Title

Page

i
 Preface

What Will You Learn?
This module is designed to cover the basic principles of
research which includes the traditional kind and methods of
research and how to write the contents in Chapter 1 to 4 prominent
in thesis formats. It also provides the application of the learned
principles into business-related researches. The last part which is
the IMRAD or APA style of writing will be briefly discussed to orient
students of this new trend in research publication.

What are the general contents of this module?
This module is composed of four (4) units. Each section has the following major
parts:
§ Overview. This offers a one-paragraph overview of the entire unit.
§ Learning Objectives. These describe the measurable skills, abilities,
knowledge or values that you are expected to demonstrate as a result of
completing the unit.
§ Setting Up Activity. This part stimulates interests to participate and to engage
yourself in the lessons.
§ Lesson Proper. This includes discussion of the topics/lessons covered in each
unit.
§ Assessing Learning Activities. This part measures and helps you to test your
learning in every unit.
§ The References can be found at the end of the module.

What is the significance of this course?
The course allows the students to produce complete, unpublished, and original
works which provide them the ability to contribute innovative work in the business field,
specifically, researches about business, marketing, management, finance, economics,
accounting, and e-commerce.

This module in Business Research was prepared to serve as reference material for
BS Business Administration. The author also welcome any suggestions or comments to
improve or make this module more useful.

- CLD

ii

Acknowledgment


The author would like to express her sincerest thanks to the original contributors of
the Module in BA CORE 7: Business Research (2020) for providing their work as the
primary reference for the development of this instructional material.



- CLD

iii
 Table of Contents

Table of Contents
Title Page ..................................................................................................................................................... i
Preface ........................................................................................................................................................ ii
Acknowledgment .................................................................................................................................... iii
Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................................... iv
Unit I: Introduction to Business Research .................................................................................... 1
Business Research ..................................................................................................................... 2
Types of Business Research...................................................................................................... 2
Importance of Business Research ............................................................................................ 3
Qualities of Good Academic Research...................................................................................... 3
How to Choose Research Topic? .............................................................................................. 4
Defining Good Research Topics................................................................................................ 4
The Business Research Process: An Overview ........................................................................ 4
Assessing Learning .................................................................................................................... 9
Activity 1 .............................................................................................................................................................. 9
Activity 2 ........................................................................................................................................................... 10
Activity 3 ........................................................................................................................................................... 11
Unit II: Literature Review ................................................................................................................. 13
Definition of Literature Review.............................................................................................. 14
Purposes of Literature Review ............................................................................................... 14
Characteristics of an Effective Literature Review ................................................................. 14
Steps of the Literature Review Process ................................................................................. 15
APA Citation Style Guide (7th Ed.) ......................................................................................... 15
Assessing Learning .................................................................................................................. 25
Activity 4 ........................................................................................................................................................... 25
Activity 5 ........................................................................................................................................................... 26
Activity 6 ........................................................................................................................................................... 28
Unit III: Research Design .................................................................................................................. 29
Definition of Research Design ................................................................................................ 30
Types of Research Design ....................................................................................................... 30
Quantitative Research ............................................................................................................. 30
Types of quantitative research ............................................................................................... 31

iv
 Data Collection Methodologies for Quantitative Data .......................................................... 31
Qualitative Research ............................................................................................................... 37
Qualitative Data Collection Methods...................................................................................... 37
Qualitative Data Analysis Methods ........................................................................................ 37
Qualitative Research Methods Vs Quantitative Research Methods ..................................... 38
Assessing Learning .................................................................................................................. 39
Activity 7 ........................................................................................................................................................... 39
Activity 8 ........................................................................................................................................................... 40
Unit IV: Format for Business Research Presentation .............................................................. 41
Format of the Traditional Method of Research ..................................................................... 42
Preliminaries ....................................................................................................................... 42
Chapter I. The Problem and Its Background ..................................................................... 42
Chapter II. Methods and Procedures ................................................................................. 43
Chapter III. Presentation, Interpretation and Analysis of Data........................................ 44
Chapter IV. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................ 44
References ........................................................................................................................... 44
Appendices .......................................................................................................................... 44
The IMRaD Format .................................................................................................................. 45
Assessing Learning .................................................................................................................. 47
Activity 9 ........................................................................................................................................................... 47
References ............................................................................................................................................. 47

v
UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS RESEARCH

Overview
This unit gives you background on the nature of business research. Through this
unit, you will realize the importance of research in the undertakings of every business.

Learning Objectives

At the end of the unit, I am able to:
1. discuss the nature and significance of business research;
2. analyze different types of business research;
3. determine the qualities of a good research; and,
4. illustrate the business research process.

Setting Up

Name: _____________________________________________ Date: __________________
Course/Year/Section: ___________________________

Direction: Arrange the following stages in conducting business research in correct order.
Write your answer on the space provided before the number.
__________1. Data collection and presentation
__________2. Reporting the results
__________3. Proposing research
__________4. Clarifying the research question
__________5. Data analysis and interpretation
__________6. Designing the research project

1
Lesson Proper

Business Research
Business research is a field of practical study in which a company obtains data and
analyzes the same to manage the company better. Executives and managers who use
business research methods can better understand their company, the position it holds in
the market, and how to improve that position. Business research is a systematic and
objective inquiry that provides information to guide managerial decisions, which are
arrived at through a process of planning, acquiring, analyzing, and disseminating relevant
data to decision-makers in ways that mobilize the organization to take appropriate actions
to maximize business performance. (https://www.iedunote.com/business-research)
Business research is a process of conducting a comprehensive study of all aspects of
business, including the industry and consumers and using these information to increase the
company revenue and profit. Business research helps you make wise decision and helps you
identify the key areas to invest your money in.
An automotive manufacturer, for example; plans to unveil the newest car model on
the market. They need to design strategies to evaluate and track consumer demand. The
organization would therefore carry out research to gather information and evaluate market
trends. This will help them draw better decisions as to what car they should produce that
would give them greater market share.

Types of Business Research
Researchers use different research methods to gather relevant data so companies
can make wiser choices. There are two main types of methods in conducting business
research:
1. Quantitative Business Research. It is a method of analyzing the largest group that
meets your target objectives. It uses statistical methods and data to describe the
industry and market. For instance, quantitative research can answer questions such
as;
• Are your customers aware of the services or products you offer?
• How many people are interested in buying your products or services?
• Who are your best customers and what are their buying habits?
• How long the visitor stays on your website, and which is their exit page?

The result of quantitative business research is in the numerical form, such
as;
• 40% of customers rate the new product as “attractive”
• 70% of prospective customers use the Internet to book their hotel room
• 6 out of 10 customers will buy a new food product after trying the free in-
store sample

The quantitative research methods include numerous surveys such as mail,
electronic, online and face to face.

2. Qualitative Business Research. This business research focuses on values,
behaviors and intentions of market and involves questions like: “why” or “how”. The
aim of this research is to gain insights into the distinct attitudes and reactions of
consumers towards a new product. This research is used to evaluate responses of
your market and change marketing campaigns if it is necessary. Qualitative data can

2
 be collected using common methods such as case studies, focus group discussions
and interviews. Often valuable, this data can be time-consuming and costly to
collect, especially for a small business or start-up.

Importance of Business Research
Business Research helps you communicate with current and potential customers in
a better way.
• It helps you identify opportunities and threats in the marketplace.
• It helps you minimize risks.
• Business research is used to plan investments and financial outcomes effectively.
• It helps you build a better market position.
• It can keep you updated with current trends and innovations in the market.

Business research helps businesses understand the purchasing habits of their
consumers, gain deeper insights into their competitors, emerging industry dynamics and
demographics. Businesses will remain ahead of competition by using effective approaches
to understand the demand and supply of the market.
With business research, chances of failure are less, as it gives an idea of the target
customers and the perfect time to launch a product. Additionally, the businesses can
constantly innovate to meet customers’ demands. Thus, never underestimate the
importance of market research and harness its benefits to give your company an extra edge.

Qualities of Good Academic Research
Academic research is defined as a process by which information is collected,
evaluated and interpreted to give answer to questions or provide solutions to a problem.
But to qualify as a good research, the process must be regulated, rigorous, systematic,
reliable and verifiable, analytical and critical.
The main characteristics for good quality research are listed below:
1. It is based on the work of others.
2. It can be replicated and doable .
3. It is generalisable to other settings.
4. It is based on some logical rationale and tied to theory. In a way that it has the
potential to suggest directions for future research.
5. It generates new questions or is cyclical in nature.
6. It is incremental.
7. It addresses directly or indirectly some real problem in the world.
8. It clearly states the variables or constructs to be examined.
9. Valid and verifiable such that whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings is
correct and can be verified by you and others.
10. The researcher is sincerely interested and/or invested in this research.

Meanwhile, bad research has the following properties:
1. Looking for something when it simply is not to be found.
2. Plagiarizing other people’s work.
3. Falsifying data to prove a point.
4. Misrepresenting information and misleading participants.

3
How to Choose Research Topic?
To identify a research topic, various strategies involving both logical and
imaginative thought are used. These include:
1. Brainstorming. This is a problem-solving technique which produces best results
when performed as a group. Review each of the group’s suggestions and pick the
one that appeals you the most.
2. Inspiration from experts. Project leaders, teachers, professionals and experts in
the field can also have suggestions for a research project that they are willing to
share.
3. Literature search. Documents, articles in scientific journals are all valuable sources
of research topics. In particular, the review articles also suggest areas where further
research works might be required. Recently published reports usually contain
recommendations that can form basis for further researches.

Defining Good Research Topics
A good research topic should have well defined objectives. Selecting a research topic
which you will be interested in for the entire research duration is vital. If you have only a
vague interest in the topic, it will be difficult to excel on such a topic. Therefore, you should
have a genuine interest in the research topic you have chosen.
Make sure you possess the required skills and resources, or that you can develop the
capability that is necessary to research the topic within the given timeframe. You should
also be certain that you can access the data you will need to collect in the course of the
research. Your research topic should be one you are familiar with and in which you have the
capacity to produce a well-written final research report.

