verbs are heads.

Signals of Subordinate Clauses:

 Zero signal: I know she loves (O) me.
 Signal “that” (t): They have discovered that (O) she is (O) in love.
 Prepositions:
a. Some prepositions allow only nouns as dependents such as of and with.
b. Some prepositions allow a noun or a finite verb as dependents such as
after, before, since, till, and until.
c. Some prepositions allow only finite verbs such as if, because, once,
although, whereas and while; When (P) he saw me, he waved | I have
hidden the money where (P) no one can find it.
 Wh-Pronouns: The wh-pronoun integrates into its clause; it has a function
and a main role in the sentence. They replace a gap in the sentence. Examples:
who, whose, when, where, why, whoever, whenever, wherever, whichever,
what, which, and how; I asked when (n)shall we meet | Where (n) are you
going
 Non-finite Verbs:
a. the to –infinitive: It is difficult [to keep a friend].
b. en-form / ed-participle: This is [chosen by a large group of people.]
c. ing-form: [Driving as quickly as possible], she arrived just in time

Note: A coordinate clause\main clause is an independent clause while

subordinate clause is a dependent clause. A coordinating conjunction is a word
that links 2 independent clauses to make a compound sentence. FUNBOYS