MA2001 Chapter 2 (Part 2) Vector Integral Calculus

2 Surface integrals
2.1 Surface Integral of The Second Kind
Consider a vector field F and a surface S in the field. Divide the surface into N small area elements

 S i (Approximately flat). Define  Si as the vector whose magnitude is  Si and whose direction is

normal to the element of surface  Si (usually outwards if S is closed). Then  Si   Si ni , where ni is a

unit vector normal to the region  S i . Let Fi be the vector field evaluated at some point on  S i .

Then Fi   Si  Fi   Si ni  Fi  Si cos represents the flux of F through the element of surface  S i . We

define the total flux of F through S to be the surface integral of the second kind
N

 F  d S  lim  Fi   Si
S
N 
i 1

Example
(i) If v is the velocity field of a fluid,  v  d S represents the total volume of fluid crossing S in a unit
S

time. Replacing v by  v (   density) gives mass flux.

(ii) If J is an electric current vector,  J  d S represents the rate at which electric charge crosses S.
S

(iii) If E is an electric field vector,  E  d S represents the electric flux through S.

S

(iv) If q is a heat conduction vector,  q  d S represents the rate at which heat flows through S.
S

1
Example
Evaluate  F  d S
S
where F  x 2 i  xy j  z 2 k and S is the surface of the cube bounded by

x  0, x  2, y  0, y  2, z  0, z  2 .
Solution:

We observe that the surface S of the cube is a close surface. A close surface S is a surface which divides
the space into two parts, one has finite volume and the other has infinite volume. For a close surface S the
normal to S is always assumed to be the outer normal which is directed from the part with finite volume
to the part with infinite volume.
If a surface S is not a close surface then it is called an open surface.
We integrate over each face in turn and sum the results.
For the face ABCD:
dS  dydz , the outward normal n  i , x  2 .

2 2 
  
2

 F dS  x i  xy j  z k  idS   x dS     2 dy  dz  16
2 2 2

ABCD ABCD ABCD 0 0 

For the face BEFC:

dS  dxdz , the outward normal n  j , y  2 .

2 
  
2 2

 F dS  x i  xy j  z k  jdS   xydS     2 xdz  dx   4 xdx  8

2 2

BEFC BEFC BEFC 0 0  0

Similarly,
CFGD
 F  d S  16, 
OEFG
F dS  
OADG
F dS  
OABE
F dS  0 .

Hence  F  d S  40
S

If part of S is not parallel to one of the coordinate planes, we proceed as follows:

2
If the surface S is written as   x, y, z   constant then    grad is normal to the surface and hence

the unit normals are

  
i j k
x y z
n
2
        
2 2

     
 x   y   z 

If the surface is given in the form z    x, y  , define   x, y, z   z    x, y  , then

  x, y, z   z    x, y   0  z    x, y  , the unit normals are

    
i j k i j k
x y z x y
n  
2 2    2
              
2 2
x x
       
     1
 x   y   z  y

y  x   y 
1
z

There are two normals to the open surface at each point which are of the same magnitude but are of
opposite directions. The ways to decide the required normal are explained through examples:

Example

Consider the surface S:   x, y, z   x 2  y 2  z 2  a 2 , z  0 (the upper sphere).

At the point  x, y, z  , there are two unit vectors (normals) which are perpendicular to the surface S:

  x, y, z   x2  y 2  z 2  a 2 , where z  0 . They are the vectors



  x i   y j  z k 

 
x
i
y
j
z
k

  2 xi  2 y j  2 zk 
 x2   y2  z2  x2   y2  z2 x2   y2  z2 x2   y2  z2  2a

x y z 
   i  j  k     cos   i   cos   j   cos   k 
a a a 

3
 
,where  is the angle between and the positive direction of x-axis (or the angle between  and


the positive direction of x-axis ) ,  is the angle between and the positive direction of y-axis and


 is the angle between and the positive direction of z-axis.