Examples of Research Topics
Previous research topics can serve as sources of inspiration for finding new
research topics. Some examples of different research topics include:
• Media and communications research paper topics;
• Environmental research paper topics; and,
• Business research paper topics.

The Business Research Process: An Overview
(Sourced from: The business research process: An overview. Retrieved from
https://eis.hu.edu.jo/ACUploads/10643/Chapter%204.pdf)
• The research process begins when a management dilemma triggers the need for a
decision.
• The origin, selection, statement, exploration, and refinement of the management
question is the most critical part of the research process.
• Regardless of the type of research, a thorough understanding of the original
question is fundamental to success.

STAGE 1: Clarifying the research question
The management-research question hierarchy process of sequential question
formulation leads a manager or researcher from management dilemma to investigative
questions.
• The process begins with the management dilemma—the problem or opportunity
that requires a business decision.
• The management dilemma is usually a symptom of an actual problem, such as:

4
 ü Rising costs.
ü The discovery of an expensive chemical compound that would increase the
usefulness of a drug.
ü Increasing tenant move-outs from an apartment complex.
ü Declining sales.
ü A larger number of product defects during the manufacture of an
automobile.
ü An increasing number of letters and phone complaints about
postpurchase.
• The management dilemma can also be triggered by an early signal of an opportunity
or growing evidence that a trend may be gaining staying power.
ü Identifying management dilemmas is rarely difficult.
ü Choosing one dilemma on which to focus may be difficult.
ü Choosing incorrectly may result in a waste of time and resources.
• Subsequent stages of the hierarchy take the decision maker and his/ her research
assistant through various brainstorming and exploratory research exercises to
define the following:
ü Management question—the management dilemma restated in question
format.
ü Research question(s)—the hypothesis that best states the objective of the
research; the question(s) that focuses the researcher’s attention.
ü Investigative questions—questions the researcher must answer to
satisfactorily answer the research question; what the decision marker feels
he/she needs to know to arrive at a conclusion about the management
dilemma.
ü Management questions—the questions asked of the participants or the
observations that must be recorded. The definition of the management
question sets the research task.

STAGE 2: Proposing research
• Resource Allocation and Budgets.
ü Once the research question is defined, the manager must propose research
in order to allocate resources to the project.
ü A guide might be that (a) project planning, (b) data gathering, and (c)
analysis, interpretation, and reporting each share about equally in the
budget.
ü Without budgetary approval, many research efforts are rejected for lack of
resources.
ü Types of budgets in organizations where research is purchased and cost
containment is crucial include:
• Rule-of-thumb budgeting—taking a fixed percentage of some criteria.
• Departmental or functional-area budgeting—allocates a portion of total
expenditures in the unit to research activities.
• Task budgeting—selects specific research projects to support on an
ad hoc (unplanned) basis.
• Valuing Research Information.
ü There is a great deal of interplay between budgeting and value assessment
in any management decision to conduct research.

5
 ü In profit-making concerns, business managers are increasingly faced with
proving that the research they initiate or purchase meets return-on-
investment (ROI) objectives.
ü Whether research is conducted by for-profit or not-for-profit organizations,
the value of the research decision with research—however it is measured—
must exceed the value of the decision without research.
• Evaluation Methods
A. Ex Post Facto Evaluation
ü If there is any measurement of the value of research, it is usually an after-the-
fact event.
ü While the post-research effort at cost-benefit comes too late to guide a
current research decision, such analysis may sharpen the manager’s ability to
make judgments about future research proposals.

B. Prior or Interim Evaluation
ü Some research projects are sufficiently unique that managerial experience
provides little aid in evaluating the research proposal.

C. Option Analysis
ü Managers can conduct a formal analysis with each alternative research
project judged in terms of estimated costs and associated benefits and with
managerial judgment playing a major role.
ü The critical task is to quantify the benefits from the research.
• The Research Proposal
ü A written proposal is often required when a study is being suggested.
• This is especially true if an outside research supplier will be contracted to
conduct the research.
• A research proposal may be oral.
• Research proposal contains: research question, research purpose,
research methods, research timing, research budget, legal contracts and
legal obligations.

STAGE 3: Designing the research project
• Research Design. The research design is the outline for fulfilling objectives and
providing the insight to answer management’s dilemma.
• Sampling Design. Another step in planning the research project is to identify the
target population (those people, events, or records that have the desired
information and can answer the measurement questions) and then determine
whether a sample or a census is desired.
ü Who and how many people will be interviewed?
ü What events will be observed, and how?
ü Which, and how many, records will be inspected?

A census is a count of all elements in a population. A sample is a group of
cases, participants, events, or records constituting a portion of the target population,
carefully selected to represent that population. Probability sampling (every
person within the target population get a nonzero chance of selection) and
nonprobability sampling may be used to construct the sample.

6
 • Pilot testing. A pilot test is conducted to detect weaknesses in research
methodology and the data collection instrument, as well as provide proxy data for
selection of a probability sample.
ü The pilot test should approximate the anticipated actual research situation
(test) as closely as possible.
ü A pilot test may have from 25 to 100 subjects and these subjects do not have
to be statistically selected.
ü Pilot testing has saved countless survey studies from disaster by using the
suggestions of the participants to identify and change confusing, awkward, or
offensive questions and techniques.
ü The last step in a research design is often a pilot test.
ü To condense the project time frame, this step can be skipped.

STAGE 4: Data collection and presentation
• The gathering of data includes a variety of data gathering alternatives.
ü Questionnaires, standardized tests, and observational forms (called
checklists) are among the devices used to record raw data.
ü What are data? Data can be the facts presented to the researcher from the
study’s environment. Data can be characterized by their abstractness,
verifiability, elusiveness, and closeness to phenomenon.
ü Data reflect their truthfulness by closeness to the phenomena. Secondary
data are data originally collected to address a problem other than the one
which requires the manager’s attention at the moment. Collected from
published data. Primary data are data the researcher collects to address the
specific problem at hand—the research question. Created by the researcher
through questionnaires (observation method) …..
ü Data are edited to ensure consistency across respondents and to locate
omissions. In the case of a survey, editing reduces errors in the recording,
improves legibility, and clarifies unclear and inappropriate responses.

STAGE 5: Data analysis and interpretation
• Managers need information and insights, not raw data, to make appropriate
business decisions.
ü Researchers generate information and insights by analyzing data after its
collection.
ü Data analysis is the editing, reducing, summarizing, looking for patterns,
and applying statistical techniques to data.
ü Increasingly, managers are asking research specialists to make
recommendations based on their interpretation of the data.

STAGE 6: Reporting the results
• As the business research process draws to a close it is necessary to prepare a report
and transmit the findings, insights, and recommendations to the manager for the
intended purpose of decision making.
ü The researcher adjusts the style and organization of the report according to the
target audience, the occasion, and the purpose of the research.
– The report should be manager-friendly and avoid technical jargon.
– Reports should be developed from the manager’s or information user’s
perspective.

7
 ü The researcher must accurately assess the manager’s needs throughout the
research process and incorporate this understanding into the final product, the
research report.
ü To avoid having the research report shelved with no action taken, the
researcher should strive for:
– Insightful adaptation of the information to the client’s needs.
– Careful choice of words in crafting interpretations, conclusions, and
recommendations.
• At a minimum, a research report should contain:
ü An executive summary consisting of a synopsis of the problem, findings, and
recommendations.
ü An overview of the research: the problem’s background, a summary of
exploratory findings drawn from secondary data sources, the actual research
design and procedures, and conclusions.
ü A section on implementation strategies for the recommendations.
ü A technical appendix with all the materials necessary to replicate the project.


Supplemental Readings:

Sample business researches
Go to: http://www.academia.edu/Documents/in/Business_Management

International Journal of Economics and Business Research
Go to: https://www.inderscience.com/jhome.php?jcode=ijebr

8
Assessing Learning

Activity 1


Name: _____________________________________________ Date: __________________
Course/Year/Section: ___________________________ Score: _________________


Direction: Write five (5) business research proposals following this matrix:

Proposed title (Concept) Reasons for conducting Possible output (benefit)
this study for conducting the study
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

9
Assessing Learning

Activity 2


Name: _____________________________________________ Date: __________________
Course/Year/Section: ___________________________ Score: _________________

Directions: Identify the terms being defined or identified by the given statements. Write
your answer on the space provided before each number. Any form of erasure will invalidate
your answer.

_________________1. It refers to the method of conducting a thorough review of all facets of
business, including industry and customers, using this knowledge to maximize client sales
and benefit.
_________________2. It refers to business research that uses statistical methods and data to
identify the industry and market.
_______________3. This research is used to analyze customer reactions and adjust marketing
approaches if necessary.
_________________4. It is a type of research by which information is collected, evaluated and
interpreted in order to answer questions or provide solutions to problems.
_________________5. It is a problem-solving technique which produces best results when
performed as a group.
_________________6. It is the total category of individuals from which the sample may be drawn.
_________________7. It refers to a group of individuals who participated in the investigation.
_________________8. It refers to a test conducted to identify shortcomings in the study
technique and the data collection tool, as well as to provide reference evidence for the
selection of the likelihood sample.
_________________9. It is a sampling technique where every individual in the target population
has a non-zero probability of being picked.
________________10. It consists of editing, minimizing, summarizing, looking for patterns and
applying statistical techniques to data.

