RESEARCH

Geometric characteristics of pull-apart basins

Alper Gürbüz*
ANKARA ÜNIVERSITESI, MÜHENDISLIK FAKÜLTESI, JEOLOJI MÜHENDISLIĞI BÖLÜMÜ, 06100 TANDOĞAN, ANKARA, TURKEY

ABSTRACT

Pull-apart basins are depressions bounded on their sides by two or more strike-slip faults and on their ends by diagonal transfer faults.
As proposed by theoretical, experimental, and numerical studies in the literature, there are angular and scale relationships between these
faults. Here, I compiled the major results on geometries of pull-apart basins of previous workers and then examined the geometric charac-
teristics of pull-apart basins along the North Anatolian fault zone for a comparison of current data in two and three dimensions. According
to the results of my compilation from the literature and measurements of pull-apart examples from northern Turkey, the acute angles of this
type of strike-slip basin are clustered at 30°–35°. In metric scale, the consistency in their two-dimensional (2-D) geometry is well known as an
aspect ratio of 3:1 between length and width. Basin length is a function of stretching associated with strike-slip displacement, and increased
displacement causes the width of the fault zone to increase, resulting in wider pull-apart basins. However, the depth of a pull-apart basin is
a function of stretching associated with strike-slip displacement. In this study, comparison of data related to pull-apart basin scales from the
literature suggests that the depth is related to the length and width.

LITHOSPHERE; v. 2; no. 3; p. 199–206. doi: 10.1130/L36.1

l
INTRODUCTION the basis for various classification schemes and
for many discussions about the process of basin
Following the definition of pull-apart basins formation (Carey, 1958; Kingma, 1958; Lensen,
by Burchfiel and Stewart (1966) in their inter- w 1958; Quennell, 1958; Burchfiel and Stewart,
pretation of the Death Valley Basin, this basin α 1966; Clayton, 1966; Belt, 1968; Freund, 1971;
type has been recognized numerous times Crowell, 1974a, 1974b, 1976; Ballance, 1980;
Figure 1. Geometrical model for pull-apart basins.
along major strike-slip faults throughout the Aydın and Nur, 1982, 1985; Burke et al., 1982;
world (e.g., Aydın and Nur, 1982; Bahat, 1983), Crowell and Link, 1982; Fralick, 1982; Mann
although many pull-apart basins have been along the North Anatolian fault zone of Turkey, and Burke, 1982; Mann et al., 1983; Mann and
adopted in the literature as synonymous with which is one of the most important strike-slip Bradley, 1984; Christie-Blick and Biddle, 1985;
terms such as rhombochasms (Carey, 1958), faults in the world, with its high seismic activity Sylvester, 1988, Mann, 2007).
wrench grabens (Belt, 1968), rhomb grabens and descriptive morphology. My first goal will Field studies (e.g., Aydın and Nur, 1982;
(Freund, 1971), and releasing bends (Crow- be to demonstrate the angular characteristics Bahat, 1983; Mann et al., 1983; Hempton
ell, 1974a). Many rhomb structures previously of Turkish pull-apart basins in two dimensions and Dunne, 1984), experimental studies (e.g.,
described are considered clear examples of and compare them to natural, experimental, McClay and Dooley, 1995; Dooley and McClay,
pull-apart basins, but their structural geometries and numerical examples in published studies. 1997; Rahe et al., 1998; Basile and Brun, 1999;
were not well defined. As depicted by Crowell The second goal of this paper will be to dem- Sims et al., 1999; Atmaoui et al., 2006; Wu et
(1974a), pull-apart basins are deep, rhomb- onstrate the scale characteristics of pull-apart al., 2009), and numerical studies (e.g., Rod-
shaped depressions bounded on their sides by basins in three dimensions. In two dimensions, gers, 1980; Segall and Pollard, 1980; Gölke
two, subparallel, overlapping strike-slip faults the well-defined linear correlation between the et al., 1994; Katzman et al., 1995; Bertoluzza
and bounded on their ends by perpendicular or basin length and width is well known after the and Perotti, 1997; Petrunin and Sobolev, 2006,
diagonal dip-slip faults, termed “transfer faults,” research by Aydın and Nur (1982). In the third 2008) help to guide the interpretation of two-
which link the ends of the strike-slip faults dimension, the depth of the pull-apart basin is dimensional (2-D) and three-dimensional (3-D)
(Fig. 1). It is known that pull-apart basins along related to the length in an equation presented by geometry of pull-apart basins. The shape, fault
strike-slip faults are associated with geometri- Hempton and Dunne (1984). Here, I look for system, and sedimentary structure of a pull-apart
cal irregularities of these faults (Aydın and Nur, relationships among the basin length, width, and basin depend upon the geometry associated with
1982). However, many uncertainties complicate depth parameters in three dimensions, and I try the step in the master strike-slip fault system:
the interpretations of their geometrical aspects. to define this relationship by quantitative means. fault length, depth to the main fault in the base-
In this study, after summarizing some of ment, fault separation, and, perhaps above all,
the major conclusions on geometries of pull- Previous Conclusions on the Geometries the length of overlap (Carton et al., 2007).
apart basins by previous workers, I examine the of Pull-Apart Basins Aydın and Nur (1982) proposed that pull-
geometries of clearly defined pull-apart basins apart basins have an aspect ratio of 3:1 in 2-D
The geometry of a strike-slip basin is one of (plan view). Plots of the log of basin length ver-
*E-mail: [email protected]. its most obvious characteristics, and it has been sus width for the 62 basins show a well-defined

LITHOSPHERE
For | Volume
permission to 2 | Number
copy, contact 3 | www.gsapubs.org
[email protected] | © 2010 Geological Society of America 199

