Module 5.

NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING AND THERMAL CUTTING

PROCESSES
By:
Pappu Kumar
Assistant Professor (TEQIP III)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Nalanda College of Engineering, Chandi 1
 Introduction
• Conventional machining processes (i.e., turning, drilling, milling) use a sharp cutting tool to form a chip from the
work by shear deformation
• The term nontraditional machining refers to this group of processes that removes excess material by various
techniques involving mechanical, thermal, electrical, or chemical energy (or combinations of these energies). They
do not use a sharp cutting tool in the conventional sense.
• The nontraditional processes are often classified according to principal form of energy used to effect material
removal. By this classification, there are four types:
• 1. Mechanical. Mechanical energy in some form different from the action of a conventional cutting tool is used in
these nontraditional processes. Erosion of the work material by a high velocity stream of abrasives or fluid (or both)
is the typical form of mechanical action in these processes.
• 2. Electrical. These nontraditional processes use electrochemical energy to remove material; the mechanism is the
reverse of electroplating.
• 3. Thermal. These processes use thermal energy to cut or shape the workpart. The thermal energy is generally
applied to a very small portion of the work surface, causing that portion to be removed by fusion and lor
vaporization of the material. The thermal energy is generated by the conversion of electrical energy.
• 4. Chemical. Most materials (metals particularly) are susceptible to chemical attack by certain acids or other
etchants. In chemical machining, chemicals selectively remove material from portions of the workpart, while other
portions of the surface are protected by a mask.
 MECHANICAL ENERGY PROCESSES
In this section we examine several of the mechanical energy nontraditional processes
• (1) Ultrasonic machining,
• (2) Water jet cutting
• (3) Abrasive water jet cutting
• (4) Abrasive jet machining
 Ultrasonic Machining
• Ultrasonic machining (USM) is a nontraditional machining process in which abrasives contained in a slurry are driven at high
velocity against the work by a tool vibrating at low amplitude-around 0.075 mm and high frequency-approximately 20,000 Hz.
• The tool oscillates in a direction perpendicular to the work surface, and is fed slowly into the work, so that the shape of the tool
is formed in the part.
• However, it is the action of the abrasives, impinging against the work surface, that performs the cutting.

• Common tool materials used in USM include soft steel and stainless steel.
• Abrasive materials in USM include boron nitride, boron carbide, aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, and diamond.
• For a given work material, the removal rate in USM increases with increasing frequency and amplitude of vibration, as shown in
Figure
 Ultrasonic Machining
• The slurry in. USM consists of a mixture of water and abrasive particles.
• the relative volumes of work material and tool material removed during the process-similar to the grinding ratio.
• The development of ultrasonic machining was motivated by the need to machine hard, brittle work materials, such as ceramics,
glass, and carbides.
 Water Jet Cutting
• Water jet cutting (WJC) uses a fine, high-pressure, high-velocity stream of water directed at the work surface to cause cutting
of the work, as illustrated in Figure.

• To obtain the fine stream of water a small nozzle opening of diameter 0.1 to 0.4 mm is used. To provide the stream with
sufficient energy for cutting, pressures up to 400 MPa are used.
• Important process parameters include standoff distance, nozzle opening diameter, water pressure, and cutting feed rate.
• The standoff distance is the separation between the nozzle opening and the work surface.
• Water jet cutting can be used effectively to cut narrow slits in flat stock such as plastic, textiles, composites, floor tile, carpet,
leather, and cardboard
 Abrasive Water Jet Cutting
• When WJC is used on metallic work parts, abrasive particles must usually be added to the jet stream to facilitate cutting.
• This process is therefore called abrasive water jet cutting (AWJC).
• Among the additional parameters are abrasive type, grit size, and flow rate. Aluminium oxide, silicon dioxide, and garnet (a
silicate mineral) are typical abrasive materials used, at grit sizes ranging between 60 and 120.
• Nozzle orifice diameters are 0.25-0.63 mm in-somewhat larger than in water jet cutting to permit higher flow rates and more
energy to be contained in the stream prior to injection of abrasives.
 Abrasive Jet Machining
• Not to be confused with AWJC is the process called abrasive jet machining. Abrasive jet machining (AJM) is a material removal
process that results from the action of a high-velocity stream of gas containing small abrasive particles, as shown in Figure.
• The process is usually performed manually by an operator who directs the nozzle at the work.
• Typical distances between nozzle tip and work surface range between 3 mm and 75 mm.
• AJM is normally used as a finishing process rather than a production cutting process.
• Applications include deburring, trimming and deflashing, cleaning, and polishing.
• Cutting is accomplished successfully on hard, brittle materials (e.g., glass, silicon, mica, and ceramics) that are in the form of
thin flat stock.
ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING PROCESSES
• An important group of nontraditional processes use electrical energy to remove material
• The work material must be a conductor in electrochemical machining.
 Electrochemical Machining
• Electrochemical machining removes metal from an electrically conductive workpiece by anodic dissolution, in which the shape
of the workpiece is obtained by a formed electrode tool in close proximity to, but separated from, the work by a rapidly flowing
electrolyte.
• ECM is basically a deplating operation.
• As illustrated in Figure, the workpiece is the anode, and the tool is the cathode.