10
Assessing Learning

Activity 3


Name: _____________________________________________ Date: __________________
Course/Year/Section: ___________________________ Score: _________________


Directions: Read each question carefully and choose the best answer. Circle the letter of the
correct answer. (1 point each)

1. In the research process, the management question has the following critical activity
in sequence.
a. Clarifying the research question, proposing research, designing the research
project, data collection and presentation, data analysis and interpretation
and reporting the results
b. Clarifying the research question, designing the research project, proposing
research, data analysis and interpretation, data collection and presentation
and reporting the results
c. Clarifying the research question, proposing research, designing the research
project, data collection and presentation, reporting the results and data
analysis and interpretation
d. Clarifying the research question, data collection and presentation, designing
the research project, proposing research, data analysis and interpretation,
and reporting the results

2. The chapter that details the way in which the research was conducted is the _________
chapter
a. Introduction
b. Literature review
c. Research methodology
d. Data analysis
e. Conclusion and recommendations

3. Business research has an inherent value to the extent that it helps management
make better decisions. Interesting information about consumers, employees, or
competitors might be pleasant to have, but its value is limited if the information
cannot be applied to a critical decision.
a. True
b. False

4. The researcher should never report flaws in procedural design and estimate their
effect on the findings.
a. True
b. False

5. Adequate analysis of the data is the least difficult phase of research for the beginner.
a. True
b. False

11


6. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked occasionally
a. True
b. False

7. Researchers are tempted to rely too heavily on data collected in a prior study and
use it in the interpretation of a new study
a. True
b. False

8. What is a good research? The following are correct except
a. Purpose clearly defined
b. Research process detailed
c. Research design thoroughly planned
d. Findings presented ambiguously

9. Greater confidence in the research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has
a good reputation in research, and is a person of integrity
a. True
b. False

10. A complete disclosure of methods and procedures used in the research study is
required. Such openness to scrutiny has a positive effect on the quality of research.
However, competitive advantage often mitigates against methodology disclosure in
business research.
a. True
b. False

12
UNIT II: LITERATURE REVIEW

Overview
In this unit, you will be able to realize the importance of literature review in writing
business research.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the unit, I will be able to:
1. discuss the nature and purposes of literature review;
2. determine the characteristics of an effective literature review;
3. illustrate the steps of writing literature review; and,
4. write literature review based on APA Guidelines on in-text citation.

Setting up

Name: _____________________________________________ Date: __________________
Course/Year/Section: ___________________________

Direction: Answer this question:

Why do you think a literature review shall be made even you are conducting a unique
research? Explain your answer briefly.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

13
Lesson Proper

Definition of Literature Review
A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research on a topic.
The literature review surveys scholarly articles, books, and other sources relevant to a
particular area of research. The review should enumerate, describe, summarize, objectively
evaluate and clarify this previous research. It should give a theoretical base for the research
and help you (the author) determine the nature of your research.
A review of literature is a comprehensive summary of prior research on a subject.
The literature review surveys scholarly articles, books and other relevant sources for a
particular research area. This preceding work should be enumerated, defined, summarized,
critically assessed and explained.
It provides a theoretical basis for research and help the author decide what his/her
research is all about. The review of literature honors the works of previous scholars and, in
doing so, ensures the reader that the study has been well conceived.
A study of the literature provides a “landscape” for the reader, giving him/her a full
understanding of the development in the field. This landscape tells the reader that indeed
all existing, important works in the field have been assimilated into someone’s research
study.


Purposes of Literature Review
1. It Creates a Rapport with Your Audience. A review of literature helps you create a
sense of connection with your audience or readers. As a result, they can give you
credit for your due diligence: you have done your fact-finding and fact-checking
mission—one of any research writing’s initial steps. You may not be an expert in a
given field as a student; however, by listing a thorough review in your research
paper, you can tell your audience that you know what you are talking about. As a
result, the more books, articles and other sources you can list in the review of
literature, the more confident your scholarship and expertise will be.
2. It Helps You Avoid Incidental Plagiarism. If you do literature review, you can
prevent authenticity issues and other related mishap.
3. It Sharpens Your Research Focus. When you compile outside sources, the essence
of external sources will be simplified, analyzed, synthesized and paraphrased in
your own words. Through this, you will be able to position the importance of your
work in the broader sense of what other researchers have already done in the past.

The review of literature will help you compare and contrast what you are doing in
the research’s historical context as well as whether your work is different or original from
what others have done; allowing you to rationalize why you need to do your study.

Characteristics of an Effective Literature Review
In addition to fulfilling the purposes outlined above, an effective literature review
provides a critical overview of existing research by
• Outlining important research trends.
• Assessing strengths and weaknesses (of individual studies as well the existing
research as a whole).
• Identifying potential gaps in knowledge.
• Establishing a need for current and/or future research projects.

14

Steps of the Literature Review Process
1. Planning. Identify the focus, type, scope and discipline of the review you intend to
write.
2. Reading and Research. Collect and read current research on your topic. Select only
those sources that are most relevant to your project.
3. Analyzing. Summarize, synthesize, critique, and compare your sources in order to
assess the field of research as a whole.
4. Drafting. Develop a thesis or claim to make about the existing research and decide
how to organize your material.
5. Revising. Revise and finalize the structural, stylistic, and grammatical issues of your
paper.

This process is not always a linear process; depending on the size and scope of your
literature review, you may find yourself returning to some of these steps repeatedly as you
continue to focus your project.

APA Citation Style Guide (7th Ed.)
Sourced from: Using APA Style (7th edition, 2020). Retrieved from
https://millikin.edu/sites/default/files/2020/documents/apa7th_edstyleguides2020_0.pdf

An in-text citation is a reference made within the body of text of an academic essay.
The in-text citation alerts the reader to a source that has informed your own writing.
The exact format of an in-text citation will depend on the style you need to use, for example,
APA. This guide contains examples of common citation formats in APA (American
Psychological Association) Style.

Using Sources within the Text

When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This
means that the author's(s’) last name or name of source, and the year of publication for the
source, should appear in the text. Complete reference information should appear in the
References list at the end of the manuscript.

Paraphrasing: Paraphrase the majority of your sources. The rule is to only directly quote
no more than approximately 10-15% of your sources (see APA 8.23-24). For long
paraphrases, you need not cite each sentence (see APA Fig. 8.4).

Examples:
Falk (2013) claims that the most stigmatized women were unmarried mothers . . .

In a recent study of mental illness (Falk, 2013) . . .

In 2013, Falk discussed mental illness as . . .

For one or two authors, use both names each time you use the source:

Smith and Jones (2018) state that . . .

Smith and Jones (2018) further point out that . . .

15

For three or more authors, use the first listed author’s last name plus “et al.”

Merriman et al. (2018) found that . . .

The year can be omitted in subsequent citations only when multiple citations of the same
source are used within the paragraph (see APA 8.16); this is for nonparenthetical citations
only:

Smith et al. further state that . . .

If no author is given, such as when you are citing an article or web page that lists no
author, use an abbreviated version of the title, in quotation marks, to substitute for the name
of the author (see APA sec. 6.15). Note that the comma goes inside the quotation marks.

A similar study of students learning to format research papers was conducted in
2010 by
J. Webber (“Using APA,” 2014).

No date: If you are citing a work without a date, use the abbreviation n.d. (for "no date"):

In another study of students and research decisions, it was discovered that students
succeeded with tutoring (Merriman, n.d.).

Source (primary) within a Source (secondary) (see APA 8.6): Use this sparingly and
locate and cite the primary source whenever possible. In the text, identify the work you
want to use (primary source), and give a citation for the source from which it came
(secondary source). For example, if James C. Dobson’s book (primary source) is used in an
article written by Carlin Romano (secondary source), and you did not read Dobson’s book,
list the Romano reference in your References page. In the text, cite as follows:

An infected person may spread poliomyelitis to others immediately before and up to
2 weeks after symptoms appear (Dobson, 2017, as cited in Romano, 2019).

Or:

In Seidenberg and McClelland's 2009 study (as cited in Coltheart et al., 2012),
reading skills improvement varied considerably under these conditions.

Personal communications, class notes, classic lectures, etc.: Class notes, e-mail
messages to you, intranet sources, or private interviews that you conducted with another
person should be referred to in your in-text citations but not listed in your References list
because they are not retrievable to anyone else. Any work for which a wider audience
cannot access the source is cited in this way. To cite such information in the body of your
paper, provide initials and last name of the communicator, the words “personal
communication,” plus an exact date (see APA 8.9).

16
Example:
No current findings of this result contradict previous studies (E. Gephart, personal
communication, August 3, 2019).

Quotations
If you are directly quoting from a work, you must include the author, year of publication,
and the page number for the reference.

Short quotations: To indicate quotations of fewer than 40 words in your text, enclose the
quotation within double quotation marks. Provide the author, year, and specific page
citation in the text, and include a complete reference in the reference list. Punctuation
marks, such as periods, commas, and semicolons, should appear after the parenthetical
citation. Question marks and exclamation points should appear within the quotation marks
if they are a part of the quotation but after the parenthetical citation if they are a part of
your text.

Examples:
Some psychoanalysts speak of illegal “ego-constricting drugs” (Falk, 2013, p. 302),
which have more serious effects than earlier believed.

According to Falk (2013), "A subculture is a group who have had significantly
different experiences from those of most members of any society" (p. 303).

Falk (2013) points out that ancient Greek medicine “holds that the locus of mental
disorders is in the brain" (p. 43), which reflects current day understanding.

Long quotations (block quotes): Place quotations longer than 40 words in a freestanding
block of typewritten, double-spaced lines, and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on
a new line and indent the whole block ½” from the text above it. Type the entire quotation
using the new margin, and indent the first line of any subsequent paragraph within the
quotation five spaces from the new margin. The parenthetical citation should come one
space after the closing punctuation mark (see APA 8.27).

Example:
Falk (2013) points out that:

Because deinstitutionalization places the burden of care on the family[,] this is really
a feminist issue since in our culture women are the prime caregivers for ill persons
who remain at home. This may mean that a woman’s career will be disrupted or
destroyed by the chronic mental illness of a family member. (p. 53)

Note: In a blocked quote, set off any quote within the blocked quote with double quotation
marks.