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/lithosphere/article-pdf/2/3/199/3044714/199.pdf

by guest
 GÜRBÜZ

linear correlation between length and width, offset architecture of the underlying basement a pull-apart basin: the maximum extensional
although the value of 3:1 may vary widely, faults. All of the pull-apart basins, regardless of axis tends to be parallel to the strike-slip faults
depending on whether the structural, physio- offset geometry, evolve progressively from nar- (Bertoluzza and Perotti, 1997). Bertoluzza and
graphic, or active dimensions of the basin are row grabens bounded by the oblique-slip link Perotti (1997) indicated that the angle between
measured. The most common range of ratios faults to wider rhombic basins flanked by ter- the strike-slip faults and the potential normal
determined directly is between 3 and 4. Aydın raced basin sidewall fault systems (Dooley and faults bounding the pull-apart basin depends
and Nur observed that this type of basin becomes McClay, 1997). Rahe et al. (1998) described strongly on the rheological features of the
wider as it grows longer with increasing fault pull-apart basin structures as being in incipient, material and on the overlap and/or separation
offset. Mann et al. (1983) suggested that the rect- early, and mature developmental stages accord- ratio of the faults. The angle may vary from
angular form of pull-apart basins results from ing to their sandbox experiments, and further, a few degrees in transtensional conditions to
the lengthening of an S- or Z-shaped basin with they categorized pull-apart basins as asym- 100°–120° in transpressional conditions. This
increased master fault overlap. The basin length- metrical, symmetrical, and hybrid, based on the indicates that the boundary conditions are the
to-width ratios, therefore, tend to increase. orientation of faults, pattern of displacement, major parameters determining the basin shape
Basin width does not increase significantly and and basin subsidence. Basile and Brun (1999) (Bertoluzza and Perotti, 1997). According to the
remains fixed by the width of the releasing bend. showed that the geometry of experimental pull- thermomechanical model of Petrunin and Sobo-
Most pull-apart basins have low length-to-width apart basins follows the same law in nature, lev (2006, 2008), the major parameter that con-
ratios, and this is a consequence of their short i.e., an approximately constant length versus trols pull-apart basin length, sediment thickness,
lives in rapidly changing strike-slip zones (Mann width ratio (2.2 < l/w < 3.8). In addition, from and deformation pattern beneath the basin is the
et al., 1983). Bahat (1983) compiled 39 natural the experiments in the same study, the mean thickness of the brittle layer.
examples of rhombic, trapezoidal, and triangu- acute angle between the basin bounding faults The approach I present here is similar to
lar basins and suggested a mean acute angle of is 30°, consistent with natural examples. Sims Aydın and Nur (1982), Bahat (1983), and Hemp-
35° between the master strike-slip faults and et al. (1999) described synthetic and antithetic ton and Dunne (1984); I compare the geometric
their links (oblique faults) in 2-D. Hempton and strike-slip faults as controlling basin geom- (angular and metric scale) characteristics of 11
Dunne (1984) proposed that the pull-apart basin etries, while localized normal faulting and local well-defined pull-apart basins along the North
shapes are not necessarily rhomboidal but vary oblique slip on strike-slip fault accommodate Anatolian fault zone with the observations and
from the lazy-Z-shaped to almond-shaped to basin subsidence. They showed that depth to predictions of previously proposed theoretical,
rhomboidal, and they suggested that the sedi- décollement, décollement rheology, or both experimental, and numerical models.
ment thickness in pull-apart basins is related to are controlling factors for basin morphology.
the length of the basin. The length of a basin The strength and thickness of the décollement PULL-APART BASINS IN TURKEY
would reflect the amount of horizontal displace- zone controls the pull-apart basin geometry.
ment (Eyal et al., 1986). Atmaoui et al. (2006) concluded that the geom- Tectonic Setting
Experimental studies have been used to sim- etry of pull-apart basins is controlled by a rela-
ulate the geometries of pull-apart basin devel- tively low angle between the oblique bounding The neotectonic configuration of Turkey
opment in a sedimentary cover sequence above faults and the principal strike-slip segments has been shaped by the collision of the north-
strike-slip faults. The experimental models (below 30°), as well as the high aspect ratio of erly moving Arabian plate and the Eurasian
show many similarities to natural examples of the basins with a long axis, a small width, and plate at ca. 11 Ma (Şengör and Yılmaz, 1981).
pull-apart basins. There are many experimental great depth. Postcollisional N-S–directed contractional tec-
modeling works investigating strike-slip faults Numerical studies that are used to under- tonics continued over an interval of ~9 m.y.
(Cloos, 1928, 1955; Tanner, 1962; Emmons, stand the geometry of a pull-apart zone at a and resulted in a series of deformations (e.g.,
1969; Tchalenko, 1970; Withjack and Jamison, releasing overstep along a strike-slip fault Şengör, 1979; Şengör and Kidd, 1979; Şaroğlu
1986; Hempton and Neher, 1986; Mandl, 1988; have been based on the elasticity theory (Rod- and Yılmaz, 1987; Koçyiğit et al., 2001). The
Gapais et al., 1991; Richard et al., 1991, 1995; gers, 1980; Segall and Pollard, 1980; Gölke most important deformation resulting after
Tron and Brun, 1991; Schreurs, 1994). Only et al., 1994; Katzman et al., 1995; Bertoluzza this period in Turkey is strike-slip tectonism,
some of the investigators attempted experimen- and Perotti, 1997; Petrunin and Sobolev, 2006, which caused the escape regime of the Anato-
tal modeling of pull-apart basins; the rest of the 2008). According to the model of Rodgers lian plate along the North Anatolian fault zone
researchers dealt with pure strike-slip defor- (1980), the geometry of pull-apart basins is con- and the East Anatolian fault zone (Fig. 2). The
mation. Pull-apart basins differ dramatically trolled by the amount of master fault overlap, initiation age of this strike-slip–dominated tec-
from simple strike-slip systems: they share separation, and displacement since the initiation tonics is late Pliocene (Şaroğlu, 1988; Koçyiğit
properties with both strike-slip and extensional of the basin. The size of the pull-apart basins et al., 2001; Gürbüz and Gürer, 2009).
settings, resulting in complex basin structures is varied and well defined by these parameters
(Rahe et al., 1998). McClay and Dooley (1995) (Rodgers, 1980). Rodgers (1980) calculated the Pull-Apart Basins along the North
described symmetric pull-apart basins in exper- vertical displacement of a horizontal surface at Anatolian Fault Zone
imental models with varying step angles, using a releasing overstep and showed that the axis
equal and opposite rates of displacement of of the depression tends to link the ends of the The North Anatolian fault zone is one of
opposing sides of the strike-slip system with master fault segments (Bertoluzza and Perotti, the best-known strike-slip faults in the world
respect to the fixed basement. Dooley and 1997). However, the models of Rodgers (1980) because of its remarkable seismic activity and
McClay (1997) presented their experimental and Segall and Pollard (1980) provide clues to its importance for the active tectonics of the
model in 3-D. Their pull-apart basins typically the orientation of the different faults, which can Eastern Mediterranean region. It runs in an
form sigmoidal to rhombic deep grabens, the form inside the overstep area, and to the char- approximately E-W direction across north-
geometries of which are dependent upon the acteristics of the stress field around and inside ern Turkey, it is 1600 km long and just a few