So cosine of the angle between the normals and the positive direction of x-axis is
x
 cos   
   y2  z2
2
x

So cosine of the angle between the normals and the positive direction of y-axis is
Y
 cos   
   y2  z2
2
x

So cosine of the angle between the normals and the positive direction of z-axis is
Z
 cos   
  y2  z2
2
x

 x2  y 2  z 2  a2
We observe that the outward normal at the point  x, y, z  to the upper sphere  makes
z  0
an acute angle  with the positive direction of z-axis, so cos  0 , therefore the normal we need is
x y z
i j k.
a a a

 x2  y 2  z 2  a2
As for the inward normal at the point  x, y, z  to the upper sphere  makes an obtuse
z  0
angle  with the positive direction of z-axis, so cos  0 , therefore the normal we need is
x y z 
 i  j k
a a a 

 x2  y 2  z 2  a2
Similarly, the outward normal at the point  x, y, z  to the lower sphere  makes an
z  0
obtuse angle  with the positive direction of z-axis, so cos  0 , therefore the normal at the point

 x2  y 2  z 2  a2 x y z
 x, y, z  to the lower sphere  we need is i  j  k (note: z is negative).
z  0 a a a

4
  x2  y 2  z 2  a2
As for the inward normal at the point  x, y, z  to the lower sphere  makes an acute
 z  0

angle  with the positive direction of z-direction, so cos  0 , therefore the normal at the point  x, y, z 

 x2  y 2  z 2  a2 x y z 
to the lower sphere  we want is   i  j  k  ( note: z is negative).
z  0 a a a 

We call the normal to a surface S: which makes an acute angle with the positive direction of z-axis an
upper normal. Also we call the normal to a surface S: which makes an obtuse angle with the positive
direction of z-axis a lower normal.

If the surface S given is an explicit function z    x, y  , then the normals to surface S at the point

 x, y, z    x, y,  x, y   is:   x, y, z   z    x, y   0 

 xi   y j  z k      i  
x y jk 
 x2   y2   z2 x 2  y 2  1

Once the normal to the open surface has been decided, we have

 F  d S   F  ndS   F  dS
S S S 

2.2 Surface Integral of The First Kind

Consider integral of the form  g  x, y, z dS , where g  x, y, z  is a scalar field, which is known as the
S

surface integral of the first kind, and can also, arise in its own right.

Example
(i) If g  x, y, z   1 , then  1dS is the surface area of S.
S

(ii) If g  x, y, z   electrostatic charge density, then  1dS  total charge on S.

S

To evaluate this integral suppose we project S onto one of the coordinate planes where the surface integral
becomes a double integral.

5
Suppose the surface is given implicitly by   x, y, z   0 and we decide to project S onto the xy-plane,

where its projection is the region  xy . Let  be the angle between the normal n to  S and k , that is,

 x y
cos   n  k . Now  x y   S cos    S n  k , therefore  S  and in the limit, we have
nk

 x2   y2   z2
 g  x, y, z  dS   g  x, y, z  n  k dxdy   g  x, y, z  x, y 
1
dxdy .
S S xy
z

x2   y2  1
If the surface is given explicitly by z    x, y  , then dS  dxdy  1  x2   y2 dxdy and
1

 g  x, y, z dS   g  x, y, z 
S
1  x2   y2 dxdy .
xy

Example
Compute  ydS where S is the part of z  z  x, y   x  y 2 whose projection onto xy-plane is the region
S

 xy : 0  x  1,0  y  2 .

Solution:

The projection of S onto xy-plane is the region  xy : 0  x  1,0  y  2 .

So dS  1  zx2  z y2 dxdy  1  1   2 y  dxdy  2  4 y 2 dxdy .

2

Therefore

6
 2 1
  1
1 2

S ydS   y 2  4 y dxdy  0  0 y 2  4 y dy  dx  0  0 8 2  4 y d 2  4 y  dx
2 2 2 2
 
xy

1  32  1  32  1 
1 2
 
1 3 1 3 3
    2  4 y2
8 3
  2 2
0 dx   
12 
18  2 2
 dx   18  2 2
   27 2 2  2 2  
52 2 13 2

0 0  12   12 12 3

Example

  x  y  z  dS over the surface S: x  y 2  z 2  a2 , z  0 .