Acronyms: In text, when first using an acronym, spell out the full name of the organization,
followed by the acronym and year in parentheses. If the source is not mentioned in the text,
spell out the full name in parentheses, followed by the acronym in brackets, then the year.
After this, the acronym can be used (see APA 8.21).

17
Examples:
According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2019), . . .

. . . these numbers have continued to increase (WHO, 2018).

The number of such births rose in 2014 (World Health Organization [WHO], 2018).

In the References section, spell out the full name. Do not include the acronym:

World Health Organization. (2019). International statistical classification of diseases and
related health problems (11th ed.). https://icd.who.int/

The References List
The References list appears immediately after your paper. It provides the
information necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any cited information in the body
of the paper. Each source cited in the paper must appear in the References list; likewise,
each entry in the References list must be used and cited in the text.
Your References page(s) should begin on a separate page from the text under the
label References, in bold, centered at the top of the page. The Reference page(s) should be
double- spaced and use hanging indentation, with pagination continued following the last
page of the paper because it is considered a part of the text.

Basic Rules
1. All authors' names are inverted (last name first); give the last name and initials for
all authors of a particular work. If an author uses more than one initial, place one
space between each initial (example: Jones, N. H.).
2. The References list is alphabetized by authors' last names or
corporate/organization names. If no author is given for a particular source,
alphabetize using the title of the work, which will be listed in place of the author.
Alphabetize by the first major word in the titile (no “A,” “The,” etc.). Use a shortened
version of the title, in quotes, for parenthetical citations.
3. List surnames and initials for up to 20 authors. When authors number 21 or more,
include the first 19 names, followed by an ellipses (but no ampersand), and then the
final author’s name. See APA 10.01, example 4.
4. Personal communications or other nonretrievable information are not cited in your
References. However, you do need to make reference to these sources in your in-text
citations.
5. If you have more than one work by a particular author, order them by publication
date, starting with the oldest (a 2016 article would be listed before a 2018 article).
6. When an author appears both as a sole author and, in another citation, as the first
author of a group, list the one-author entries first.
7. Use "&" (ampersand) instead of "and" when listing multiple authors of a single work
(also used in in-text parenthetical citations).
8. All lines after the first line of each entry in your References list should be indented
one- half inch/five spaces from the left margin. This is called hanging indentation.
9. Do not include the URL for any source that is readily accessible (Academic Search
Complete, CINAHL, ERIC, etc. or any library subscription service). See APA 9.34. Use
DOIs whenever given.

18
 10. You can use either the default setting for hyperlinks (usually blue font, underlined),
or plain text (no blue or underline). Whichever you choose, all citations must be
consistent.
11. As a rule, do not use “Retrieved from” either for a DOI or a URL; simply provide the
link. However, for sources that are unstable or change over time (e.g. dictionary
entries, websites that update frequently, etc.), a retrieval date is used, placed before
the URL:
Retrieved October 11, 2020, from https://xxxxxx
12. Always use the current format for citing a DOI, even if the source uses the old form:
Correct format example: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040251

Below are examples for some of the most commonly cited types of sources. If your
particular source is not listed below, go to Millikin’s Writing Center for help, check the 7th
edition of the APA Publication Manual, or consult the APA style website at
http://www.apastyle.org/

Fixed Media Sources
1. Journal article, one to two authors

Johnson, M. K. (2013). Investigating the relationship of nutrition- and exercise-
compromising health impairments with Autism Spectrum Disorders among
children with special health care needs. American Journal of Health
Education, 44(4), 221-8.

2. Journal article, three to 20 authors

Grady, J. S., Her, M., Moreno, G., Perez, C., & Yelinek, J. (2019). Emotions in
storybooks: A comparison of storybooks that represent ethnic and racial
groups in the United States. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 8(3), 207–
217.

parenthetical: (Grady et al., 2019)

narrative: Grady et al. (2019) . . .

3. Journal Article 21 or more authors: For a work with up to 20 authors, include all
of the names in the reference. When the work has 21 or more authors, include only
the first 19 names, an ellipsis (but no ampersand), and the final name (see this
guideline in the fifth and sixth bullets in Section 9.8 of the Publication Manual and
Example 4 in Chapter 10):

Wiskunde, B., Arslan, M., Fischer, P., Nowak, L., Van den Berg, O., Coetzee, L.,
Juárez, U., Riyaziyyat, E., Wang, C., Zhang, I., Li, P., Yang, R., Kumar, B., Xu, A.,
Martinez, R., McIntosh, V., Ibáñez, L. M., Mäkinen, G., Virtanen, E., . . . Kovács,
A. (2019). Indie poprocks mathematics: Twenty One Pilots, Nicolas
Bourbaki, and the empty set. Journal of Improbable Mathematics, 27(1),
1935–1968.

19
 4. An article with no author or editor named

HIV treatment reduced risk for malaria recurrence in children. (2012). Infectious
Disease News 25(12), 41-43.

parenthetical: (“HIV Treatment,” 2012)

Note: For parenthetical citations of sources with no author named, use a shortened
version of the title instead of an author's name. Use quotation marks and italics as
appropriate. For example, parenthetical citations of the source above would appear
as follows: ("HIV Treatment," 2012).

5. An anonymous author: When an author is not named, begin the citation with the
source title followed by the rest of the required citation information. If, and only if,
the the source is signed “Anonymous,” use “anonymous” as the author.

6. Corporate author: Spell out the full name of a group or corporate author. If the
publisher and the author are the same, omit the publisher reference to avoid
confusion.

American Psychiatric Association. (2002). Practical guidelines for the treatment
of patients with eating disorders (2nd ed.). Washington, DC.

7. Book

In 7th ed., place of publication is no longer used.

LeFever Kee, J., Hayes, E. R., & McCuistion, L. E. (2015). Pharmacology: A patient-
centered nursing process approach. Elsevier/Saunders.

8. Chapter in a book

LeFever Kee, J., Hayes, E. R., & McCuistion, L. E. (2015). A nurse’s perspective of
pharmacology. In J. Jones (Ed.) Pharmacology: A patient-centered nursing
process approach (pp. 105-133). Elsevier/Saunders.

9. Translated work and/or a republished work

Laplace, P. S. (1951). A philosophical essay on probabilities (F. W. Truscott & F. L.
Emory, Trans.). Dover Books. (Original work published 1814)

Note: When citing this work in text, both dates are used: (Laplace, 1814/1951).

10. Work discussed in a secondary source (see Source within a Source in this
handout)

Romano, C. (2008, August 1). For marriage, the honeymoon’s over. The
Chronicle of Higher Education, p. B5.

20
 11. Government publications: These vary widely and are covered in APA 10.4.

12. Magazine article

Anderson, M. (2018). Getting consistent with consequences. Educational
Leadership, 76(1), 26- 33.

13. Newspaper article

(no author)
The complicated calibration of love, especially in adoption. (2018, November
28). Chicago Tribune, p. 6.

(authored)
Reddy, S. (2014, June 17). Effort to reduce ear surgeries for small children. The
Wall Street Journal, pp. D1-D3.

Electronic Sources
DOI and URL
• Online content tends to be moved, restructured, or deleted, which results in
broken hyperlinks and nonworking URLs. Thus, scholarly publishers assign a
digital object identifier or DOI to articles and other documents in order to
provide a persistent link and maintain retrievability. All DOI numbers begin
with a 10 and contain a (4 number) prefix plus a suffix separated by a slash.
• A DOI may be found in scholarly journal articles, but it may appear with other
kinds of sources as well. Always use the DOI if it is listed.
• If an online work has both a DOI and a URL, include only the DOI.
• In your References list, standardize DOIs into the current, preferred format,
even though the article presented the DOI in the older format.
• Correct format example: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040251
• When citing the DOI, there is no space between DOI and the number itself (see
examples). No period follows the DOI at the end of the citation.
• The DOI is usually located on the first page of the electronic article. It can also be
located on the Full Record Display Search page of an article or at the end of an
article.
• See APA 9.34 for information on when to include DOIs and URLs.

1. With DOI

Grady, J. S., Her, M., Moreno, G., Perez, C., & Yelinek, J. (2019). Emotions in
storybooks: A comparison of storybooks that represent ethnic and racial
groups in the United States. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 8(3), 207–
217. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000185

American Psychological Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of
mental disorders (5th ed.).
https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596

21
 2. Without a DOI: For works without DOIs that are from most university/academic
research databases, do not include a URL because these works are widely available.
Examples of such academic research databases and platforms include APA
PsycNET, PsycINFO, Academic Search Complete, CINAHL, Ebook Central,
EBSCOhost, Google Scholar, JSTOR (excluding its primary sources collection
because these are works of limited distribution), MEDLINE, Nexis Uni, Ovid,
ProQuest (excluding its dissertations and theses databases because dissertations
and theses are works of limited circulation), PubMed Central (excluding authors’
final peer-reviewed manuscripts because these are works of limited circulation),
ScienceDirect, Scopus, and Web of Science.
For works from websites that don’t have DOIs (excluding the above), include
a URL in the Reference citation.

Stein, M. B., & Taylor, C. T. (2019). Approach to treating social anxiety disorder in
adults. UpToDate. Retrieved September 13, 2019, from
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/approach-to-treating-social-anxiety-
disorder-in-adults

3. Online magazine article (not a journal) (APA 10.1 example 15)

Bergeson, S. (2019, January 4). Really cool neutral plasmas. Science 363(6422),
33-34. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau7988

4. Online newspaper article (APA 10.1 example 16)

Guarino, B. (2017, December 4). How will humanity react to alien life?
Psychologists have some predictions. The Washington Post.
https://washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-
science/wp/2017/12/4/how-will-humanity-react-to-alien-life-
psychologists-have-some- predictions

5. Online reference work (authored/ed.) APA 10.3

Graham, G. (2005). Behaviorism. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of
philosophy (Summer 2019 ed.). Stanford University.
https://plato.stanford.edu/ archives/sum2019/entries/behaviorism/
Zalta, E. N. (Ed.). (2019). The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Summer 2019
ed.). Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/

(no author)

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Culture. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved
September 9, 2019, from https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/culture

6. Authored ebook (e.g. Kindle) without a DOI but a nondatabase URL

Christian, B., & Griffiths, T. Algorithms to live by: The computer science of human
decisions. Henry Holt and Co. http://a.co.7qGBZAk

22
 7. Web Pages and Websites (APA 10.16): If no other reference category fits the
source and the source has no other parent or overarching publication (e.g. journal,
blog, conference proceedings), use this category. This will include online news
sources, online magazines, etc. If you cite multiple pages from a website (e.g. WHO),
create a reference for each page. See APA 10.16 for specifics on citing various
websites.