200 www.gsapubs.org | Volume 2 | Number 3 | LITHOSPHERE

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/lithosphere/article-pdf/2/3/199/3044714/199.pdf

by guest
 Geometric characteristics of pull-apart basins | RESEARCH

N E30° E40°

BLACK SEA N40°

SIAN PLATE
EURA
Fig. 3G
3E
NAFZ Fig. 3C
Fig. 3B
Fig. ig.
3D Fig. 3A
MS F

3F
N40° Fig.
ANATOLIAN PLATE BZSZ
FZ
EA
AEGEAN
SEA

ARABIAN PLATE

DSFZ
MEDITERRANEAN SEA 0 500 km

E30° E40°

Figure 2. Tectonic outline of Turkey and locations of studied pull-apart basins along the North Anatolian fault zone. MS—Marmara Sea, NAFZ—North
Anatolian fault zone, EAFZ—East Anatolian fault zone, BZSZ—Bitlis-Zagros suture zone, DSFZ—Dead Sea fault zone.

kilometers to 100 km wide, and it forms the TABLE 1. GEOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PULL-APART BASINS ALONG THE NORTH
ANATOLIAN FAULT ZONE
boundary between the Eurasian plate in the
north and the Anatolian plate in the south Basin Acute angle l w d10 d d
(°) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
(Fig. 2). The dextral North Anatolian fault (visible) (this study)
zone appears to be a relatively deep and narrow
Erzincan 30 48,000 16,000 2900 2000–30001 3895
fault zone extending from Karlıova in the east Suşehri 30 23,000 9000 2100 7502 1775
to the Gulf of Saros in the west. To the west of Niksar 29 22,000 9000 1500 6003 1672
Mudurnu Valley, the North Anatolian fault zone Taşova-Erbaa 39 30,000 10,000 – 8504,5 2434
splits into three branches, separated from each Yeniçağa 34 11,000 4500 – 6006 836
other by a rhomb-like basin and horst complexes Bolu 33 35,000 9000 – 2007 3020
Pamukova 30 31,000 10,000 – 1208 2538
elongated in an approximately E-W direction
Yenişehir 28 33,000 11,000 – ? 2678
(Bozkurt, 2001; Kim and Sanderson, 2006). Çınarcık 30 53,300 16,600 – 5000–60009 4404
Several basins are aligned along the North Central 44 15,000 6000 – ? 1149
Anatolian fault zone and its major splays. The Tekirdağ 43 26,000 10,000 – ? 2019
pull-apart–originated basins of various sizes Note: References: 1—Kaypak (2002); 2—Kazancı (1993); 3—Tatar (1996); 4—Irrlitz (1972); 5—
along this fault zone have been reported by many Barka et al. (2000); 6—Arca (2004); 7—Aktimur et al. (1986); 8—Koçyiğit (1988); 9—Carton (2005);
authors (e.g., Şengör et al., 1985, 2005; Barka 10—Hempton and Dunne (1984).
and Kadinsky-Cade, 1988; Bozkurt, 2001; Gür-
büz and Gürer, 2009). Figure 2 illustrates 11
well-defined examples of these pull-apart basins GEOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF lard (1980) examined the geometries of the
from the east to the west. Table 1 reviews the PULL-APART BASINS faults in California and considered that the
geometric characteristics. This table consists of bridging path of the transfer faults is determined
angular (acute angles that measured between the Angular Characteristics by the combined effects of the local tensile and
master and diagonal faults) and scale (length, shear stresses. The acute angles appear to be
width, and depth) data. These basins are mainly Regarding the theoretical background of the independent from the basin scale (Bahat, 1983).
filled with Pliocene-Quaternary detrital and acute angles between the master and transfer In the base model of pull-apart basin develop-
partly carbonate deposits. faults of the pull-apart basins, Segall and Pol- ment, the strike-slip displacement results in an

LITHOSPHERE | Volume 2 | Number 3 | www.gsapubs.org 201

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/lithosphere/article-pdf/2/3/199/3044714/199.pdf

by guest
 GÜRBÜZ

oblique (transfer) fault that bridges the two en to 100°–120° in transpressional conditions. natural examples from the rest of the world and
echelon faults, becoming the plane from which Briefly, according to the results of the theoreti- experimental and numerical studies as men-
the two blocks detach along opposite directions cal, experimental, and numerical studies, the tioned previously. This may be a result of initial
parallel to the master faults; this requires equal- acute angles are clustered at 30°–35°. overstep geometry that would be constant for
ity of the two acute angles of a basin with only The pull-apart structures along the North basins developed in the same tectonic regimes.
minor deviations due to possible block rotation Anatolian fault zone are ultimately products of In contrast to the suggestion of Bahat (1983)
(Bahat, 1983). In addition, Bahat (1983) dis- similar mechanisms; alternatively, the products regarding the equality of the two acute angles
cussed the two mechanisms that can lead to the of shear and extensional mechanisms may give of a basin with only minor deviations, the basins
development of pull-apart basins. According to rise to comparable angular relationships. There along the North Anatolian fault zone present
the concept model based on fracture interaction is a narrow spread of acute angles of 11 pull- a deviation range of 0°–11°. I think that these
between crack-pairs, if there is not horizontal apart basins in the 28°–44° range, with a mean deviations are related to the counterclockwise
compression, a mechanism is likely to result angle of 33°, along the North Anatolian fault rotation of the Anatolian plate situated on the
in basins, possibly with curved boundaries. zone (Figs. 3 and 4). These angular values are southern side of the North Anatolian fault zone.
According to another mechanism based on frac- in contrast with the results of other published Many of these pull-apart basins present straight
ture bifurcation under extensional conditions,
basin boundaries are expected to be straight
with sharp angular perimeters (Bahat, 1983).
In experimental studies, the analog models are Erzincan Basin Suşehri Basin
compared with natural examples of pull-apart
0 km 20 N 0 km 20 N
basins and show many strong similarities in
structural geometries. The acute angle is one of
30
these resemblances. Dooley and McClay (1997)
demonstrated strong similarities between the
A 30
B
30° acute angle of their analog model and the
Taşova-Erbaa and Niksar Basins
Mesquite (California), Glynnwye (New Zea-
land), and Dungun (Malaysia) Basins. Rahe et
al. (1998) expressed natural examples in eastern 0 km 20
N
California, including central Death Valley, that
represent an acute angle of 40° (e.g., Burch- 39°