2
Compute
S

Solution:
Since we are going to project the open surface S: x 2  y 2  z 2  a 2 , z  0 onto xy-plane, we will use the

x2   y2  z2
formula  g  x, y, z  dS   g  x, y, z 
S
z
dxdy .
xy

The projection of x 2  y 2  z 2  a 2 , z  0 onto xy-plane is  xy , which is x 2  y 2  a 2 .

  x, y, z   0

Let   x, y, z   x 2  y 2  z 2  a 2 , then the surface S is just the equation :  , that is,
z  0


x2  y 2  z 2  a, z  0 and this equation defines z as an implicit function of x, y. Also,

  
 2 x.  2 y,  2 z . And
x y z

 X2  Y2  Z2 4 x2  4 y 2  4z 2 4a 2 2a a
dS  dxdy  dxdy  dxdy  dxdy  dxdy
Z 2z 2z 2z z
a
 dxdy
a2  x2  y 2

Or you can figure out in the following way, of course, the following method requires more being able in
mathematics:

2
 z   z 
2 2 2
 x  y a
dS  1       dxdy  1       dxdy  dxdy
 x   y  z  z a2  x2  y2

So

7
  x, y, z  dS    x  y 
S xy
a2  x2  y2  a
a  x2  y 2
2
dxdy

 a2  x2 
 
a
a
  x  y  a2  x2  y2 dy dx
a 
  a2  x2 a 2  x 2  y 2 
 2 2 
 a2  x2 a( x  y )dy
a  a
a
 a  x axdy  2 d a  x  y
2 2 2
  
   ady dx      ady dx
a 
  a2  x2 a  x  y  a2  x2  y 2
2 2 2
 a   a2  x2 
 
 2 2 a 2 
a  a2  x2
axdy  a
 a x 2 d a  x  y 
2 2

a  a2  x2  
  dx     dx  a  2 2 dx
 ady
a      
2 2 2 2 2 2
 a x
2 2 a x y   a  a x
2 2 a x y    a x 
 

Observe that
a  a2  x2 axdy  a l dy  a
 y 
   dx    dx  ax  arcsin
a2  x2
ax   dx
 a   a2  x2 a 2  x 2  y 2  l l 2a2a2x2x2  a  l l 2  y 2  

dy
 arcsin
y
a a2  x2   a2  x2
l 2  y2 l

a  a2  x2  a2  x2  a
  ax  arcsin  arcsin dx   ax arcsin1  arcsin  1 dx
a2  x2 a2  x2 
a   a

   
a a
  a ax  2     dx   a xdx  0
 2  a
a x is odd

 a2  x2 a 
d a2  x2  y2  

 
a a

 a  2 2 a 2  x 2  y 2  a a a  x  y
2 a2  x2
dx  2 2 2
dx
 a2  x2
 a x 
 

    
a 2 2 a
  a a 2  x 2  a x
2 2
a a  x   a  x
2 2 2 2
dx   0dx  0
a   a

a  a2  x2  a a

 a  2 2 ady dx  a 2a a  x dx 2a

   4a  a 2  x 2 dx
2 2

a  x is even
2 2

  a x  0

  x 
  2a  x a  x  a arcsin  
2 2 2 a
0
1 x
 a  x dx   x a 2  x 2  a 2 arcsin 
2 2
2 a
  a  

a 0 
 2a 3 arcsin  a 3 arcsin  2a 3    a 3
Assume a  0 a a 2

Therefore,

8
  a2  x2 a 
 a2  x2
a
axdy  a
 d a2  x2  y2   a  a2  x2 
S ( x  y  z ) dS   2 2 a 2  x 2  y 2  a  2 2 a 2  x 2  y 2  a  2 2 dx

a 
dx  2 dx   ady
 a x   a x   a x 
 
  a3

Or

 ( x  y  z )dS    x  y 
S xy
a2  x2  y 2  a
a  x2  y 2
2
dxdy


 2
   ra sin  ra cos  
a a
a
0  0 r cos   r sin   a  r rd dr    2
 2 2
  ra  0 dr
x  r cos
y  r sin  a2  r 2  0 a2  r 2 a2  r 2 
dxdy  rd dr
Assume a  0
a
  2 ardr   ar 2   a
0   a3
0

Now we are going to make a few concluding remarks on the ways of computing the surface integral of
second kind, that is, compute  F  x, y, z   d S , where F  x, y, z  is a vector field defined on S.
S

Suppose the surface is given implicitly by   x, y, z   0 and we are going to project S onto xy-plane with

the projection, the region  xy . Assume we have chosen the normal n to S at the point  x, y, z  by

considering the cosine of the included angle between the normal and the positive direction of z-axis.