• The principle underlying the process is that material is deplated from the anode (the positive pole) and deposited onto the
cathode (the negative pole) in the presence of an electrolyte bath.
• The electrode tool, usually made of copper, brass, or stainless steel, is designed to possess approximately the inverse of the
desired final shape of the part.
• To accomplish metal removal, the electrode is fed into the work at a rate equal to the rate of metal removal from the work.
 Electrochemical Machining
Faraday’s laws state that,
It E
m= F
Where m = weight (g) of a material
I = current (A)
t = time (sec)
E = gram equivalent weight of the material
F = constant of proportionality –Faraday (96,500 coulombs)
 ECM Calculations
EI AI
•MRR = g/s  g/s
F F. V
If you put E = equivalent weight in CGS i.e. g/mole
I in Ampere (A)
F = 96500 columb/mole i. e. As/mole
The MRR will be in g/s
ECM Calculations
 ECM Calculations

• MRR for pure metal

AI  cm 3
 
EI cm 
3

    
vF  sec  F  sec 
• MRR for Alloy
Eeq I  cm3 
 
eq F  sec 

100  xi  100  xi vi 
   and   
eq i  i  Eeq i  Ai 
Example: Using ECM remove 5 cm3/min from an iron workpiece, what current is required? Atomic
weight of iron 56, density 7.8 g/cm3 valency, 2
 GATE-2008 (PI)
In an electro chemical machining (ECM) operation, a square hole of dimensions 5
mm x 5 mm is drilled in a block of copper. The current used is 5000 A. Atomic
weight of cupper is 63 and valency of dissolution is 1. Faraday’s constant is 96500
coulomb. The material removal rate (in g/s) is
(a) 0.326 (b) 3.260 (c) 3.15 x 103 (d) 3.15 x 105
 GATE – 2011 (PI)
While removing material from iron (atomic weight = 56, valency = 2 and density =
7.8 g/cc) by electrochemical machining, a metal removal rate of 2 cc/min is
desired. The current (in A) required for achieving this material removal rate is
(a) 896.07 (b) 14.93
(c) 448.03 (d) 53764.29
 Electrochemical Machining
• Typical ECM applications
• (1) die sinking, which involves the machining of irregular shapes and contours into forging dies, plastic molds, and other
shaping tools;
• (2) multiple hole drilling, where many holes can be drilled simultaneously with ECM and conventional drilling would probably
require the holes to be made sequentially.

Advantages of ECM include

(1) little surface damage to the workpart
(2) no burrs as in conventional machining,
(3) low tool wear (the only tool wear results from the flowing electrolyte.
(4) relatively high metal removal rates for hard and difficult to- machine metals.
 Electrochemical Deburring and Grinding
• Elecetrochemical deburring (ECD) is an adaptation of ECM designed to remove burrs or to round sharp corners on metal
workparts by anodic dissolution.

• The hole in the work part has a sharp burr of the type that is produced in a conventional through-hole drilling operation.
• The electrode tool is designed to focus the metal removal action on the burr.
• The electrolyte flows through the hole to carry away the burr particles.
• The same ECM principles of operation also apply to ECD.
 Electrochemical grinding
• Electrochemical grinding (ECG) is a special form of ECM in which a rotating grinding wheel with a conductive bond material
is used to augment the anodic dissolution of the metal work part surface, as illustrated in Figure.

• Abrasives used in ECG include aluminum oxide and diamond.