fiel and Stewart, 1966; Burchfiel et al., 1987);

hence, it was chosen for their experiments. From
the experiments of Basile and Brun (1999), the 29°
acute angle is 30°, which is comparable with the
Timna graben (Dead Sea fault zone). Sims et al.
(1999) prepared a model with an acute angle
C
of 40°, like Rahe et al. (1998). They also com- Bolu and Yeniçağa Basins
pared them to natural examples including the
Figure 3. Pull-apart basins that
Gulf of Aqaba (Elat), Gulf of Paria (Venezuela were studied for angular and met-
and Trinidad), and the Cariaco Basin (northern 34°
ric characteristics along the North
33°
Venezuela). Atmaoui et al. (2006) represented Anatolian fault zone.
the angle of intersection between two fault N
sets as being below 30°, but they expressed the 0 km 20
bounding oblique faults of the major basins of D
the Strait of Sicily complex rift zone as mainly
oriented at angles between 10° and 40°. In the Pamukova Basin Yenişehir Basin
recent work of Wu et al. (2009), they simulated N
N
a right-stepping, dextral strike-slip fault system 28°
30°
in rigid basement; aluminum plates were cut
with 30° step-over geometry, and their results
show similarities with the Gulf of Aqaba (Elat) E 0 km 20 F 0 km 20

and the Vienna Basin (Austria). The numerical

study of Bertoluzza and Perotti (1997) showed Marmara Sea pull-apart basin system
that the angle between the strike-slip fault and
potential faults bounding the pull-apart basin Tekirdağ, Central and Çınarcık Basins
depends strongly on the overall boundary con-
ditions of the whole model and only slightly on N
43°
the rheological features of the material and on 44°
the overlap and/or separation ratio of faults. In
their finite-element models, the angle can vary 30°

from 10° to 65° in transtensional conditions G 0 km 20

202 www.gsapubs.org | Volume 2 | Number 3 | LITHOSPHERE

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/lithosphere/article-pdf/2/3/199/3044714/199.pdf

by guest
 Geometric characteristics of pull-apart basins | RESEARCH

8 According to the experimental results of

Pull-apart basins Basile and Brun (1999), this value is in agree-
7 along the NAFZ
ment with a similar mean value in their 2-D
Data from
6
Bahat (1983)
analog models (Fig. 5). From another view in
Figure 4. Frequency histogram their study, they found a relationship between
5
Frequency

for acute angles between border the acute angles of the basin and l/w ratios:
4 faults in pull-apart basins (data

3
from Bahat [1983] and pull-apart ls ws = l tan α + l tan β (2a)
basins in northern Turkey from
2 this study). NAFZ—North Anato-
or
lian fault zone.
1
lm wm = l sin ϕ cos ϕ, (2b)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
where ls is measured parallel to the bulk dis-
Acute angle (°) placement, lm is the longest diagonal of the
basin, and ws and wm are measured perpendicu-
lar to ls and lm. From these equations, they sug-
boundaries with sharp angles as expected by Scale Characteristics gested ls/ws = 3.5 and lm/wm = 3.8 values for an
Bahat (1983) under extensional conditions. ideal pull-apart basin.
Only the basins on the eastern half of the North In 2-D, Aydın and Nur (1982) found a good In the third dimension, a similar relationship
Anatolian fault zone appear with curved bound- relationship between the length (l) and width between pull-apart basin depth and master fault
aries (Fig. 3). Bahat (1983) suggested that this (w) of pull-apart basins after measuring the displacement was first proposed by Rodgers
type of boundary is developed if there is no hori- dimensions of 62 active pull-apart basins from (1980). He suggested that when the master fault
zontal compression. This characteristic of pull- all over the world (Fig. 5). They analyzed the overlap is more than twice the separation, the
apart basins should be explained for the eastern metric measurement results by using a least depth of the basin is ~10% of the displacement
basins by the westward movement of the Ana- square fit of the function: along the master faults. A similar view on the
tolian plate in the south. This movement creates relationship between the basin length and depth
a relaxation on the eastern half and a pressure log l = c1 log w + log c2, (1) (d) was suggested by Hempton and Dunne
on the western half of the North Anatolian fault (1984). According to the measurement results
zone due to its northward arc geometry (Bellier where c1 ≅ 1 and 2.4 < c2 < 4.3, with a mean of nine ancient and seven modern pull-apart
et al., 1997). value of 3.2. basins, a linear regression of the data defines a
line between the true thickness of basin deposits
versus basin length:
100000
d = 0.8l + 0.26 . (3)

Hempton and Dunne (1984) tried to predict the

depths of some Turkish pull-apart basins by this
10000
equation. Their calculations show the Erzincan,
Suşehri, and Niksar Basins along the North
Anatolian fault zone have depths of 2.9, 2.1, and
1.5 km, respectively (Table 1).
1000 There is a point in the suggestions of Aydın
and Nur (1982) and more recently Basile and
l (m)

Brun (1999) and Hempton and Dunne (1984)

that intersects. The first two studies observed
100 that pull-apart basins become wider as they
grow longer with increasing fault offset, and the
third study suggested that the depth of pull-apart
basin is related to the length of the basin. Basin
10 length is a function of stretching, and basin
Pull-apart basins
along the NAFZ depth is also a function of stretching associated
Data from with displacement (Hempton and Dunne, 1984).
Aydın and Nur (1982) Thus, there would be a relationship that could
be defined by an equation between all these
1
dimensions of a pull-apart basin. To understand
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
this, I plotted the metric scale data of Hempton
w (m) and Dunne (1984) in Figure 6. This 2-D graph
Figure 5. Length versus width plot for natural pull-apart basins (data from Aydin and Nur, [1982] represents similar trends in the length, width,
and pull-apart basins in northern Turkey from this study). NAFZ—North Anatolian fault zone. and depth of the 15 pull-apart basins. As shown