8. News webpage

Avramova, N. (2019, January 3). The secret to a long, happy, healthy life? Think
age-positive. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2019/01/03/health/respect-
toward-elderly-leads-to-long-life-intl/index.html

9. Webpage with group author

World Health Organization. (2018, March). Questions and answers on
immunization and vaccine safety. https://www.who.int/features/qa/84/en/

If there is no date, use n.d. in parentheses where date would appear.

10. Webpage on a website with a retrieval date (because the information is
designed to change over time and the page itself is not archived)

U.S. Census Bureau. (n.d.). U.S. and world population clock. U.S. Department of
Commerce. Retrieved July 3, 2019, from https://www.census.gov/popclock

11. Conference Sessions and Presentations: These include paper presentations,
keynote addresses, poster sessions, etc. See APA 10.5 and the templates therein for
citing such sources.

12. Television Broadcast

Smithson, I. M. (Producer). (2012, November 1). The nightly news hour
[Television broadcast]. New York: Central Broadcasting Service.

13. Webinar
Goldberg, J. F. (2018). Evaluating adverse drug effects [Webinar]. American
Psychiatric Association.
https://education.psychiatry.org/Users/ProductDetails.aspx?activityID=617
2

14. YouTube or Other Streaming Video

University of Oxford. (2018, December 6). How do geckos walk on water?
[Video]. YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v+qm1xGfOZJc8

23
 15. PowerPoint presentation or posted lecture notes APA 10.14 example 102: If
the PowerPoint slides come from a class website or Moodle, and you are writing for
an audience that has access to that resource, provide the name of the site and its
URL.

Crowe, J. Citing in APA style 7th edition [PowerPoint slides]. Moodle.
https://munwfile2.millikin.edu

Important: This is different from citing your notes from this lecture/class. If you are
citing information from notes you took in class during the PowerPoint presentation,
those notes must be cited as personal communication within your paper because
they are not retrievable information.

16. Social Media: At times, it is necessary to cite or pull information from Twitter,
Facebook, Instagram, or an online forum post. If you’ve used social media to
discover content, cite it directly—do not mention that you found it via a social
media link. See APA 10.15 for specific examples of how to cite various social media
sources.


The following is a sample References list that illustrates proper format and layout:

References

American Psychological Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental
disorders (5th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
Avramova, N. (2019, January 3). The secret to a long, happy, healthy life? Think age-positive.
CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2019/01/03/health/respect-toward-elderly-leads-to-long-
life-intl/index.html
Goldberg, J. F. (2018). Evaluating adverse drug effects [Webinar]. American Psychiatric
Association.https://education.psychiatry.org/Users/ProductDetails.aspx?activityID=617
2
Grady, J. S., Her, M., Moreno, G., Perez, C., & Yelinek, J. (2019). Emotions in storybooks: A
comparison of storybooks that represent ethnic and racial groups in the United States.
Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 8(3), 207–217.
Johnson, M. K. (2013). Investigating the relationship of nutrition- and exercise-
compromising health impairments with Autism Spectrum Disorders among children
with special health care needs. American Journal of Health Education, 44(4), 221-8.
LeFever Kee, J., Hayes, E. R., & McCuistion, L. E. (2015). A nurse’s perspective of
pharmacology. In J. Jones (Ed.) Pharmacology: A patient-centered nursing process
approach (pp. 105-133). Elsevier/Saunders.
University of Oxford. (2018, December 6). How do geckos walk on water? [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v+qm1xGfOZJc8
World Health Organization. (2018, March). Questions and answers on immunization and
vaccine safety. https://www.who.int/features/qa/84/en/
Zalta, E. N. (Ed.). (2019). The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Summer 2019 ed.).
Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/

24
Assessing Learning

Activity 4


Name: _____________________________________________ Date: __________________
Course/Year/Section: ___________________________ Score: _________________


Direction: Re-arrange the jumbled letters to get the correct answer and write on the space
provided.

1. It is a systematic overview of prior work on the subject.
TULIRAETRE REIWV _______________________________________.

2. Identifying the emphasis, category, scope and discipline of the analysis that you
intend to write.
INPALGNN _______________________________

3. The process of summarizing, synthesizing, critiquing and comparing the sources in
order to evaluate the field of research as a whole.
ZLYINAGNA __________________________

4. Creating a thesis or assert on existing research and determine how to arrange the
material
TFAINDGR ___________________________

5. It pertains to authenticity issue and related mishap.
MSPLGAAIRI_________________________

25
Assessing Learning

Activity 5


Name: _____________________________________________ Date: __________________
Course/Year/Section: ___________________________ Score: _________________


Literature Review Worksheet

Introduction: What is the topic of my literature review?
Example: Gun control in the USA

Topic sentence:

Example: The number of gun deaths in the US is directly related to the country’s gun laws.
My sources (works to be read, analyzed and cited):
1.

2.

3.

Lott, John R. More Guns, Less Crime: Understanding Crime and Gun-Control Laws. 7thed.
University of Chicago Press, 2010

Body: What are the main points/arguments of my sources? How are these points
supported?
Source 1
a.

b.

c.

Source 2
a.

b.

c.

Source 3
a.

b.

c.

26
Example:

Source 1: Smith argues that stricter gun laws will mean fewer guns in society and fewer
murders. His statistics show that cities that have lower incidences of murder also have a
lower number of gun sales.
Source 2: Lott states that if citizens have the right to protect themselves with their own
guns, that there will be less incidences of random murder. He argues that potential shooters
will be deterred if they know that potential victims could also be carrying guns to protect
themselves.

Body: Similarities in (comparing) two or more of the articles.

Example: Example: Smith and Lott both agree that private citizens need to go through
mandatory checks to determine whether or not they are psychologically fit to be carrying
firearms.

Body: Differences in (contrasting) in two or more of the articles:


Example: Smith and Lott disagree on the level of security felt by guns owners.


Conclusion: Summarizing

Example: This literature review was conducted to analyze opposing perspectives on gun
laws and gun ownership in the United States.

Why is the topic of this literature review important and/or what should be the next step of
this study?

Example: Further research is needed to examine recent statistics on gun control, gun
ownership and gun deaths in other countries compared with that in the United States.

27
Assessing Learning

Activity 6


Name: _____________________________________________ Date: __________________
Course/Year/Section: ___________________________ Score: _________________


Direction: Write a literature review of your chosen topic from the previous activity. Cite a
minimum of 50 in text citation from various sources. Include the list of references following
the APA format.

28
UNIT III: RESEARCH DESIGN

Overview
This unit provides you information about the different research design that you can
utilize in writing business research.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the unit, I will be able to:
1. discuss key concepts of research design;
2. analyze different types of research design; and,
3. compare and contrast quantitative and qualitative design.

Setting Up

Name: _____________________________________________ Date: __________________
Course/Year/Section: ___________________________

Direction: Classify the following statements whether: (A) Quantitative Research Design or
(B) Qualitative Research Design. Write your answer on the space provided before the
number.

___________________1. It is concerned with establishing answers to the whys and hows of the
phenomenon in question.
___________________2. It is defined as being subjective (not objective), and findings are gathered
in a written format as opposed to numerical.
___________________3. Data collected usually analyzed in a quantifiable way using statistical
techniques because there may not be commonalities between the various collected findings.
___________________4. It relates to the design of a research project which uses quantitative
research methods.
___________________5. It aims at discovering how many people think, act or feel in a specific
way.
___________________6. It involves large sample sizes, concentrating on the quantity of
responses, as opposed to gaining the more focused or emotional insight that is the aim of
qualitative research.
___________________7. The standard format in this design is for each respondent to be asked the
same questions, which ensures that the entire data sample can be analyzed fairly.
___________________8. The data is supplied in a numerical format, and can be analyzed in a
quantifiable way using statistical methods.