   1
Then  F  d S   F  ndS   F  dS   F  dxdy   F     dxdy
S S S
  xy
  z  xy
z

Whether the positive sign or the negative sign is chosen is depending on the problem raised.

In addition, if the surface is given explicitly by z    x, y   0 and still we are going to project S onto xy-

plane with the projection, the region  xy , then

9
 
 x i   y j  k  dS 
 F  d S   F  ndS   F 
S S S x 2   y 2  1


 x i   y j  k  x 2   y 2  1
 F  x   y  1
2 2 1
  
dxdy   F    x i   y j  k  dxdy

xy  xy

Example
Evaluate  F  d S
S
where S is the closed surface of the region bounded by the cylinder x 2  z 2  4 and

the planes x  0, y  0, z  0 and y  4 , and F  zi  z j  yk .

Solution:
Consider first the integral over the curved surface BCED which is the level surface   x 2  z 2  4 . The

curved surface is projected on xy-plane with the projection  xy which is the rectangle OADE bounded

by y  0, y  4, x  0, x  2 .   x 2  z 2    2 xi  2 zk ,  z  2 z

 
   
2 4
1

BCED
F dS 
AOED
zi  z j  yk  2 xi  2 zk
2z
dxdy     ( x  y )dy dx  8
0 0 
8
The other surfaces are all planes and give the results 
OABC
F  d S  8 , 
OADE
F  d S  16 ,  F  d S   3 ,
OEC

8

ABD
F  d S  with sum
3  F  d S  0 .
S

Example
Calculate  F  d S where F  x, y, z   2i  2 j  2k , the open surface S is the part of the plane
S

x  z  1 which is enclosed by the cylinder x 2  y 2  1 and the normal to S is pointing to xy-plane.

10
Solution:
     
Let   x, y, z   x  z , then   i j k  i  k and  1,  0,  1.
x y z x y z
Since the normal to S makes an obtuse angle with the positive direction of z- axis, we choose 
n
 

or the direction   i  k .

And we are going to project S onto the xy- plane and the projection, say,  xy .

The following formula will be used:


 F  d S   F 
S
z
dxdy    F   dxdy (note that  z  1)
 xy
xy

 2 
  
1
   F   dxdy   2i  2 j  2k  i  k dxdy   4dxdy     4rd dr  4
 xy  xy x 2  y 2 1 0  0 

Example
Find  F  d S , where F  x, y, z   x
2
yi  3xy 2 j  4 y 3 k and S is the part of z  z  x, y   x 2  y 2  9
S

whose projection onto xy-plane is the region  xy :

0  x  2,0  y  1 . The normal to S at  x, y, z  we choose is the lower normal, that is the normal which

makes an obtuse angle with the positive direction of z-axis.

Solution:

The direction of the normal is the same as the direction of  2 xi  2 y j  k  

since the normal to S at  x, y, z  makes an obtuse angle with the positive direction of z-axis.

  x   
yi  3xy 2 j  4 y 3 k  d S   x 2 yi  3xy 2 j  4 y 3 k  2 xi  2 y j  k dxdy 
2

S  xy


2 1
 2
 1
   2 x3 y  6 xy 3  4 y 3 dxdy      2 x 3 y  6 xy 3  4 y 3  dy  dx    x 3 y 2  xy 4  y 4  dx
3
0 0  0 0
 xy 2
2
 3   x 4 3x 2 
   x3  x  1 dx     x  02  4  3  2  1
0   4 
2 4

11
3 Surface Given Parametrically by Three Equations
Let a surface S be given in space. The surface S can be represented parametrically by equations

x  x  u, v  , y  y  u, v  , z  z  u, v  , where u and v vary in a region Ruv of the uv-plane.