LITHOSPHERE | Volume 2 | Number 3 | www.gsapubs.org 203

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/lithosphere/article-pdf/2/3/199/3044714/199.pdf

by guest
 GÜRBÜZ

1000000
, , of over 10 km. I have not been able to find
100000
,
any depth data over 7500 m (Zak and Freund,
1981) in the literature. However, these data
10000
,
are suggested for the Dead Sea Basin, and, as
l (m)
1000 w (m) previously mentioned, Zak and Freund (1981)
d (m) showed that this basin is formed by the coales-
100
cence of three subbasins in which depocenters
10 have migrated northward. Thus, the depth data
could not reflect the third dimension of the
1
whole basin within the possible relationship.
s

n
n
ea

ge

ut
y

on

co

na
y

rs
in

ow
e

le
ul
le

le
I think that the depth data for the Cariaco and

ve
y

an
la

fo
S

gt

ia

id

da

en
H

ne
al

st
Bo
P

Le
ar
ri n

ck
nn
d

ck

ag

Vi
or
ea

er

hu
th

ar

Magdalen Basins would be less than them due

ly

t ro

M
D

m
ea

C
Pe
an
D

to their unknown subbasin geometries. In con-

H

Figure 6. Metric characteristics of natural pull-apart basins and deviations determined from their trast, their 2-D scales are much larger than the
trends (data from Hempton and Dunne, 1984). other examples from the rest of the world (like
the Dead Sea Basin). This could be related to
their complex intrabasinal geometries.
in this graph, five of them, the Dead Sea, Glyn- Hempton and Dunne’s (1984) data. Here, I tried
nwye, Cariaco, Petrockstow, and Magdalen to define this relationship with an equation. By CONCLUSIONS
Basins, present deviations on their third dimen- using the metric scales of 11 pull-apart basins,
sion. The Dead Sea Basin is a very elongated the regression of the data defined as: This study presents a review of current lit-
basin, with the dimensions of 130 km in length erature about the angular and dimensional char-
and 18 km in width (l/w = 7.2), and it consists d = 0.1104l − (8.7550 × 10 −2 w.) (4) acteristics of pull-apart basins aimed at under-
of three subbasins in which depocenters have standing their geometries in 2-D and 3-D, and
migrated northward with time (Zak and Freund, As more depth data become available, the reli- it provides a new data set from the pull-apart
1981). As reported by Basile and Brun (1999), ability of the relationship will improve. basins along the North Anatolian fault zone to
each of these subbasins has an l/w ratio (2.4, 3.3, I used the equation that I calculated using enrich the database.
and 2.6) that is consistent with the range of Aydın the database of Hempton and Dunne (1984) for Previously published angular data from the
and Nur (1982). This would be interpreted as other pull-apart basins to predict the depths of field, experimental, and numerical studies repre-
follows: the increase on the elongation ratio of a pull-apart basins along the North Anatolian fault sent a mean acute angle of 33° between the basin
pull-apart basin may be the result of the migra- zone. According to my calculations, the Erz- margin master faults and transfer faults. Turkish
tion of depocenter from the center of the basin. incan, Suşehri, Niksar, Taşova-Erbaa, Yeniçağa, pull-apart basins also present the same mean
Due to its migrated depocenter, the third dimen- Bolu, Pamukova, Yenişehir, Çınarcık, Central, angle. This value is a result of overstep geom-
sion is an unknown for now. The anomalies in and Tekirdağ Basins along the North Anatolian etry and does not change except in the hybrid
the third dimensions of other basins in Figure fault zone have depths of 3.9, 1.8, 1.7, 2.4, 0.8, 3, regimes, rotation, or extinction processes.
6 would be related to the absence of reliable 2.5, 2.7, 4.4, 1.1, and 2 km, respectively (Table 1). Scale characteristics of pull-apart basins
depth data. Figure 7 represents a good 3-D rela- As I mentioned already, there are devia- in literature present good 2-D relationships
tionship of all three dimensions (l, w, and d) of tions on the third dimensions of the Glynwye, between basin length and width, and basin
Cariaco, Petrockstow, and Magdalen Basins length and depth. Comparison of 3-D data from
according to the calculations of Hempton and the well-known active and ancient pull-apart
Dunne (1984) (Fig. 6). Here, I used my equa- basins suggests that there may be an empirical
tion to recalculate the questionable depth data relationship among the length, width, and depth
100,0
00
of these basins. The predicted depth values parameters in 3-D. This relationship would be
for these basins are ~0.2, 11, 0.3, and 14 km, most useful to predict sediment thickness of
10,0 respectively (Table 2). pull-apart basins when the 2-D data are known.
00
According to my results, the Cariaco and The application of the proposed relationship
w (m)

Magdalen pull-apart basins would have depths to the pull-apart basins in northern Turkey
100
0 predicts the depths of the Erzincan, Suşehri,
Niksar, Taşova-Erbaa, Yeniçağa, Bolu, Pamu-
0 kova, Yenişehir, Çınarcık, Central, and Tekirdağ
100 0,
00 TABLE 2. SCALE CHARACTERISTICS OF PULL-
10 APART BASINS THAT REPRESENT DEVIATIONS Basins to be 3.9, 1.8, 1.7, 2.4, 0.8, 3, 2.5, 2.7,
100 00
,0
0
10,0 10 ) IN THEIR TRENDS IN FIGURE 6 4.4, 1.1, and 2 km, respectively. In the future,
00 m
d(
0 0
100,0
00
10 Basin l w d* d† by the addition of more depth data to current
l (m) 100
(m) (m) (m) (m)
0,00
0 literature, the accuracy of the relationship and
Glynnwye 1800 550 760 150 predicted values will increase.
Figure 7. Three-dimensional relationship between Cariaco 125,000 35,000 1000 10,590
metric parameters of natural pull-apart basins Petrockstow 4000 1000 670 347 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
with calculated depth data in this study (length Magdalen 200,000 100,000 6700 13,969
and width data from Hempton and Dunne
[1984] and pull-apart basins in northern Turkey *From Hempton and Dunne (1984). The author is grateful to James Evans and an
†
This study.
from this study). anonymous reviewer for their helpful reviews