29
Lesson Proper

Definition of Research Design
Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a
researcher. The design allows the researchers to choose research method that is
appropriate for the topic and set-up in their study. The design of a research topic explains
the type of research (experimental, survey, correlational, semi-experimental, review) and
also its sub-type (experimental design, research problem, descriptive case-study).
The essential elements of the research design are:
1. Accurate purpose statement
2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
3. The method applied for analyzing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections for research
6. Settings for the research study
7. Timeline
8. Measurement of analysis

Types of Research Design
To choose which model to use for a study, a researcher must have a clear
understanding of the different types of research design—the quantitative and qualitative
research design.
1. Quantitative research design: Quantitative research design relates to the design of
a research project which uses quantitative research methods. Quantitative research
design is aimed at discovering how many people think, act or feel in a specific way.
Quantitative projects involve large sample sizes, concentrating on the quantity of
responses, as opposed to gaining the more focused or emotional insight that is the
aim of qualitative research. The standard format in quantitative research design is
for each respondent to be asked the same questions, which ensures that the entire
data sample can be analysed fairly. The data is supplied in a numerical format, and
can be analysed in a quantifiable way using statistical methods.
(https://www.djsresearch.co.uk/glossary/item/Quantitative-Research-Design)
2. Qualitative research design: A qualitative research design is concerned with
establishing answers to the whys and hows of the phenomenon in question. Due to
this, qualitative research is often defined as being subjective (not objective), and
findings are gathered in a written format as opposed to numerical. This means that
the data collected from a piece of qualitative research cannot usually be analysed in
a quantifiable way using statistical techniques because there may not be
commonalities between the various collected findings.
(https://www.djsresearch.co.uk/glossary/item/Qualitative-Research-Design)

Quantitative Research
Quantitative research methods emphasize objective measurements and
the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls,
questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data
using computational techniques. Quantitative research focuses on gathering numerical data
and generalizing it across groups of people or to explain a particular phenomenon. The final
written report has a set structure consisting of introduction, literature and theory, methods,
results, and discussion. (https://lib-guides.letu.edu/quantresearch)

30
Types of quantitative research
1. Survey Research. Surveys represent one of the most common types of quantitative,
social science research. In survey research, the researcher selects a sample of
respondents from a population and administers a standardized questionnaire to
them. The questionnaire, or survey, can be a written document that is completed by
the person being surveyed, an online questionnaire, a face-to-face interview, or a
telephone interview. Using surveys, it is possible to collect data from large or small
populations (sometimes referred to as the universe of a study).
(https://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=68)
2. Correlational Research. Correlational research is a type of research method that
involves observing two variables in order to establish a statistically corresponding
relationship between them. The aim of correlational research is to identify variables
that have some sort of relationship do the extent that a change in one creates some
change in the other. This type of research is descriptive, unlike experimental
research that relies entirely on scientific methodology and hypothesis. For example,
correlational research may reveal the statistical relationship between high-income
earners and relocation; that is, the more people earn, the more likely they are to
relocate or not. (https://www.formpl.us/blog/correlational-research)
Example of Correlational Research Questions:
• The relationship between stress and depression.
• The equation between fame and money.
• The relation between activities in a third-grade class and its
students.
3. Causal-Comparative Research. A causal-comparative design is a research design
that seeks to find relationships between independent and dependent variables after
an action or event has already occurred. The researcher's goal is to determine
whether the independent variable affected the outcome, or dependent variable, by
comparing two or more groups of individuals. Neil J. Salkind (2010)
http://methods.sagepub.com/reference/encyc-of-research-
design/n42.xml?PageNum=129EncyclopediaofResearch Design
Example of Causal-Comparative Research Questions:
• The impact of drugs on a teenager.
• The effect of good education on a freshman.
• The effect of substantial food provision in the villages of Africa.
4. Experimental Research. Experimental research is a scientific approach to
research, where one or more independent variables are manipulated and applied to
one or more dependent variables to measure their effect on the latter. The effect of
the independent variables on the dependent variables is usually observed and
recorded over some time, to aid researchers in drawing a reasonable conclusion
regarding the relationship between these 2 variable types.
(https://www.formpl.us/blog/experimental-research)

Data Collection Methodologies for Quantitative Data
A. Sources of Data
1. In the words of Salkind (2010), a primary data source is:
“an original data source, that is, one in which the data are collected firsthand
by the researcher for a specific research purpose or project. Primary data can
be collected in a number of ways. However, the most common techniques are
self-administered surveys, interviews, field observation, and experiments.
Primary data collection is quite expensive and time consuming compared to

31
 secondary data collection. Notwithstanding, primary data collection may be
the only suitable method for some types of research.”
Sources of Primary Data
a. Personal Investigation
b. Through Investigators
c. Through Questionnaire
d. Through Local Sources
e. Through Telephone
f. Through Internet

2. According to Allen (2017), a secondary data is:
“usually defined in opposition to primary data. The latter is directly obtained
from first-hand sources by means of questionnaire, observation, focus group,
or in-depth interviews, whereas the former refers to data collected by someone
other than the user. In other words, secondary data refers to data that have
already been collected for some other purpose. Yet, such data may be very
useful for one’s research purpose. Literature reviews account for many
varieties of classification for secondary data, including those that seek to
distinguish between raw data and compiled data.”
Sources of Secondary Data
a. Books
b. Published Sources
c. Unpublished Personal Sources
d. Journal
e. Newspapers
f. Websites
g. Blogs
h. Government Records
i. Podcasts
j. Some other sources of data collection include:
• Radio stations
• Public sector records

B. Sampling Methods
Below are the different sampling methods as discussed by McCombes (2019).
1. Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make
statistical inferences about the whole group. Probability sampling means
that every member of the population has a chance of being selected. It is
mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce results that
are representative of the whole population, you need to use a probability
sampling technique. There are four main types of probability sample:
• Simple random sampling. In a simple random sample, every
member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
Your sampling frame should include the whole population. To
conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number
generators or other techniques that are based entirely on chance.
Example: You want to select a simple random sample of 100
employees of Company X. You assign a number to every employee in
the company database from 1 to 1000, and use a random number
generator to select 100 numbers.

32
 • Systematic sampling. Systematic sampling is similar to simple
random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to conduct. Every
member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of
randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular
intervals.
Example: All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical
order. From the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a starting
point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the
list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a
sample of 100 people.
• Stratified sampling. This sampling method is appropriate when the
population has mixed characteristics, and you want to ensure that
every characteristic is proportionally represented in the sample.
Example: The company has 800 female employees and 200 male
employees. You want to ensure that the sample reflects the gender
balance of the company, so you sort the population into two strata
based on gender. Then you use random sampling on each group,
selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives you a representative
sample of 100 people.
• Cluster sampling. Cluster sampling also involves dividing the
population into subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar
characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals
from each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups. This
method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but
there is more risk of error in the sample, as there could be
substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee
that the sampled clusters are really representative of the whole
population.
Example: The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all
with roughly the same number of employees in similar roles). You
don’t have the capacity to travel to every office to collect your data,
so you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your
clusters.

2. Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on
convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect initial data.
In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-
random criteria, and not every individual has a chance of being included.
This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher
risk of sampling bias, and you can’t use it to make valid statistical
inferences about the whole population. Non-probability sampling
techniques are often appropriate for exploratory and qualitative
research. In these types of research, the aim is not to test
a hypothesis about a broad population, but to develop an initial
understanding of a small or under-researched population.
• Convenience sampling. A convenience sample simply includes the
individuals who happen to be most accessible to the researcher. This
is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no
way to tell if the sample is representative of the population, so it
can’t produce generalizable results.

33
 Example: You are researching opinions about student support services
in your university, so after each of your classes, you ask your fellow
students to complete a survey on the topic. This is a convenient way to
gather data, but as you only surveyed students taking the same classes
as you at the same level, the sample is not representative of all the
students at your university.
• Voluntary response sampling. Similar to a convenience sample, a
voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of access. Instead
of the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them,
people volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online
survey). Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat
biased, as some people will inherently be more likely to volunteer
than others.
Example: You send out the survey to all students at your university and
a lot of students decide to complete it. This can certainly give you some
insight into the topic, but the people who responded are more likely to
be those who have strong opinions about the student support services,
so you can’t be sure that their opinions are representative of all students.
• Purposive sampling. This type of sampling involves the researcher
using their judgement to select a sample that is most useful to the
purposes of the research. It is often used in qualitative research,
where the researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge about a
specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences. An
effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and rationale for
inclusion.
Example: You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of
disabled students at your university, so you purposefully select a
number of students with different support needs in order to gather a
varied range of data on their experiences with student services.
• Snowball sampling. If the population is hard to access, snowball
sampling can be used to recruit participants via other participants.
The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in
contact with more people.
Example: You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city.
Since there is no list of all homeless people in the city, probability
sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person who agrees to participate
in the research, and she puts you in contact with other homeless people
that she knows in the area.

C. Methods used for data collection for quantitative research
• Interviews
In the words of Allen (2017) an interview is:
“consist of a researcher talking with another person in order to gather data
about a phenomenon of interest. The individual responding to the researcher’s
questions, often referred to as the study participant, may be asked to share
experiences, ideas, interpretations, perceptions, and suggestions, known
as data, to assist in answering the research questions guiding the study. “
There are three major types of interviews conducted for data
collection
o Telephone interviews

34
 o Face-to-face interviews
o Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI)

• Surveys/questionnaires
According to Lavrakas (2008), the questionnaire is:
“set of standardized questions, often called items, which follow a fixed scheme
in order to collect individual data about one or more specific topics. Sometimes
questionnaires are confused with interviews. In fact, the questionnaire involves
a particular kind of interview—a formal contact, in which the conversation is
governed by the wording and order of questions in the instrument. The
questionnaire often is administered in a standardized fashion, that is, in the
same way to all the respondents of the survey.”
There are two significant types of survey questionnaires used to
collect online data for quantitative market research.
o Web-based questionnaire
o Mail Questionnaire
• Observation. Observation, as the name implies, is a way of collecting
data through observing. Observation data collection method is
classified as a participatory study, because the researcher has to
immerse herself in the setting where her respondents are, while
taking notes and/or recording. Observation as a data collection
method can be structured or unstructured. In structured or
systematic observation, data collection is conducted using specific
variables and according to a pre-defined schedule. Unstructured
observation, on the other hand, is conducted in an open and free
manner in a sense that there would be no pre-determined variables
or objectives. (https://research-methodology.net/research-
methods/qualitative-research/observation/

D. Fundamental Levels of Measurement
There are four levels of measurement as discussed by Trochim (2020)
1. In nominal measurement the numerical values just “name” the attribute
uniquely. No ordering of the cases is implied. For example, jersey
numbers in basketball are measures at the nominal level. A player with
number 30 is not more of anything than a player with number 15, and is
certainly not twice whatever number 15 is.
2. In ordinal measurement the attributes can be rank-ordered. Here,
distances between attributes do not have any meaning. For example, on
a survey you might code Educational Attainment as 0=less than high
school; 1=some high school.; 2=high school degree; 3=some college;
4=college degree; 5=post college. In this measure, higher numbers
mean more education. But is distance from 0 to 1 same as 3 to 4? Of
course not. The interval between values is not interpretable in an ordinal
measure.
3. In interval measurement the distance between attributes does have
meaning. For example, when we measure temperature (in Fahrenheit),
the distance from 30-40 is same as distance from 70-80. The interval
between values is interpretable. Because of this, it makes sense to
compute an average of an interval variable, where it doesn’t make sense
to do so for ordinal scales. But note that in interval measurement ratios

35
 don’t make any sense - 80 degrees is not twice as hot as 40 degrees
(although the attribute value is twice as large).
4. In ratio measurement there is always an absolute zero that is
meaningful. This means that you can construct a meaningful fraction (or
ratio) with a ratio variable. Weight is a ratio variable. In applied social
research most “count” variables are ratio, for example, the number of
clients in past six months. Why? Because you can have zero clients and
because it is meaningful to say that “…we had twice as many clients in
the past six months as we did in the previous six months.”