Let r  x  u, v  i  y  u, v  j  z  u, v  k , then the surface area element dS is given by dS  ru du  rv dv ,

x y z x y z
where ru  i j  k , rv  i  j k .
u u u v v v

 r du  r dv   r du  r dv    r  r   r  r dudv 
2
Observe that ru du  rv dv  u v u v u v u v ru  rv dudv . And

  
rv 1  cos 2 the angle between ru and rv  
2 2 2 2 2
ru  rv  ru rv sin 2 the angle between ru and rv  ru
 

   
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 ru rv  ru rv cos 2 the angle between ru and rv  ru rv  ru  rv
 x 2  y 2  z  2   x  2  y  2  z  2   x x y y z z  2
                        
 u   u   u    v   v   v    u v u v u v 

 x   y   z   x   y   z 
2 2 2 2 2 2
2
 ru  rv dudv  EG  F dudv , where E          , G          ,
2

 u   u   u   v   v   v 

x x y y z z
F   .
u v u v u v

The area of the surface then is given by S   dS   EG  F 2 dudv .

Ruv

Example

 x2  y2  z2  4
Find the area of the part of the upper hemisphere  which is enclosed by the cylinder
 z  0

x2  y2  1 .
Solution:

 x2  y 2  z 2  4
Using spherical coordinates, the upper hemisphere  can be represented parametrically by
z  0


x  2sin  cos , y  2sin  sin  , z  2cos where 0    2 , 0    .
2

12
  x2  y 2  z 2  4
The part of the upper hemisphere  which is enclosed by the cylinder x 2  y 2  1 can be
z  0


represented parametrically by x  2sin  cos , y  2sin  sin  , z  2cos , where 0    2 , 0    .
6

And is found by the following way:
6

 x2  y 2  z 2  4
 3 
z  0  z 2  3  z  3 . Therefore z  2cos   3  cos    
 x2  y 2  1 2 6


2 2 2
 x   y   z 
E        4cos2  cos2   4cos2  sin 2   4sin 2   4
        

 x   y   z 
2 2 2

G       4sin  sin   4sin  cos   4sin 

2 2 2 2 2

        

x x y y z z
F    4sin  cos  cos  sin   4sin  sin  cos cos  0
     
So

6 2
 
S   EG  F 2 d d     16sin 2  d d
R 0  0 
 

 
6 6
 2  16sin 2  d  2  4sin  d  8  4 3 
0 0

Let the surface S be represented parametrically by equations x  x  u, v  , y  y  u, v  , z  z  u, v  , where u

and v vary in a region Ruv of the uv-plane, the surface integral of the first kind for f  x, y, z  which is

defined on S is given by  f  x, y, z  dS   f  x u, v  , y u, v  , z u, v 

S Ruv
EG  F 2 dudv , where

 x   y   z   x   y   z  x x y y z z
2 2 2 2 2 2

E       , G       , F    .
 u   u   u   v   v   v  u v u v u v

13
Suppose the surface S is represented parametrically by equations x  x  u, v  , y  y  u, v  , z  z  u, v  ,

where u and v vary in a region Ruv of the uv-plane.

Then the unit normals to S at  x, y, z  is :

 y z y z   z x z x   x y x y  
   i     j  k
ru  rv   u v v u   u v v u   u v v u  
n 
ru  rv
 
2 2 2
r r  r r u v u v

  y, z    z, x    x, y 
i j k
  u, v    u, v    u, v 

 x 2  y  2  z  2   x  2  y  2  z  2   x x y y z z  2
                      
 u   u   u    v   v   v    u v u v u v 
  y, z    z, x    x, y 
i j k
  u, v    u, v    u, v 

EG  F 2

The normal chosen is decided by the included angle between the normal and the positive direction of
some axis. For instance, if the normal is making an acute angle with the positive direction of z-axis , then

  x, y 
we have   0 and whether the + sign or – sign chosen is depending on the inequality, say if
  u, v 

   y, z    z , x    x, y  
 i j k
  x, y     u, v    u, v    u, v  
is negative, then n   .
  u, v   EG  F 2 
 
 