204 www.gsapubs.org | Volume 2 | Number 3 | LITHOSPHERE

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/lithosphere/article-pdf/2/3/199/3044714/199.pdf

by guest
 Geometric characteristics of pull-apart basins | RESEARCH
and Jennifer L. Hartland, who revised the Eng- Carey, S.W., 1958, The tectonic approach to continental drift, Hempton, M.R., and Neher, K., 1986, Experimental fracture,
in Carey, S.W., eds., Continental Drift: Hobart, Tasma- strain and subsidence patterns over en echelon strike-
lish of the manuscript. nia, University of Tasmania Geology Department Sym- slip faults: Implications for the structural evolution of
posium 2, p. 177–355. pull-apart basins: Journal of Structural Geology, v. 8,
REFERENCES CITED Carton, H., 2005, Three-dimensional seismic images of p. 597–605, doi: 10.1016/0191-8141(86)90066-0.
an active pull-apart basin: The Çınarcık Basin along Irrlitz, W., 1972, Lithostratigraphie und tektonische Entwick-
the North Anatolian fault: Lithos Science Report, v. 7, lung des Neogens in Nordostanatolien: Beihefte zum
Aktimur, H.T., Ateş, Ş., and Oral, A., 1986, Bolu çevresindeki p. 63–72. Geologischen Jahrbuch, Beiheft 120, 111 p.
deprem zararlarının azaltılmasına yönelik sismik zon- Carton, H., Singh, S.C., Hirn, A., Bazin, S., de Voogd, B., Katzman, R., ten Brink, U.S., and Lin, J., 1995, Three-
lama: Türkiye Jeoloji Kurumu Bülteni, v. 29, p. 43–49. Vigner, A., Ricolleau, A., Çetin, S., Ocakoğlu, N., Kara- dimensional modeling of pull-apart basins: Implications
Arca, S., 2004, Neotectonics and Evolution of the Yeniçağa koç, F., Sevilgen, V., 2007, Seismic imaging of the three- for the tectonics of the Dead Sea Basin: Journal of Geo-
Basın, Bolu-Turkey [M.Sc. thesis]: Ankara, Turkey, Mid- dimensional architecture of the Cınarcık Basin along physical Research, v. 100, p. 6295–6312, doi: 10.1029/
dle East Technical University, 122 p. the North Anatolian Fault: Journal of Geophysical 94JB03101.
Atmaoui, N., Kukowski, N., Stockhert, B., and Konig, D., 2006, Research, v. 180, B06101, doi: 10.1029/2006JB004548. Kaypak, B., 2002, Erzincan Havzası 3-B Hız Yapısının Yerel
Initiation and development of pull-apart basins with Christie-Blick, N., and Biddle, K., 1985, Deformation and Deprem Tomografisi ile Belirlenmesi [Ph.D. thesis]:
Riedel shear mechanism: Insights from scaled clay basin formation along strike-slip faults, in Biddle, K., İstanbul, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri
experiments: International Journal of Earth Sciences, and Christie-Blick, N., eds., Strike-Slip Deformation, Enstitüsü, 216 p.
v. 95, no. 2, p. 225–238, doi: 10.1007/s00531-005-0030-1. Basin Formation, and Sedimentation: Society of Eco- Kazancı, N., 1993, Kuzey Anadolu Fayı üzerinde tektonik
Aydın, A., and Nur, A., 1982, Evolution of pull-apart basins nomic Paleontologists and Mineralogists (SEPM) Spe- kontrollü depolanma örneği: Suşehri Havzası (Alt
and their scale independence: Tectonics, v. 1, p. 91–105, cial Publication 37, p. 1–34. Pliyosen-Holosen), Türkiye: Doğa-Türk Yerbilim Derg,
doi: 10.1029/TC001i001p00091. Clayton, L., 1966, Tectonic depressions along the Hope fault, v. 2, p. 89–102.
Aydın, A., and Nur, A., 1985, The types and roles of stepovers a transcurrent fault in North Canterbury, New Zealand: Kim, Y.-S., and Sanderson, D.J., 2006, Structural similarity
in strike-slip tectonics, in Biddle, K., and Christie-Blick, New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, v. 9, and variety at the tips in a wide range of strike-slip
N., eds., Strike-Slip Deformation, Basin Formation, and p. 95–104. faults: A review: Terra Nova, v. 18, p. 330–344.
Sedimentation: Society of Economic Paleontologists and Cloos, E., 1955, Experimental analysis of fracture patterns: Kingma, J.T., 1958, Possible origin of piercement struc-
Mineralogists (SEPM) Special Publication 37, p. 35–44. Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 66, p. 241–256, tures, local unconformities, and secondary basins in
Bahat, D., 1983, New aspects of rhomb structures: Journal of doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(1955)66[241:EAOFP]2.0.CO;2. the Eastern geosyncline, New Zealand: New Zealand
Structural Geology, v. 5, p. 591–601, doi: 10.1016/0191- Cloos, H., 1928, Experimente zur inneren Tektonik: Cetralb- Journal of Geology and Geophysics, v. 1, p. 269–274.
8141(83)90071-8. latt fur Mineralogie, v. 5, p. 609–621. Koçyiğit, A., 1988, Tectonic setting of the Geyve Basin: Age
Ballance, P.F., 1980, Models of sediment distribution in non- Crowell, J.C., 1974a, Origin of late Cenozoic basins in south- and total displacement of the Geyve fault zone: Middle
marine and shallow marine environments in oblique- ern California, in Dickinson, W.R., ed., Tectonics and East Technical University Journal of Pure and Applied
slip fault zones, in Ballance, P.F., and Reading, H.G., eds., Sedimentation: Society of Economic Paleontologists Science, v. 21, p. 81–104.
Sedimentation in Oblique-Slip Mobile Zones: Interna- and Mineralogists (SEPM) Special Publication 22, Koçyiğit, A., Yılmaz, A., Adamia, S., and Kuloshvili, S.,
tional Association of Sedimentologists Special Publica- p. 190–204. 2001, Neotectonics of East Anatolian Plateau (Turkey)
tion 4, p. 229–236, doi: 10.1002/9781444303735.ch13. Crowell, J.C., 1974b, Sedimentation along the San Andreas and Lesser Caucasus: Implication for transition from
Barka, A.A., and Kadinsky-Cade, K., 1988, Strike-slip fault fault, California, in Dott, R.H., and Shaver, R.H., eds., thrusting to strike-slip faulting: Geodinamica Acta,
geometry in Turkey and its influence on earthquake Modern and Ancient Geosynclinal Sedimentation: v. 14, p. 177–195, doi: 10.1016/S0985-3111(00)01064-0.
activity: Tectonics, v. 7, p. 663–684, doi: 10.1029/ Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralo- Lensen, G.J., 1958, A method of graben and horst forma-
TC007i003p00663. gists (SEPM) Special Publication 19, p. 292–303. tion: The Journal of Geology, v. 66, p. 579–587, doi:
Barka, A., Akyüz, H.S., Cohen, H.A., and Watchorn, F., 2000, Crowell, J.C., 1976, Implications of crustal stretching and 10.1086/626537.
Tectonic evolution of the Niksar and Taşova-Erbaa pull- shortening of coastal Ventura Basin, California, in How- Mandl, G., 1988, Mechanics of Tectonic Faulting: Models and