• The bond material is either metallic (for diamond abrasives) or resin bond impregnated with metal particles to make it
electrically conductive (for aluminium oxide).
• Applications of ECG include sharpening of cemented carbide tools and grinding of surgical needles, other thin wall tubes, and
fragile parts.
 THERMAL ENERGY PROCESSES
• Material removal processes based on thermal energy are characterized by very high local temperatures-hot enough
to remove material by fusion or vaporization.
• Because of the high temperatures, these processes cause physical and metallurgical damage to the new work
surface.
• In this section we examine several thermal energy processes that have commercial importance.
(1) electric discharge machining and electric discharge wire cutting
(2) electron beam machining
(3) laser beam machining
(4) plasma arc machining,
(5) conventional thermal cutting processes
 Electric Discharge Machining
• Electric discharge machining (EDM) is one of the most widely used non traditional processes.
• The shape of the finished work surface is produced by a formed electrode tool.
• The sparks occur across a small gap between tool and work surface.
• The EDM process must take place in the presence of a dielectric fluid, which creates a path for
each discharge as the fluid becomes ionized in the gap.
• The discharges are generated by a pulsating direct current power supply connected to the work
and the tool.
 Electric Discharge Machining
• As shown in figure The discharge occurs at the location where the two surfaces are closest.
• The dielectric fluid ionizes at this location to create a path for the discharge.
• The region in which discharge occurs is heated to extremely high temperatures, so that a small portion of the work surface is
suddenly 'melted and removed.
• Since the surface of the work at the location of the previous discharge is now separated from the tool by a greater distance, this
location is less likely to be the site of another spark until the surrounding regions have been reduced to the same level or below.
• Two important process parameters in EDM are discharge current and frequency of discharges.

• Tool wear is usually measured as the ratio of work material removed to tool material removed (similar to the grinding ratio).
• Electrodes are made of graphite, copper, brass, copper tungsten, silver tungsten, and other materials
 Electric Discharge Machining
• Dielectric fluids used in EDM include hydrocarbon oils, kerosene, and distilled or deionized water.
• The dielectric fluid serves as an insulator in the gap except when ionization occurs in the presence of a spark
• Applications of electric discharge machining include both tool fabrication and parts production (molds for plastic injection
molding, extrusion dies, wire drawing dies, forging and heading dies, and sheet metal stamping dies)
 Electric Discharge Wire Cutting
• Electric discharge wire cutting (EDWC), commonly called wire EDM, is a special form of electric discharge machining that
uses a small diameter wire as the electrode to cut a narrow kerf in the work.
• The cutting action in wire EDM is achieved by thermal energy from electric discharges between the electrode wire and the
workpiece
• The workpiece is fed continuously and slowly past the wire in order to achieve the desired cutting path, somewhat in the manner
of a bandsaw operation.

• Materials used for the wire include brass, copper, tungsten, and molybdenum.
• Dielectric fluids include deionized water or oil.
• As in EDM, an overcut exists in wire EDM that makes the kerf larger than the wire diameter, as shown in Figure
 Electric Discharge Wire Cutting
• The special features of wire EDM make it ideal for making components for stamping dies.
• Since the kerf is so narrow, it is often possible to fabricate punch and die in a single cut.
• Other tools and parts with intricate outline shapes, such as lathe form tools, extrusion dies, and fiat templates, are made with
electric discharge wire cutting.
 Electron Beam Machining
• Electron beam machining (EBM) is one of several industrial processes that use electron beams.
• Electron beam machining uses a high velocity stream of electrons focused on the workpiece surface to remove material by
melting and vaporization.

• An electron beam gun generates a continuous stream of electrons that is accelerated to approximately 75% of the speed of light
and focused through an electromagnetic lens on the work surface.
• The lens is capable of reducing the area of the beam to a diameter as small as 0.025 mm.
• On impinging the surface, the kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into thermal energy of extremely high density that
melts or vaporizes the material in a very localized area.
 Electron Beam Machining
• Electron beam machining is used for a variety of high-precision cutting applications on any known material.
• Applications include drilling of extremely small diameter holes-down to 0.05 mm diameter
• These cuts can be made to very close tolerances with no cutting forces or tool wear.
• The process is ideal for micromachining and is generally limited to cutting operations in thin parts-in the range 0.25-6.3 mm
thick.
• EBM must be carried out in a vacuum chamber to eliminate collision of the electrons with gas molecules.
• Other limitations include the high energy required and expensive equipment.
 Laser Beam machining
• The term laser stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
• A laser is an optical transducer that converts electrical energy into a highly coherent light beam.
• It is monochromatic (theoretically, the light has a single wave length) and highly collimated (the light rays in the beam are
almost perfectly parallel).
• These properties allow the light generated by a laser to be focused, using conventional optical lenses, onto a very small spot
with resulting high power densities.
 Laser Beam machining
• Laser beam machining (LBM) uses the light energy from a laser to remove material by vaporization and ablation.
• The types of lasers used in LBM are carbon dioxide gas lasers and solid-state lasers.
• In laser beam machining, the energy of the coherent light beam is concentrated not only optically but also in terms
of time.
• The light beam is pulsed so that the released energy results in an impulse against the work surface that produces a
combination of evaporation and melting, with the melted material evacuating the surface at high velocity.
• LBM is used to perform various types of drilling, slitting, slotting, scribing, and marking operations.
• LBM is not considered a mass production process, and it is generally used on thin stock.
• It is generally used for small diameter hole.
 Plasma Arc Cutting
• A plasma is defined as a superheated, electrically ionized gas. Plasma arc cutting (PAC) uses a plasma stream operating at
temperatures in the range 10,000oC-14,000oC (18,000'F-25,000'F) to cut metal by melting, as shown in Figure