Example
Let F  i . Find  F  ndS
S
where S is the portion of the sphere x2  y 2  z 2  4 enclosed by the planes

y  0 x  y  0
z  1, z   3 ,  and  , n is the unit normal to S pointing to the origin.
x  0 x  0
Solution:
Using spherical coordinates, S , the portion of the sphere x2  y 2  z 2  4 enclosed by the planes z  1 ,
y  0 x  y  0
z 3,  and  be represented parametrically by
x  0 x  0
  5
x  2sin  cos , y  2sin  sin  , z  2cos where 0    ,   .
4 3 6
14
   y, z    z, x    x, y 
i j k
  ,    ,    , 
 F  ndS   F  x  ,  , y  ,  , z  ,   
S R EG  F 2
EG  F 2 d d

   y, z    z, x    x, y  
  F  x  ,  , y  ,  , z  ,      i j k  d d
   ,    ,    ,   
R  
 x x
   2 cos  cos  , 
 2sin  sin 
 x  2sin  cos  
  y y
 y  2sin  sin     2 cos  sin  ,  2sin  cos 
 z  2 cos    
  z z
  2sin  , 0
  

  y, z  2cos  sin  2sin  cos 

  4sin 2  cos  ,
  ,  2sin  0

  z, x  2sin  0
  4sin 2  sin  ,
  ,  2cos  cos  2sin  sin 

  x, y  2cos  cos  2sin  sin 

  4sin  cos  cos 2   4sin  cos  sin 2   4sin  cos  .
  ,  2cos  sin  2sin  cos 

Observe that the normal n to S makes an obtuse angle with i and

  y, z  2cos  sin  2sin  cos    5

  4sin 2  cos   0 for 0    ,  
  ,  2sin  0 4 3 6

   y, z    z, x    x, y  
therefore, choose   i j k  as the normal to S .
   ,    ,    ,  

As a result,

15
     y, z    z, x    x, y   
S F  ndS   F  x   ,   , y   ,   , z  ,        i 
     ,     ,   j  k   d  d
R     ,   
    y, z    z, x    x, y   
 F 
 x   ,   , y  ,   , z  ,        i 
     ,     ,   j  k   d d
R       ,    

 56 

 

4
    i    4sin  cos  i  4sin  sin  j  4sin  cos  k  d  d
2 2
 
0  
3 
 5  5
6  6  
5
4
  4
  4
    4sin  cos  d  d     2  cos 2  1 cos  d  d    sin 2  2 
2

6
cos  d
0   0   0 3
3  3 


4
 5 5 2 2   5 5 2 2 
   sin   sin   cos  d   sin   sin   sin  4
0
3 3 3 3   3 3 3 3 
0
 5 5 2 2  1  3 
  sin   sin   
 3 3 3 3  2 2

Divergence Theorem (Gauss’s Theorem)

The net outward flux of a vector field v through a closed surface S is  v  d S . If we take a point P and
S

surround it by a surface S enclosing a volume V we have

1
Average flux per unit volume =  v  d S
V S
Now let V  0 so that the volume shrinks to the point P. The limiting value of the average flux per unit
volume is then the divergence of v at P. This gives an alternative definition of divv

1 
divv  lim 
V 0 V

S v  d S 


Divergence Theorem (Gauss’s Theorem):

For any closed surface S, enclosing a region V in a vector field F ,  divFdxdydz   F  d S , that is, the
V S

total divergence of F from a volume V = total outward flux of F through S.

Proof:
Divide the volume V into N small blocks Vi with surface S i

16
 1
For each small volume, We have approximately divF 
Vi  F  d S
 Si
or divFVi   F  d S , that is,
 Si

divFVi = total outward flux of F across S i . Summing over all blocks and letting N   as Vi  0

we have LHS   divFdxdydz . For the RHS we observe that flux out of a face of one block equals the
V

flux into the face of an adjacent block, unless that face is part of the surface S. Hence for all internal faces
the flux cancels, leaving RHS   F  d S and the theorem is proved.
S

Example

Verify the divergence theorem for F  x, y, z   xi  y j  zk and the region bounded by z  4  x 2  y 2

and the plane z  0 .