apart basins, North Anatolian fault zone: Their signifi- ell, D.G., ed., Aspects of the Geologic History of the Cali- Basic Concepts: Amsterdam, Elsevier, 407 p.
cance for the motion of the Anatolian block: Tectono- fornia Continental Borderland: American Association of Mann, P., 2007, Global catalogue, classification and tectonic
physics, v. 322, p. 243–264, doi: 10.1016/S0040-1951(00) Petroleum Geologists, Pacific Section, Miscellaneous origins of restraining- and releasing bends on active
00099-8. Publication 24, p. 365–382. and ancient strike-slip fault systems, in Cunning-
Basile, C., and Brun, J.P., 1999, Transtensional faulting pat- Crowell, J.C., and Link, M.H., eds., 1982, Geologic History of ham, W.D., and Mann, P., eds., Tectonics of Strike-Slip
terns ranging from pull-apart basins to transform con- Ridge Basin, Southern California: Los Angeles, Pacific Restraining and Releasing Bends: Geological Society,
tinental margins: An experimental investigation: Jour- Section, Society of Economic Paleontologists and Min- London, Special Publication 290, p. 13–142, doi: 10.1144/
nal of Structural Geology, v. 21, p. 23–37, doi: 10.1016/ eralogists (SEPM), 304 p. SP290.2.
S0191-8141(98)00094-7. Dooley, T., and McClay, K., 1997, Analog modeling of pull- Mann, P., and Bradley, D., eds., 1984, Comparison of Basin
Bellier, O., Över, S., Poisson, A., and Andrieux, J., 1997, apart basins: American Association of Petroleum Geol- Types in Active and Ancient Strike-Slip Zones: Ameri-
Recent temporal change in the stress state and mod- ogists Bulletin, v. 81, p. 1804–1826. can Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin,
ern stress field along the North Anatolian fault zone Emmons, R.C., 1969, Strike-slip rupture pattern in sand mod- v. 68, 503 p.
(Turkey): Geophysical Journal International, v. 131, els: Tectonophysics, v. 7, p. 71–87, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951 Mann, P., and Burke, K., 1982, Basin formation at inter-
p. 61–86, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.1997.tb00595.x. (69)90065-1. sections of conjugate strike-slip faults: Examples
Belt, E.S., 1968, Post-Acadian rifts and related facies, east- Eyal, Y., Eyal, M., Bartov, Y., Steinitz, G., and Folkman, Y., from southern Haiti: Geological Society of America
ern Canada, in Zen, E.-A., White, W.S., Hadley, J.B., 1986, The origin of the Bir Zreir rhomb-shaped graben, Abstracts with Programs, v. 14, p. 555.
and Thompson, J.B., Jr., eds., Studies of Appalachian eastern Sinai: Tectonics, v. 5, p. 267–277, doi: 10.1029/ Mann, P., Hempton, M.R., Bradley, D.C., and Burke, K., 1983,
Geology, Northern and Maritime: New York, Wiley TC005i002p00267. Development of pull-apart basins: The Journal of Geol-
Interscience, p. 95–113. Fralick, P.W., 1982, Wrench basin type inferred from sedimen- ogy, v. 91, p. 529–554, doi: 10.1086/628803.
Bertoluzza, L., and Perotti, C.R., 1997, A finite-element model tation style: Examples from the Upper Paleozoic Cum- McClay, K., and Dooley, T., 1995, Analogue models of
of the stress field in strike-slip basins: Implications berland Basin, Maritime, Canada, in 11th International pull-apart basins: Geology, v. 23, p. 711–714, doi:
for the Permian tectonics of the southern Alps (Italy): Congress on Sedimentology Abstracts of Papers: Ham- 10.1130/0091-7613(1995)023<0711:AMOPAB>2.3.CO;2.
Tectonophysics, v. 280, p. 185–197, doi: 10.1016/S0040- ilton, Ontario, International Association of Sedimen- Petrunin, A., and Sobolev, S.V., 2006, What controls thickness
1951(97)00140-6. tologists, p. 38. of sediments and lithospheric deformation at a pull-apart
Bozkurt, E., 2001, Neotectonics of Turkey—A synthesis: Geo- Freund, R., 1971, The Hope Fault; a Strike Slip Fault in New Zea- basin?: Geology, v. 34, no. 5, p. 389–392, doi: 10.1130/
dinamica Acta, v. 14, p. 3–30, doi: 10.1016/S0985-3111 land: New Zealand Geological Survey Bulletin 86, 49 p. G22158.1.
(01)01066-X. Gapais, D., Fiquet, G., and Cobbold, P., 1991, Slip system Petrunin, A.G., and Sobolev, S.V., 2008, Three-dimensional
Burchfiel, B.C., and Stewart, J.H., 1966, “Pull-apart” origin domains: 3. New insights in fault kinematics from plane numerical models of the evolution of pull-apart basins:
of the central segment of Death Valley, California: Geo- strain sandbox experiments: Tectonophysics, v. 188, Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, v. 171,
logical Society of America Bulletin, v. 77, p. 439–442, p. 143–157, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(91)90320-R. no. 1–4, p. 387–399, doi: 10.1016/j.pepi.2008.08.017.
doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(1966)77[439:POOTCS]2.0.CO;2. Gölke, M., Cloetingh, S., and Fuchs, K., 1994, Finite-element Quennell, A.M., 1958, The structure and geomorphic evo-
Burchfiel, B.C., Hodges, H.V., and Royden, L.H., 1987, Geol- modelling of pull-apart basin formation: Tectonophys- lution of the Dead Sea rift: Quarterly Journal of the
ogy of Panamint Valley–Saline Valley pull-apart system, ics, v. 240, p. 45–58, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(94)90263-1. Geological Society, v. 114, p. 1–24, doi: 10.1144/gsjgs
California: Palinspastic evidence of low-angle geome- Gürbüz, A., and Gürer, Ö.F., 2009, Middle Pleistocene extinc- .114.1.0001.
try of a Neogene range-bounding fault: Journal of Geo- tion process of pull-apart basins along the North Ana- Rahe, B., Ferrill, D.A., and Morris, A.P., 1998, Physical analog
physical Research, v. 92, p. 10,422–10,426, doi: 10.1029/ tolian fault zone: Physics of the Earth and Planetary modeling of pull-apart basin evolution: Tectonophysics,
JB092iB10p10422. Interiors, v. 173, no. 1–2, p. 177–180, doi: 10.1016/j.pepi v. 285, p. 21–40, doi: 10.1016/S0040-1951(97)00193-5.
Burke, K., Mann, P., and Kidd, W., 1982, What is a ramp val- .2008.10.021. Richard, P.D., Moquet, B., and Cobbold, P.R., 1991, Experi-
ley?, in 11th International Congress on Sedimentology Hempton, M.R., and Dunne, L.A., 1984, Sedimentation in pull- ments on simultaneous faulting and folding above a
Abstracts of Papers: Hamilton, Ontario, International apart basins: Active example in eastern Turkey: The Jour- basement wrench fault: Tectonophysics, v. 188, p. 133–
Association of Sedimentologists, p. 40. nal of Geology, v. 92, p. 513–530, doi: 10.1086/628889. 141, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(91)90319-N.