E. Data Analysis Techniques
1. Descriptive Statistics. Typically descriptive statistics (also known as
descriptive analysis) is the first level of analysis. It helps researchers
summarize the data and find patterns (Bhatia (2018). A few commonly
used descriptive statistics are:
ü Mean: numerical average of a set of values.
ü Median: midpoint of a set of numerical values.
ü Mode: most common value among a set of values.
ü Percentage: used to express how a value or group of respondents
within the data relates to a larger group of respondents.
ü Frequency: the number of times a value is found.
ü Range: the highest and lowest value in a set of values.

2. Inferential Statistics. Inferential statistics are produced through
complex mathematical calculations that allow scientists to infer trends
about a larger population based on a study of a sample taken from it.
Researchers use inferential statistics to examine the relationships
between variables within a sample and then make generalizations or
predictions about how those variables will relate to a larger population.
(Taylor, 2020)
Researchers use inferential statistics to examine the relationships
within a sample between variables and then generalize or predict how
those variables will relate to a wider population. Few examples are:
ü Correlation: describes the relationship between two variables
ü Regression: shows or predicts the relationship between two variables
ü Analysis of variance: tests the extent to which two or more groups
differ

Quantitative Research Examples
Some examples of Quantitative Research are:
1. If any organization would like to conduct a customer satisfaction (CSAT) survey,
a customer satisfaction survey template can be used. Through this survey, an
organization can collect quantitative data and metrics on the goodwill of the brand
or organization in the mind of the customer based on multiple parameters such as
product quality, pricing, customer experience, etc. This data can be collected by
asking a net promoter score (NPS) question, matrix table questions, etc. that provide
data in the form of numbers that can be analyzed and worked upon.
(https://www.questionpro.com/blog/quantitative-research/)

36
 2. Another example of quantitative research is an organization that conducts an event,
collecting feedback from the event attendees about the value that they see from the
event. By using an event survey template, the organization can collect actionable
feedback about satisfaction levels of customers during various phases of the event
such as the sales, pre and post-event, the likelihood of recommending the
organization to their friends and colleagues, hotel preferences for the future events
and other such questions. (https://www.questionpro.com/blog/quantitative-
research/)


Qualitative Research
In the words of Streefkerk (2020) qualitative research is:
“used to understand concepts, thoughts or experiences. This type of research enables
you to gather in-depth insights on topics that are not well understood. Common
qualitative methods include interviews with open-ended questions, observations
described in words, and literature reviews that explore concepts and theories.”

For example:
1. Consider a convenience store looking to improve its patronage. A systematic
observation concludes that the number of men visiting this store are more. One
good method to determine why women were not visiting the store is to conduct
an in-depth interview of potential customers in the category.
2. On successfully interviewing female customers, visiting the nearby stores and
malls, and selecting them through random sampling, it was known that the store
doesn’t have enough items for women and so there were fewer women visiting
the store, which was understood only by personally interacting with them and
understanding why they didn’t visit the store, because there were more male
products than female ones.

Qualitative Data Collection Methods
• Interviews: Asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents.
• Focus groups: Discussion among a group of people about a topic to gather opinions
that can be used for further research.
• Ethnography: Participating in a community or organization for an extended period
of time to closely observe culture and behavior.
• Literature review: Survey of published works by other authors.

Qualitative Data Analysis Methods
Several methods are available to analyze qualitative data. The most commonly used
data analysis methods are:
• Content analysis. As for Allen (2017) content analysis is:
“a widely used method in communication research and is particularly popular in
media and popular culture studies. Content analysis is a systematic, quantitative
approach to analyzing the content or meaning of communicative messages. Content
analysis is a descriptive approach to communication research, and as such is used to
describe communicative phenomenon. This entry provides an overview of content
analysis, including the definition, uses, process, and limitations of content analysis.”
• Narrative analysis: In the words of Allen (2017), narrative analysis is:
“a genre of analytic frames whereby researchers interpret stories that are told within
the context of research and/or are shared in everyday life. Scholars who conduct this

37
 type of analysis make diverse—yet equally substantial and meaningful—
interpretations and conclusions by focusing on different elements. These elements
include, but are not limited to, how the story is structured, what functions the story
serves, what is the substance of the story, and how the story is performed.
Communication scholars from a variety of perspectives ranging from quantitative to
qualitative as well as traditional to postmodern conduct narrative analyses, which
makes it challenging to cover all of its nuances; however, broad strokes are possible.”
• Discourse analysis: According to Salkind (2010), a discourse analysis is:
“used to describe a number of approaches to analyzing written and spoken language
use beyond the technical pieces of language, such as words and sentences. Therefore,
discourse analysis focuses on the use of language within a social context. Embedded in
the constructivism–structuralism traditions, discourse analysis's key emphasis is on
the use of language in social context. Language in this case refers to either text or talk,
and context refers to the social situation or forum in which the text or talk occurs.”

Qualitative Research Methods Vs Quantitative Research Methods

Attributes Qualitative Research Methods Quantitative Research Methods

This research method focuses on Quantitative research method focuses

Analytical
to describe individual on describing the characteristics of a
objectives
experiences and beliefs. population.

Types of
questions Open ended questions Closed ended questions

asked

Use semi-structured methods

Data Use highly structured methods such as
such as in-depth interviews,
collection structured observation
focus groups, and participant
Instrument using questionnaires and surveys
observation

Form of data
Descriptive data Numerical data
produced

Participant responses affect how Participant responses do not influence

Degree of
and which questions researchers or determine how and which
flexibility
ask next questions researchers ask next
(Sourced from: Bhat, Adi (n.y.)Research design: Definition, characteristics and types. Retrieved
from https://www.questionpro.com/blog/research-design/)

38
Assessing Learning

Activity 7

Name: _____________________________________________ Date: __________________
Course/Year/Section: ___________________________ Score: _________________

Direction: Choose the letter of your correct answer and write it on the space before each
number.
________ 1. It is the framework of research methods and techniques selected by the
researcher.
a. Research framework c. Research design
b. Research method d. Research techniques
_______ 2. Is a type of research method that involves the measurement of two variables in
order to create a statistically corresponding relationship between them.
a. Correlational c. Survey
b. Comparative d. Experimental
_______ 3. Is a research design that seeks to establish relationships between independent
and dependent variables after an action or event has already occurred.
a. Survey c. Experimental
b. Correlational d. Comparative
_______ 4. It is a sampling technique wherein every member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected
a. cluster sampling c. simple random sampling
b. systematic sampling d. stratified sampling
_______ 5. Which of the following sampling technique is dividing the population into
subgroups having the same characteristics?
a. cluster sampling c. simple random sampling
b. systematic sampling d. stratified sampling
_______6. A sampling technique which simply includes the individuals who happen to be most
accessible to the researcher
a. voluntary response sampling c. purposive sampling
b. convenience sampling d. snowball sampling
_______ 7. Which of the following is not a type of non-probability sampling?
a. stratified sampling c. purposive sampling
b. convenience sampling d. snowball sampling
_______ 8. The researcher uses his judgment to select a sample that is most useful to the
purposes of his research, what sampling technique does the researcher employ?
a. stratified sampling c. purposive sampling
b. convenience sampling d. snowball sampling
_______ 9. A method of data collection which classified as a participatory study, because the
researcher has to immerse herself in the setting where her respondents are, while taking
notes and/or recording
a. interview c. observation
b. survey d. questionnaire
_______ 10. Which of the following is not a type of inferential statistics?
a. correlation c. regression
b. frequency d.variance

39
Assessing Learning

Activity 8


Name: _____________________________________________ Date: __________________
Course/Year/Section: ___________________________ Score: _________________


Direction: Answer the following:
1. Discuss the method of research you will use for your business research.
2. Develop a data collection instrument for your chosen business research concept.

40
UNIT IV: FORMAT FOR BUSINESS RESEARCH PRESENTATION

Overview
This unit presents the general format to be used in writing and presenting the
business research manuscript.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the unit, I will be able to:
1. explain the different sections and sub-sections of a business research full paper;
and,
2. write a complete business research following the prescribed format.

Setting up

Name: _____________________________________________ Date: __________________
Course/Year/Section: ___________________________

Direction: Write down the components of each chapter in business research.

Chapter 1:


Chapter 2:


Chapter 3:


Chapter 4:

41
Lesson Proper

Format of the Traditional Method of Research

Preliminaries
1. Title Page. This page should include all the information necessary for a reader to
identify the contents of the manuscript, its author(s), and other important details
about the paper.
2. Approval Sheet. It is the form that is submitted by the researcher to the defense
panel for getting approval of the manuscript.
3. Acknowledgment. This is where you appreciate the people who directly or
indirectly assisted you in carrying out your research.
4. Dedication (Optional). It is used to dedicate the work to those that supported you
during your studies. This page should be brief.
5. Table of Contents. A table of contents is a list of the parts of a book, research report
or document, organized in the order in which the parts appear.
6. List of Tables. All tables in research report should be included in the list.
7. List of Figures. All figures in research report should be included in the list.
8. Abstract. An abstract is a clear, accurate and concise summary of a research. It is
usually written at the end of the research, after the rest of the project report has
been completed. An abstract should not be more than 250 words and should get the
reader interested in the research paper.