Solution:
divF  3 .
 4 x  y 
2 2
4  x2  y 2
 divFdxdydz     3dz     
3 z   3  4  x 2  y 2 dxdy

S1 
 0
V 0  S1 S1

2 2 2 2
   r4  2
    3  4  r 2  rdr d  3   2r 2   d  3  4d  24
x  r cos
0 
0 0  40 0
y  r sin 

Now consider  F  d S . For the circular “base” we have

S

17
  xi  y j  zk    k  dxdy    zdxdy  0 as z  0 on S .
S1 S1
1

For the curved surface   x, y, z   z  x 2  y 2  4 ,   2 xi  2 y j  k ,  z  1

 F  d S    xi  y j  zk    2 xi  2 y j  k  1 dxdy    2 x  2 y 2  z dxdy
1 2

S2 x2  y 2  4 x2  y 2  4
2
 2   2 r4  2
   2 x2  2 y 2  4  x2  y 2  dxdy  x  r cos   
 4  r 2
 
rd  dr  2  2r    24
x2  y 2  4 y  r sin 
0  0   40

Hence  F  d S   divFdxdydz

S V

Example
Calculate  F  d S where F  x, y, z   xyi  y  e
S
2 xz
 2

 j  sin  xy  k , S is the close surface which is

bounded by z  1  x 2 , z  0, y  0 and y  z  2
Solution:

It is difficult to compute  F  d S
S
directly, by Divergence theorem we compute

  xy  y 2  e xz 2
  

  sin xy   
 divFdxdydz    x y

z 
dxdydz instead, where V is the solid enclosed by
V V
 
S.

The projection of V onto xz-plane is  xz which is bounded by z  0, z  1  x 2 . So

18
 1  1 x
 2 z   2 z   1  1 x 
2 2
3
               2   
2
divFdxdydz 3 ydxdydz 3 ydy dxdz  3 ydy  
dz dx  2 z dz dx
 xz  0  1  0  0   1  0

V V 
1 1 1 1
 
1
2  z
1  2
   dx   1  x 6  3x 4  3x 2  7 dx    x 6  3x 4  3x 2  7 dx
2 1  0 
1 x 2 3
dx    
3
x 1 8  
2 1  
0
1
2
 x 7 3x5  1 3 184
   x3  7 x  10     1  7 
 7 5  7 5 35

If you prefer to project V on xy-plane,  divFdxdydz should be as follows:

V

z  1  x2
We observe that the surface z  1  x 2 and the plane y  z  2 intersect at the line  and the
y z  2
projection of the line on xy-plane is y  1  x 2  2  y  x 2  1. The projection of V onto xy-plane is

 xy which consists of two parts, say,  xy   xy   xy .  xy is bounded by x  1 , x  1 , y  0 , y  x 2  1

and  xy is bounded by x  1 , x  1 , y  x 2  1 , y  2 . And over  xy the upper surface of the solid is

z  1  x 2 and the lower surface is z  0 . Over  xy the upper surface of the solid is y  z  2 and the

lower surface is z  0 . Thus

1  2
1 x   2 y  1 1 x 2  1 x 2    2 y  
2

 3 ydxdydz    0
 3 ydz dxdy     3 ydz dxdy   0  0

1 
 3 ydz  dy
 
 dx  1   2  0
  3 ydz  dy  dx

V  xy    xy  0       1 x  
1 x   2 
2

3 2 
1 1 1 1
    3 y 1  x  dy  dx     3 y  2  y  dy  dx    1  x  (1  x )  dx    3 y 2  y 3 
2 2 2 2
1 x 2
dx
1   1 x2  1  
 0 1 
2 1

 
1 1

1 2 1  x  (1  x )dx  1 4  3 1  x   1  x  dx

3 2 2 2 2 2 3
 2

 
1 1
  3 1  2 x 2  x 4  (1  x 2 )dx  2  4  3 1  2 x 2  x 4   1  3 x 2  3 x 4  x 6  dx
0 0
1 1 1
  3 1  x  x  x  dx  2  2  3 x  x  dx    7  3 x 2  3 x 4  x 6  dx
2 4 6 2 6

0 0 0

 3 1  3 1 184
  7 x  x3  x5  x 7  10  7  1   
 5 7  5 7 35

19
Example – Gauss’s Law

Gauss’s law for an electric field states that the total displacement flux (of  0 E ) through a closed surface

equals the total charge within the volume enclosed by the surface, that is,

 
S
0 E  d S    dV , where E is the electric intensity and  is the charge density.
V

Proof:
Applying the divergence theorem to the LHS gives  
S
0 E  d S    0divEdV    dV . Since the
V V


region V is arbitrary, it must be true that  0divE   , that is, divE  – one of Mxwell’s equations of
0

electromagnetism. Since E   where  is the electrostatic potential, div grad   or
0
 2 2 2
        ,   2  2  2 , which is Poisson’s equation. In a region of no charge
2 2

0 x y z
(   0) , the electrostatic potential satisfies Laplace’s equation  2   0 . These are important equations in
electromagnetic field theory.