LITHOSPHERE | Volume 2 | Number 3 | www.gsapubs.org 205

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/lithosphere/article-pdf/2/3/199/3044714/199.pdf

by guest
 GÜRBÜZ

Richard, P.D., Naylor, M.A., and Koopman, A., 1995, Experi- Şengör, A.M.C., and Yılmaz, Y., 1981, Tethyan evolution of using microfractures: Niksar Basin (Turkey) as a case
mental models of strike-slip tectonics: Petroleum Geo- Turkey: A plate tectonic approach: Tectonophysics, study: Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 5, p. 45–53.
science, v. 1, p. 71–80. v. 75, p. 181–241, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(81)90275-4. Tchalenko, J.S., 1970, Similarities between shear zones of dif-
Rodgers, D.A., 1980, Analysis of pull-apart basin develop- Şengör, A.M.C., Görür, N., and Şaroğlu, F., 1985, Strike-slip ferent magnitudes: Geological Society of America Bul-
ment produced by en-echelon strike-slip faults, in deformation basin formation and sedimentation: Strike- letin, v. 81, p. 1625–1640, doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(1970)
Balance, P.F., and Reading, H.G., Sedimentation in slip faulting and related basin formation in zones of tec- 81[1625:SBSZOD]2.0.CO;2.
Oblique-Slip Mobile Zones: International Association tonic escape: Turkey as a case study, in Biddle, K., and Tron, V., and Brun, J., 1991, Experiments on oblique rift-
of Sedimentologists Special Publication 4, p. 27–41, Christie-Blick, N., eds., Strike-Slip Deformation, Basin ing in brittle-ductile systems: Tectonophysics, v. 188,
doi: 10.1002/9781444303735.ch3. Formation, and Sedimentation: Society of Economic p. 71–84, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(91)90315-J.
Şaroğlu, F., 1988, Age and offset of the North Anatolian fault: Paleontologists and Mineralogists (SEPM) Special Pub- Withjack, M.O., and Jamison, W.R., 1986, Deformation
Middle East Technical University Journal of Pure and lication 37, p. 227–264. produced by oblique rifting: Tectonophysics, v. 126,
Applied Science, v. 31, p. 65–79. Şengör, A.M.C., Tüysüz, O., İmren, C., Sakınç, M., Eyidoğan, p. 99–124, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(86)90222-2.
Şaroğlu, F., and Yılmaz, Y., 1987, Doğu Anadolu’da Neotek- H., Görür, N., Le Pichon, X., and Rangin, C., 2005, The Wu, J.E., McClay, K., Whitehouse, P., and Dooley, T., 2009, 4D
tonik dönemdeki jeolojik evrim ve havza modelleri: North Anatolian fault: A new look: Annual Review of analogue modelling of transtensional pull-apart basins:
Maden Tetkik ve Arama Dergisi, v. 107, p. 73–94. Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 33, p. 37–112, doi: Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 26, no. 8, p. 1608–
Schreurs, G., 1994, Experiments on strike-slip faulting and 10.1146/annurev.earth.32.101802.120415. 1623, doi: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2008.06.007.
block rotation: Geology, v. 22, p. 567–570, doi: 10.1130/ Sims, D., Ferrill, D.A., and Stamatakos, J.A., 1999, Role of Zak, I., and Freund, R., 1981, Asymmetry and basin migration
0091-7613(1994)022<0567:EOSSFA>2.3.CO;2. ductile décollement in the development of pull-apart in the Dead Sea Rift: Tectonophysics, v. 80, p. 27–38, doi:
Segall, P., and Pollard, D.O., 1980, Mechanics of discontinu- basins: Experimental and natural examples: Journal 10.1016/0040-1951(81)90140-2.
ous faults: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 85, of Structural Geology, v. 21, p. 533–554, doi: 10.1016/
p. 4337–4350, doi: 10.1029/JB085iB08p04337. S0191-8141(99)00010-3.
Şengör, A.M.C., 1979, The North Anatolian transform fault: Sylvester, A.G., 1988, Strike-slip faults: Geological Society
Its age, offset and tectonic significance: Journal of the of America Bulletin, v. 100, p. 1666–1703, doi: 10.1130/
Geological Society, v. 136, p. 269–282, doi: 10.1144/gsjgs 0016-7606(1988)100<1666:SSF>2.3.CO;2.
.136.3.0269. Tanner, W., 1962, Surface structural patterns obtained from MANUSCRIPT RECEIVED 8 DECEMBER 2008
Şengör, A.M.C., and Kidd, W.S.F., 1979, Post-collisional tec- strike-slip models: The Journal of Geology, v. 70, p. 101– REVISED MANUSCRIPT RECEIVED 23 OCTOBER 2009
tonics of the Turkish-Iranian plateau and a compari- 107, doi: 10.1086/626797. MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED 29 MARCH 2010
son with Tibet: Tectonophysics, v. 55, p. 361–376, doi: Tatar, O., 1996, Determination of extension directions in natu-
10.1016/0040-1951(79)90184-7. rally deformed limestones within strike-slip fault zones Printed in the USA

206 www.gsapubs.org | Volume 2 | Number 3 | LITHOSPHERE

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/lithosphere/article-pdf/2/3/199/3044714/199.pdf

by guest