Chapter I. The Problem and Its Background

1. Introduction and Review of Literature and Studies. The primary purpose of the
introductory paragraphs is to capture the reader’s attention and get them “turned
on” about the paper. It sets the stage for the paper and puts a perspective on your
topic. This also contains a sample of relevant literature. It is important because it
reveals what researchers have found before. This is generally very long and relies
largely on how much work has been done previously in the field you want to
investigate.
2. Theoretical Framework. The researcher will write here the gathered interrelated
theories relevant to the study. In addition, the ideas and concepts crafted from the
other sources should be restated by the researcher using his own words to consider
the statement is owned by him. Take note, only the thoughts and ideas that will help
the topic should be included and the researcher may combine same ideas or concept
of different authors related to the study (Vinz, 2015).
Conceptual Framework. It illustrates what your research expects to find, including
how the variables you are considering might relate to each other (Swaen, 2015). It
presents the research paradigm of the study in which the concept or the idea of the
study will be discussed here.
Example:
The Inputs –Process – Analysis Output is the common form of the research
paradigm.
3. Statement of the Problem. The problems here can be presented in the form of
question or declarative form. These are the list of general and specific questions that
you seek for an answer or solution.

42
 Example:
Describe the effect of Covid 19 –Pandemic to business establishments.
4. Research Hypotheses and/or Null Hypotheses. Present whether the variables
you will be tested in your study has a significant difference or relationship on none.
Example:
Ho: There is no significant difference between the perception of male managers and
female managers
Ho: There is no significant relationship between work schedule and productivity.
5. Scope and Delimitation. Discusses the coverage/area of the study. It should be
specific and detailed in the sense that the respondents are being described here,
their number, address, and the treatment involved in the study.
6. Significance of the Study. It presents the importance of the study to an individual,
groups, agency, and organization to fill in certain needs. How this study may give
contributions to them and how the study will develop and improve certain system
or plans.
7. Definition of Terms. List of significant words used in the study and are being
defined in operational and conceptual form. An example of an operational definition
is: "For the purpose of this research, improvement is operationally defined as
posttest score minus pretest score".


Chapter II. Methods and Procedures
1. Research Design. This is about the research design to be used in the study. The
descriptive method of research is the most commonly used.
2. Research Locale. It discusses the place where the current study is conducted. Write
a description of the place. A map can be presented in this section.
3. Respondents of the study. It presents who will be the respondents or subjects of
the study. Write a description of the said respondents. The population and sampling
procedure can also be discussed in this portion.
4. Sample and Sampling Procedure. This portion is necessary only when the study
necessitates the use of a sample to represent a population.
5. Research Instruments. This is about the discussion of the content of the survey-
instrument or set of questionnaires to be used in data gathering. Reliability and
Validity should also discuss if you have developed your own survey instrument,
then you must describe the steps you took to assess its validity and a description of
how you will measure its reliability.
6. Data Gathering Procedures. In this section, the researcher will discuss how the
instrument will be administered or be distributed to respondents.
7. Data Analysis Technique. Data analysis technique should describe how the
researcher processed the research data. It should include description of statistical
tool used to analyze, interpret and determine implication of data.
8. Ethical Consideration. This section should contain the issues encountered in the
course of the study such that may include possibility of committing violation of
human and animal rights (including intellectual property rights), threat to health
and safety and (unintended) collateral damage to life and properties and the
measures taken to address said issues.

43
Chapter III. Presentation, Interpretation and Analysis of Data
• Discuss the findings by answering the research problems stated in chapter 1. If
you use tables or graphs, refer to them in the text and explain what they say.
State literature to support your analyses in your discussion.

Chapter IV. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
1. Summary. Begin the final chapter with a few paragraphs summarizing what you did
and found from Chapter III.
2. Conclusions. State the salient findings of the study as answers in problems posed in
Chapter 1.
3. Recommendations. Present recommendations based on your findings. Avoid the
temptation to present recommendations based on your own beliefs or biases that
are not specifically supported by your data. Recommendations fall into two
categories. The first is recommendations to the study sponsor. What actions do you
recommend they take based upon the data. The second is recommendations to other
researchers. There are almost always ways that a study could be improved or
refined. What would you change if you were to do your study over again? These are
the recommendations to other researchers.

References
• References should be presented alphabetically regardless of the sources.

Appendices
• The appendices shall contain the following:
ü Correspondence (all letter requests involving data collection)
ü Research instruments or data gathering instruments
ü Pilot Study Result
ü Statistical Input
ü Curriculum Vitaé of the researchers

In the preparation of the manuscript, the specifications on format, spacing, margins,
pagination, running head, headings, tables and figures, paper, and printing specifications, as
well as font specifications must carefully be followed. The following pointers serves as
guide.
• Format. Journal style of writing or the APA style shall be used in the manuscript
preparation. Use of bias-free language is strictly observed, particularly in terms
of personality characteristics, race, ethnicity, and sexuality all throughout the
text.
• Spacing. The spacing shall be double-space in all text; single-space in long
quotations, tables, and figure captions, and in similar special materials (e.g.,
table legend).
• Margins. Setting page margin shall be 1 ½ at the left and 1 at the top, right side,
and bottom margin.
• Pagination. Page number, in Hindu-Arabic, should be set in the upper right-
hand corner of the paper. The first page of each chapter shall not be numbered.
• Running Head. This is a short descriptive title that appears at the top of every
page in the published journal. In a manuscript, it appears on every page
(including the title page), flush left, in uppercase letters, on the same line as the
page number.

44
 • Tables and Figures. Tables and figures can be set in either portrait or
landscape form, depending upon the length of the content. The general rule is
that it should, as much as possible, be compressed in a single page. If not
possible, it must be cut strategically or either is included in the appendices or
incorporated into the text.
• Paper and Printing Specifications. Print the final copy with a laser printer
using only one side of a standard-sized bond paper (8.5 x 11 inches).
• Font Specifications. Use Times New Roman font size 12 all throughout the
manuscript, except to compress a large table when you can use smaller font size.

The IMRaD Format
The IMRaD (often pronounced “im-rad”) format is a scientific writing structure that
includes five major sections: introduction (I); materials methods (M); Results (R); and
discussion (D). The IMRaD format is the most commonly used format in scientific article
and journal writing and is used widely across most scientific and research fields.
1. Introduction. It defines the nature and extent of the problems studied, relates the
research to previous work (usually by a brief review of the literature clearly
relevant to the problem), explains the objectives of investigation, and defines any
specialized terms or abbreviations to be used in what follows. Remember that the
Introduction leads logically to, and clearly states, the hypothesis or principal theme
of the paper.
2. Materials and Methods. The purpose of this section is to present in a simple and
direct manner what has been done, how, and when, and how the data were analyzed
and presented. This section should provide all the information needed to allow
another researcher to judge the study or actually repeat the experiment.
3. Results. This section presents the new knowledge; therefore, it is the core of the
paper. Note that the Introduction and Materials and Methods sections are needed
and designed to say why and how the author/s arrived at what is presented in this
section, the meaning of which will then be explained in the Discussion section. Thus,
the value of the paper depends on what is contained in this (Results) section, and it
must be presented in an absolutely clear manner in just the right number of words,
neither more nor less. It is usually easiest to follow the results if they are presented
in the same order as the objectives are presented in the Introduction. Some
guidelines on presenting the results are given below:
• Present the results simply and clearly.
• Report only representative data rather than (endlessly) repetitive data.
• Do not report large masses of data; reduce them to statistically analyzed
summary forms and present in tables or figures along with essential
statistical information to facilitate understanding and comparing them.
• Repeat in the text only the most important findings shown in tables and
graphs; in other words, do not repeat in the text all or many of the data
presented in tables and figures.
• Include negative data—what was not found—only if useful for interpreting
the results.
• Cite in the text every table and figure by number.
• Include only tables and figures that are necessary, clear, and worth
reproducing.
• Avoid verbose expressions: e.g., instead of saying ‘‘It is clearly shown in
Table 2 that the presence of tree canopy reduced light transmission to

45
 ground …,’’ say ‘‘Light transmission to ground was reduced by the presence
of tree canopy (Table 2).’’
4. Discussion. This is the section where the authors explain meanings and
implications of the results. The section pulls everything together and shows the
importance and value of the work and is therefore the most innovative and difficult
part of the paper to write. The authors’ skill in interpreting the results in the light of
known facts and using the results as evidence for innovative explanations of the
observed behavior should push the frontiers of knowledge and arouse the readers’
enthusiasm. The Discussion section is written in both present and past tenses.
Current knowledge (from literature) is stated in present tense, whereas the work
being reported and discussed in the paper (your own work) is presented in past
tense.

Conclusions should, rather than just repeating results, state well-articulated
outcomes of the study and briefly suggest future lines of research in the area based on
findings reported in the paper. In poor writing, it is not uncommon to find conclusions such
as ‘‘more research is needed before conclusions can be drawn.’’ In that case, why publish a
paper from which conclusions cannot be drawn? Some journals do not allow a separate
Conclusion section. In that case, the last paragraph or a few sentences of the Discussion can
be used to state the conclusions.
Note: IMRaD Format also contains Abstract, Acknowledgments, and References, and
Appendices (if necessary).

46
Assessing Learning

Activity 9

Name: _____________________________________________ Date: __________________
Course/Year/Section: ___________________________ Score: _________________

Direction: Do this activity to evaluate your understanding of the lessons.
1. Write the full manuscript following the prescribed format.
2. Send a soft copy for checking.
3. Submit the approved copy of the manuscript to the office of College of Management
and Business Technology on or before the given deadline.
4. Deadlines will be discussed/advised by the faculty in-charged.

47


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