5 Stokes’ Theorem
Stokes’ Theorem:
For any open surface S, having a closed curve C as its edge, in a vector field  curl F  d S   F  d r
S C
that

is, the flux of curl F through an open surface S = the circulation around the boundary curve C.
Proof:

Divide the surface S into N small patches S i with edge C i and normal ni . For each small area S i we
1
 Si Ci
have approximately curl Fi  ni  F  d r or curl Fi  ni Si   F  d r .
 Ci

Summing over all patches and letting N   as S i  0 we have LHS   curl F  d S . For the RHS we
S

observe that the flow along an edge of C i is equal and opposite to the flow along that edge of an
adjacent element, unless that edge is part of the boundary C. Hence for all internal edges the flow cancels
leaving RHS   F  d r and the theorem is proved.
C

20
Example

Verify Stokes’ theorem for F  2 xyi  x 2 j  xk where S is the hemisphere x 2  y 2  z 2  1, y  0

i j k
  
 F   j.
x y z
2 xy x2 x

Solution:

We project S onto the xz-plane where S xz is the disc x 2  z 2  1 . We choose the outward normal which

makes an acute angle with j . Thus for   x, y, z   x 2  y 2  z 2  1 we choose

  2 xi  2 y j  2 zk ,  y  2 y .

2 xi  2 y j  2 zk
 curl F  d S   j
2y
dxdz   1dxdz  
S x 2  z 2 1 x 2  z 2 1

C is the circle x 2  z 2  1 in the xz-plane. According to Stokes’ Theorem, looking from the positive
direction of y axis the direction of the line integral along the circle x 2  z 2  1 is anticlockwise. Let the
parametric equations of C be z  cos t , x  sin t , y  0, 0  t  2
2 2

 
 dx dy dz 
 F dr  2 xyi  x 2 j  xk   i  j  k  dt   sin tdt   .
2

C 0  dt dt dt  0

Hence the theorem is verified.

Note the positive direction of C taken in the zx-plane, relative to the normal of S,

21
Example
 x2  y2  a2

Compute  F  d r where F   y  z  i   z  x  j   x  y  k and C is the ellipse  x z
   1, where a, h  0
a h
C

The direction of the path C is anticlockwise when looking from the positive direction of x-axis.
Solution:
For Stokes’ Theorem, the index finger of the right hand represents the direction of the line integral along
the curve, the middle finger of the right hand points to the interior of the open surface which is enclosed
by the curve, that is, the boundary of the open surface and the thumb finger of the right hand represents
the normal to the surface which is closed the boundary. Notice the three vectors form a so called positive
triple.
According to Stokes’ Theorem we instead compute the corresponding surface integral rather than the line
integral. By Stokes’ Theorem  F  d r   curl F  d S , where S is the open surface with C as its boundary.
C S

 i j k 
 
   
curl F  det   2i  2 j  2k
 x y z 
 
yz zx x  y
x z     1 1 
The normal to S :   x, y, z       x, y, z     i  k    i  k 
a h  x z  a h 
Since the direction of the line integral along the path C is anticlockwise when looking from the positive
direction of x-axis and we are going to project the surface onto xy-plane according to Stokes’ Theorem,
1 1
we have to choose +  , that is, i  k . So
a h
1 1 
 i k
 F  d r   curl F  d S    2i  2 j  2k   d S    
2i  2 j  2k  
a h 
dxdy
C S S x2  y 2  a2
1
h
ha
  2i  2 j  2k    a i  k  dxdy  
 h   2h 
    2 dxdy  2  dxdy
x2  y 2  a2  
x2  y 2  a2
a x2  y 2 a2
a

 2
 h  a  a 2
 2 a  h  a 
a

22