• The cutting action operates by directing the high-velocity plasma stream at the work, thus melting it and blowing the molten
metal through the kerf.
• The plasma arc is generated between an electrode inside the torch and the anode workpiece.
• The plasma flows through a water cooled nozzle that constricts and directs the stream to the desired location on the work.
• The resulting plasma jet is a high-velocity, well-collimated stream with extremely high temperatures at its center, hot enough to
cut through metal in some cases 150 mm (6 in) thick.
 Plasma Arc Cutting
• Gases used to create the plasma in PAC include nitrogen, argon, hydrogen, or mixtures of these gases.
• These are referred [a as the primary gases in the process
• Secondary gases or water are often directed to surround the plasma jet to help confine the arc and clean the kerf of molten metal
as it forms.
• Most applications of PAC involve cutting of fiat metal sheets and plates. Operations include hole piercing and cutting along a
defined path.
CHEMICAL MACHINING
 CHEMICAL MACHINING
• Chemical machining (CHM) is a nontraditional process in which material removal occurs
through contact with a strong chemical etchant. (Aircraft industry)
• The use of chemicals to remove unwanted material from a work part can be applied in several
ways.
• Several different terms have been developed to distinguish the applications. These terms include
chemical milling, chemical blanking, chemical engraving, and photochemical machining
(PCM).
 Mechanics and Chemistry of Chemical Machining
The chemical machining process consists of several steps.

1. Cleaning. The first step is a cleaning operation to ensure that material will be removed uniformly from the
surfaces to be etched.

2. Masking. A protective coating called a maskant is applied to certain portions of the part surface. This maskant is
made of a material that is chemically resistant to the etchant (the term resist is used for this masking material). It is
therefore applied to those portions of the work surface that are not to be etched.

3. Etching. This is the material removal step. The part is immersed in an etchant that chemically attacks those
portions of the part surface that are not masked.

4. Demasking. The mask ant is removed from the part.

Mechanics and Chemistry of Chemical Machining
• Maskant materials include neoprene, polyvinylchloride, polyethylene, and other polymers.
• Masking can be accomplished by any of three methods:
• (1) cut and peel
• (2) photographic resist,
• (3) screen resist
• Selection of the etchant depends on work material to be etched, desired depth and rate of material removal, and surface finish
requirements.
• The etchant must also be matched with the type of mask ant that is used to ensure that the mask ant material is not chemically
attacked by the etchant
• Material removal rates in CHM are generally indicated as penetration rates, mm/min (in/min), since rate of chemical attack of
the work material by the etchant is directed into the surface.
 Chemical Milling
• Today, chemical milling is still used largely in the aircraft industry, to remove material from aircraft wing and fuselage panels
for weight reduction.
• It is applicable to large parts where substantial amounts of metal are removed during the process.
 Chemical Blanking
• Chemical blanking uses chemical erosion to cut very thin sheet metal parts -down to 0.025 mm thick and/or for intricate cutting
patterns.
• In both instances, conventional punch-and-die methods do not work because the stamping forces damage the sheet metal, or the
tooling cost would be prohibitive, or both.
 APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS
• Typical applications of nontraditional processes include special part feature geometries and work materials that cannot be
readily processed by conventional techniques.
 Performance of Non traditional Processes
• The nontraditional processes are generally characterized by low material removal rates and high specific energies relative to
conventional machining operations.
• The capabilities for dimensional control and surface finish of 'the nontraditional processes vary widely, with some of the
processes providing high accuracies and good finishes, and others yielding poor accuracies and finishes.
Thank you